THE RUSSIAN ADVANCE: THE OCCUPATION OF ALTA CALIFORNIA AND LOUISIANA BY SPAIN (1763-1783)
READJUSTMENT IN SPANISH NORTH AMERICA
Effect of the Seven Years' War.—The outcome of the Seven Years' War caused several readjustments in Spanish North America. It left Spain in a position where she must restore her colonial power or sink to the rank of a third rate nation. Renewed war with England was regarded as inevitable. Florida was lost, and was poorly compensated for, it was thought, by western Louisiana. The French barrier having been removed, Spain's hold on Louisiana and the Pacific Slope was threatened by the English, advancing both through Canada and from the thirteen colonies. On the Pacific Slope the Russians seemed even more threatening than the English. Added to all this, northern New Spain was overrun by increasingly hostile tribes. Poor and unprepared though she was, therefore, Spain was forced to get ready for another war with England, occupy Louisiana and Alta California, strengthen the frontier defences of New Spain against the Indians, and explore or reëxplore the northern interior.
The Reforms of Charles II.—All these demands could be met only by the most heroic measures; and these were applied by the energetic Charles III. This king, a Bourbon, had come to the throne in 1759, after a long and forceful reign as King of Naples. By the time of his accession, Spain had already profited much by the Bourbon reforms which from time to time had been instituted since the opening of the century, but the national revenue was still small, commerce stagnant, the army and navy weak, and colonial administration corrupt. Now came the new demands entailed by the outcome of the great war. To make the program of defence possible, it was necessary to provide revenue. This could be done only by increasing commerce and reforming the fiscal administration of the colonies.
Commercial reforms.—Commercial reforms were outlined in a series of decrees enacted between 1764 and 1778. The ends at which they aimed are indicated by the deliberations of the junta held in 1765. This body condemned especially the monopoly enjoyed by Cadiz, delays due to the flota system, the export duties on Spanish goods, restrictions upon intercolonial commerce, the smuggling habit, and the English monopoly of the slave carrying trade.
Reforms of José de Gálvez.—To carry out the reforms in New Spain King Charles sent José de Gálvez, who, as visitador general, was entrusted with a complete overhauling of the administration. The special function of Gálvez was to increase the revenues from New Spain. The amount collected had been limited by crude fiscal methods and by corrupt officials. Gálvez laid a heavy hand upon "graft," and devised new sources of revenue. Conspicuous among the latter was the tobacco industry, which he made a royal monopoly.
Explorations on the Gulf coast.—One of the first steps toward readjustment of the frontier to the new situation was a series of explorations looking to the defence of the northern coast of the Gulf of Mexico against rumored dangers from the English, now in possession of Florida. To this end, in 1766 Colonel Escandón and Colonel Parrilla explored the Nuevo Santander and Texas coasts between Tampico and Matagorda Bay.
Rubí's tour.—To inspect and report on the northern outposts of New Spain, the Marqués de Rubí was commissioned. Leaving Mexico in March, 1766, he passed through the frontier establishments from Sonora to the borders of Louisiana. He found the whole northern frontier infested with warlike tribes, especially the Apaches and Comanches, who committed depredations all the way from the Gila to central Texas. Rubí recommended rearranging the northern posts so as to form a cordon of fifteen, extending from Altar in Sonora to La Bahía in Texas. Regarding Texas he recommended that the Comanche harassed district of San Sabá and all of the establishments on the Louisiana border be abandoned, and that a war of extermination be made against the Eastern Apaches, relying for the purpose on the aid of their enemies. In 1772 most of the Rubí recommendations were adopted in the form of a "New Regulation of Presidios." To Hugo O'Conor, as comandante inspector, fell the task of arranging the line of presidios.
Expulsion of the Jesuits.—For reasons which need not be discussed here, in 1767 the king of Spain expelled the Jesuits from all of the Spanish dominions. This caused a general shifting of the missionary forces, the places of the Jesuits in the northeastern provinces being taken by the Franciscans. The temporalities were at first put in the hands of soldier commissioners, but were soon turned over to the Franciscan missionaries. To Pimería Alta were sent Franciscans from the College of the Holy Cross of Querétaro. To Lower California went members of the College of San Fernando of Mexico, the president being Junípero Serra, already distinguished for work in Sierra Gorda.
Gálvez in Lower California.—In 1768 the visitor, Gálvez, was called to California and Sonora. In California he restored the temporalities to the missionaries, consolidated the Indian pueblos, and tried to stimulate Spanish colonization and mining, but without great success. It was while on the Peninsula, too, that he organized the expedition to occupy Alta California.
Gálvez in Sonora.—To end the Indian disturbance which for many years had been menacing Sinaloa and Sonora, Gálvez sent Colonel Domingo Elizondo at the head of eleven hundred men. The war began in 1768. After a year of futile campaigns, chiefly against Cerro Prieto, the landing place of the enemy, Gálvez himself took command for a time, with little better results. Elizondo was restored to the command, and for another year the war continued. By dint of guerrilla warfare, presents, and coaxing, by the middle of 1771 the rebels were pacified and settled in towns.
The Provincias Internas.—Prominent among the plans of Gálvez were the establishment of the intendant system in New Spain, the erection of the northern provinces into an independent commandancy general, and the establishment there of one or more bishoprics. The project of a separate government for part or all of the northern provinces had often been considered. It was felt that the viceroy was overworked, and too far from the frontier to understand its needs. The demand was sectional, based on regional interests. In 1760 a separate viceroyalty had been proposed, but Gálvez favored a military commandancy general. In 1776, after he became Minister of the Indies, his ideas were put into effect. Nueva Vizcaya, Sinaloa, Sonora, the Californias, Coahuila, New Mexico, and Texas were put under the military and political government of a comandante general of the Interior Provinces, directly responsible to the king and practically independent of the viceroy, the Audiencia of Guadalajara retaining its judicial authority. Chihuahua became the capital, except for a short time when Arispe was the seat of government (1780-1782). The first comandante general (1776-1783) was Teodoro de Croix, brother of Viceroy Croix, and himself later viceroy of Peru. By writers on California history, with attention fixed on the West, he has been regarded as incompetent.
New dioceses in the North.—In 1777 the Diocese of Linares was created to embrace the northeastern provinces of Coahuila, Nuevo León, Nuevo Santander, and Texas. Two years later was formed the Diocese of Sonora, to include Sinaloa, Sonora, and the two Californias.
The intendancies.—The primary purpose of the intendancies was to provide for the fiscal administration. A French institution, the system had been established in Spain in 1749 with satisfactory results. In 1764 the intendancy of Havana was established, likewise with good results. In 1768 the system was tentatively established in Sonora. At that time Gálvez favored eleven intendancies, dependent on the viceroy as superintendent general of revenues. The plan was not put into general operation until 1786, when Gálvez was Minister of the Indies.
The captaincy-general of Havana.—Up to the middle of the eighteenth century the audiencia and captaincy-general of Santo Domingo comprised all of the West Indies and Venezuela. Though nominally within the district, Florida was a separate captaincy-general, dependent directly on the Council of the Indies for judicial and military affairs. In other respects it was subject to the Viceroy of Mexico. As a result of the English war, in 1764 Havana was made the seat of an independent captaincy-general and of an intendancy. In 1795 the Audiencia of Santo Domingo was moved to Havana.
THE RUSSIAN MENACE
The Russian advance.—Spain had long been uneasy about upper California because of the activities of the English, Dutch, and French. Now the advance of the Russians seemed more threatening, and caused the long contemplated step to be taken. In the seventeenth century the Russians had crossed Siberia and opened up trade with China. In the early eighteenth century large portions of northern Asia were conquered by Russia in the interest of the east-moving fur traders. Before he died Peter the Great set on foot the project of sending an expedition to seek the northern passage from the Pacific to the Atlantic by going east. In pursuance of this task Vitus Bering made his stupendous expeditions into the Pacific (1725-28, 1733-41), in the second of which he discovered Bering Strait, coasted the American mainland, and made known the possibilities of profit in the fur trade.
Fur trade on the Aleutian Islands.—Bering's voyage was followed by a rush of fur traders to the Aleutian Islands. Companies were formed, vessels built at the port of Okhotsk, and posts established within a few years on Bering, Unalaska, Kadiak, and other islands, for a distance of nearly a thousand miles. The principal market for furs was China. The fur trade was attended by wanton slaughter of animals and harsh treatment of natives, who sometimes rebelled, as at Unalaska in 1761.
Decision of Spain to occupy Alta California.—Though Russian activities were as yet confined largely to the Aleutian Islands, the Spanish government feared that they would be extended down the coast. Moreover, there was a growing friendship between Russia and England, Spain's chief enemy. But these dangers, like others discussed during three centuries, might have resulted in nothing but correspondence had there not been on the northern frontier of New Spain a man of action, clothed with full authority to act. This man was the visitor-general, José de Gálvez. On January 23, 1768, Grimaldi, royal minister, sent the viceroy orders to resist any aggressions of the Russians that might arise. This order, which coincided with the views of the visitor and the viceroy, reached Gálvez while on his way to California.
THE FOUNDING OF ALTA CALIFORNIA
The Portolá expedition.—While settling affairs in the Peninsula Gálvez organized the expedition. It was designed to establish garrisons at San Diego and Monterey, and to plant missions, under their protection, to convert and subdue the natives. The command was entrusted to Governor Portolá, and the missionary work to Father Junípero Serra, president of the California missions. The enterprise was carried out in 1769 by joint land and sea expeditions. The San Carlos under Captain Vicente Vila and the San Antonio under Captain Juan Pérez conducted a portion of the party, while the rest marched overland from Lower California, under Captain Rivera and Governor Portolá.
San Diego founded.—By the end of June all but one vessel had arrived at the Bay of San Diego. While Vila, Serra, and some fifty soldiers remained to found a mission and presidio there, Portolá led others to occupy the port of Monterey. Following the coast and the Salinas Valley, he reached Monterey Bay, but failed to recognize it. Continuing up the coast he discovered the present San Francisco Bay and then returned to San Diego.
Monterey founded.—At San Diego affairs had gone badly. Many persons had died, provisions were scarce, and Portolá decided to abandon the enterprise. Persuaded by Serra, he deferred the day of departure, and new supplies came. Another expedition to Monterey was successful, and the presidio and mission of San Carlos were founded there in 1770.
Plans for expansion.—At last the long talked of ports of San Diego and Monterey had been occupied. But the newly found port of San Francisco, further north, needed protection, the large Indian population called for more missions, settlers were lacking, and permanent naval and land bases were necessary. One by one these matters were considered and adjusted. To assist in the plans for expansion Serra went to Mexico in 1772 and made many recommendations. The temporary naval base at San Blas was made permanent, and thereafter played an important part in the development of California. The new foundations were assured support from the Pious Fund, and in 1771 and 1772 three new missions were founded—San Antonio, San Gabriel, and San Luis Obispo. In 1772 California was divided, the peninsula being assigned to the Dominicans. Politically the two Californias were continued under one governor, with his residence at Loreto, Fages being replaced as commander in the north by Rivera y Moneada.
Alta California Settlements.
A land route to California.—The next step was the opening of a land route from Arizona to California, and was the work especially of two frontier leaders. When the Franciscans in 1768 took the place of the Jesuits in Pimería Alta, Father Francisco Garcés was sent to San Xavier del Bac, the northern outpost. He at once began to make visits to the Gila, and in 1771 alone he crossed the Yuma Desert from Sonóita, and the California Desert to the foot of the western Sierras. Encouraged by these discoveries, Captain Anza of Tubac offered to open a land route to Monterey. The plan was approved by the viceroy, and in 1774 Anza, with Garcés as guide and with twenty soldiers, made the expedition, with great hardships but with notable success.
San Francisco founded.—The opening of the land route from Sonora facilitated the occupation of the port of San Francisco. Plans for its occupation had been discussed ever since its discovery by Portolá. Meanwhile the region had been throughly explored from Monterey as a base. In December, 1774, Anza was ordered to lead a soldier colony from Sonora to occupy the port, and plans were made for a mission. Enlisting some two hundred and fifty persons, Anza assembled them at Tubac, and in October set out for California. Descending the Santa Cruz and Gila Rivers to the Colorado, thence he followed his former trail to Monterey, where he arrived in March, 1776. Aided by Father Font, he reëxplored the Bay region, selected sites for a presidio and mission, and returned to Sonora. In September the presidio and in October the mission of San Francisco were founded.
A route from New Mexico.—The Sonora base for California was not altogether satisfactory and some thought that New Mexico would serve better. Among the latter was Father Garcés, and by a most remarkable exploration he put his views to the test. He accompanied Anza's second expedition to the Gila-Colorado junction, but from there set out to explore a new route. Ascending the Colorado to the Mojave tribe, near Needles he turned west and crossed the Mojave Desert. It was his plan to go straight to San Luis Obispo, but his guides refused, and he threaded Cajón Pass to Mission San Gabriel. From there he continued through Téjon Pass into the San Joaquin Valley, descended it to the Tulare region, emerged through an eastern pass, probably the Tehachapi, and recrossed the desert to the Mojaves. Thence he continued east to the Moquis, reaching Oraibe on July 2. Here he was given a cold reception, so he turned back to the Yumas.
Exploration by Escalante and Domínguez.—Shortly after Garcés returned, a party set out from Santa Fé to attempt reaching Monterey by a more northern route. The party consisted of Fathers Domínguez and Escalante, Captain Bernardo de Miera y Pacheco, and nine soldiers. Leaving Santa Fé on July 29, 1776, they went northward into Colorado, followed the western line across the San Juan, Dolores, Grand and Colorado Rivers, turned westward to Utah Lake and south past Sevier Lake. In October, concluding that it was too late to attempt to cross the Sierras, they returned eastward to Moqui, Zuñi, and Santa Fé. Thus had another great feat of exploration resulted from the attempt to find land connection with California.
Spanish Pueblos.—California still lacked the civil element to make it complete in outline, and this was now provided. In 1777 Governor Neve moved his capital from Loreto to Monterey, where he received orders from the viceroy to take steps toward founding colonies of settlers, as a means toward making the province self-supporting. Neve therefore proceeded to establish two Spanish pueblos.
San José.—With fourteen families from Monterey and San Francisco, in 1777 Lieutenant Moraga founded the Pueblo of San José in the Santa Clara Valley, near the head of San Francisco Bay, and near by the mission of Santa Clara was founded. The pueblo was established according to the general laws of the Indies. Five years later titles were issued to those settlers who had fulfilled their contracts.
Los Angeles.—The second pueblo was located beside Mission San Gabriel, in the southern part of the province. To procure colonists Rivera y Moneada was sent in '79 to Sinaloa and Sonora. Recruiting fourteen families, Rivera sent them overland by way of Loreto and the Peninsula. Rivera himself, with forty-two soldiers, went with nearly a thousand head of horses and mules over the Anza route by way of the Gila junction, where he and part of his men were massacred. The settlers reached their destination, and in September, 1781, the Pueblo de los Angeles was founded, with eleven families comprising forty-six persons.
Plans for a new outpost.—The old question of advancing the Sonora frontier northward to provide missions for the Pirnas and Yumas, and a halfway station on the road to California, had been much discussed ever since Anza's exploration in '74. Opinions varied as to the best location, one proposing the Gila-Colorado junction, another the middle Gila, another the Colorado above the Yumas, and another even the Moqui country.
Mission-Pueblos at Yuma.—But the weight of opinion was with the Gila-Colorado junction. The chief advocate of this location was the Yuma chief Ollyquotquiebe. In 1776 he went with Anza to Mexico City to ask for a mission and a presidio, made submission for his tribe, and was baptized as Salvador Palma. In the following year the king ordered the petition granted. Delays ensued and Palma became impatient. In 1779 Fathers Garcés and Díaz were sent, with a small garrison, to Palma's village. Their slender outfit of presents and supplies was disappointing, and the Yumas were dissatisfied. In the following year, at Croix's order, two missions were founded west of the Colorado, at the junction, but not of the usual type. Instead of a presidio, ten families were settled near each mission to serve as a protection to the missionaries and an example to the neophytes, who were to five among the settlers instead of in an Indian pueblo.
The massacre.—Trouble soon ensued, and in July, 1781, while Rivera y Moncada was on his way to found Los Angeles, the Yumas, led by Palma, massacred Father Garcés, his three companions, Rivera and his men, and most of the settlers. The women and children were spared. The experience at the Yuma missions is a pointed commentary on the need of soldiers to control mission Indians, and on the wisdom of the usual Spanish custom of separating the neophytes from the settlers. For his part in the plan Croix has been severely criticized, but it must be remembered that at the time he needed every soldier available for the Apache wars, and that the Yumas had much vaunted their friendship.
The Yumas punished.—Learning of the massacre, in September, 1781, Croix sent Pedro Fages to the scene with one hundred and ten men from Pitic and Altar. In the course of two journeys he ransomed some seventy-five captives. In the following year Captain Romeu of Sonora, made a campaign against the Yumas, killed or captured nearly two hundred, and recovered over one thousand horses. But the massacre put an end for the time being to the long series of efforts to establish the Yuma outpost, and practically closed the Anza route to California.
The Santa Barbara Channel occupied.—From the first Father Serra had been anxious to found a group of missions among the numerous Indians along the Santa Barbara Channel, but there had been a lack of funds and soldiers. The reduction of these tribes was important also from a military standpoint, because they held a strategic position on the coast and on the road to the north. With the coming of more soldiers in 1781 the desired step was taken, and in 1782 Mission San Buenaventura and the presidio of Santa Barbara, and in 1786 Mission Santa Barbara were founded.
With the occupation of this district California was complete in outline. There were four presidios, each occupying a strategic position and protecting a group of missions. In the succeeding years new missions were planted in the interior valleys, till the total reached twenty-one. They became marvellously prosperous, converting and giving industrial training to thousands of Indians, and acquiring great wealth in farms and herds. In 1784 Father Serra, the master spirit of the missions, died.
NORTHERN EXPLORATIONS
English and Russian activities.—Continued rumors of Russian and English activities had by now led to a new series of explorations which gave Spain claim to the Pacific Coast for nearly a thousand miles beyond the points reached by Cabrillo and Vizcaíno. In 1773 came rumors that an English expedition was about to attempt to pass through the Northern Strait to California, and that Russia was planning an expedition from Kamtchatka to the American coast.
Pérez.—Accordingly, in 1774 Viceroy Bucarely sent Juan Pérez north in the Santiago with orders to take formal possession of the country as far as 60°. Sailing from San Bias, and taking on Fathers Crespi and Peña at Monterey as diarists, Pérez sailed to 55°, exploring Nootka Sound on the way.
Heçeta and Bodega.—Pérez having failed to reach 60°, another expedition was sent from San Bias in 1775 in two vessels, under Heçeta and Bodega y Quadra. Heçeta reached 49°, discovering Trinidad Bay and the mouth of the Columbia River on the way (1776). Bodega, in his thirty-six foot schooner, reached 58°, and on the way discovered Bodega Bay.
Arteaga and Bodega.—No Russians had been found, but news had come of the preparations being made by the English captain, James Cook, for a voyage to the northwest coast in search of the strait. Accordingly, another expedition was ordered by the King of Spain to explore to 70°. Through delays it was 1779 before Arteaga and Bodega, in the Favorita and the Princesa, left San Blas. Meanwhile Cook had made his famous voyage to Nootka Sound. Arteaga's expedition reached 60°, where it was forced to return because of scurvy among the crews.
LOUISIANA UNDER SPAIN, 1762-1783
The cession.—On October 9, 1762, Louis XV offered western Louisiana, with New Orleans, to Charles III, king of Spain, both as a compensation for the loss of Florida, and to put an end to the constant Franco-Spanish friction over contraband trade. Charles at first rejected the gift, but reconsidered, and the treaty of cession was signed on November 3, the day of the signature of the preliminaries of the peace with England.
The state of the province.—With Spain's small means and great responsibilities, the gift was not very tempting, and Spain was not eager to take possession of it. The ceded district embraced New Orleans and the western watershed of the Mississippi River. The principal settlements lay along the Mississippi and Missouri, as far as the Kansas post, and along the lower Red River, as far as the Cadadacho post. The bulk of the population lay between Pointe Coupée and New Orleans, where there were over 7000 persons, of whom nearly two-thirds were colored settlements in the lower district were La Balize, Attakapa, Opelousas, Avoyelle, and Natchitoches. On the way to the Missouri district were the post opposite Natchez and the Arkansas settlement. Near or on the Missouri were St. Charles and Ste. Genevieve. Farther in the interior were slender trading posts, such as St. Louis among the Cadadacho, a post on the Osage, and Ft. Cavagnolle, near the mouth of the Kansas River. The total population of the province ceded to Spain was estimated at from 8250 to 11,500, over half of whom were colored.
Industries.—Rice, indigo, tobacco, and grain were cultivated in small quantities, but there was little stock raising. For horses, mules, and cattle dependence was placed upon trade with the Indians and the Spaniards of the West, much of which trade was contraband. The principal industries of the province were the fur trade and commerce with Illinois. The paper money issued during the recent war, of which there was nearly a million unredeemed, had depreciated to 25 per cent, of its face value.
Dissatisfaction with the transfer.—It was not till September, 1764, that the cession was known in New Orleans. The news caused consternation and protest. Some of the inhabitants of Illinois, left under English rule, moved across the Mississippi River to La Clede's recently founded fur-trading post of St. Louis. When, in 1765, the British took possession of Fort Chartres, Captain St. Ange, in charge of the latter place, moved with his garrison to St. Louis, where he continued to rule until Spanish possession was taken. Some French settlers from the more southern districts moved across the Mississippi or to New Orleans. There the feeling was intense. In January, 1765, the inhabitants held a meeting and sent a delegate, Jean Milhet, to France to remonstrate, but without avail, for after months of waiting he failed even to get an audience with the king.
Ulloa expelled.—At last, in March, 1766, Don Antonio de Ulloa arrived at La Balize as Spanish governor. The choice was not a happy one, for although a distinguished scientist and naval officer, Ulloa had an unpleasant and inflexible personality which made him unpopular. In July he reached New Orleans, with ninety soldiers. But the French militia refused to serve him, and Aubry was left in command. Bickerings and dissatisfaction followed. The colonists demanded the redemption of the depreciated paper money at face value; the recently arrived Acadians, who had become indentured servants, made constant complaint, until at last redeemed by Ulloa.
Ulloa did not confine his efforts to New Orleans, but established Spanish garrisons at several interior posts and issued ordinances regarding the Indian trade. In the spring of 1766, with Aubry, he visited the settlements between New Orleans and Natchitoches, and sent an officer to report on the best means of defending the upper posts against the English. In 1767 he sent Captain Francisco Ruí to establish posts on the lower Missouri at St. Charles and Bellefontaine.
The prohibition of trade with France, promulgated in October, 1768; caused a veritable insurrection in New Orleans, and Ulloa was expelled from the province. His departure was followed by a removal of the Spanish garrisons from the Missouri and elsewhere in the interior, and there was an interregnum of several months, during which Aubry governed.
O'Reilly.—Charles III now sent a man made of sterner stuff. He was Alexandro O'Reilly, an officer who had served with distinction in Europe, had reorganized the defences of Havana after the recent war, and was now recalled to cope with the situation in Louisiana. With 4500 regulars he reached Balize in July, 1769. There was renewed excitement. Some talked of independence and others of joining the English colonies; but Aubry counselled against resistance and the disturbance subsided.
His coup d'état.—King Charles had demanded nothing more severe than the sending of the leaders of the opposition to France, but O'Reilly was not so mild. By a ruse he arrested a number of prominent citizens, executed five and imprisoned others. For this violent deed he has become known as "The Bloody O'Reilly." If the government of Charles III had been imbued with a full sense of its responsibility, it would never have left unpunished such a violation of the fundamental rules of justice.
The Spanish régime installed.—For thirty-four years Louisiana remained under Spanish rule, and during that time it prospered as never before. O'Reilly governed for a year or more with great vigor, not as governor, but as special commissioner to establish Spanish authority. Possession was taken of the interior posts, and by the end of 1770 the Spanish flag had been raised at Ste. Genevieve, the last place to haul down the French emblem. Having accomplished his coup d'état, O'Reilly was conciliatory, and appointed numerous old French officers, like Villiers and De Mézières, to important positions. After authority had been established, the military force was reduced to 1200 men. Spanish law was installed, although the French Black Code was retained. New Orleans was given a cabildo with direct appeal to the Council of the Indies instead of to the Audiencia of Santo Domingo. Louisiana was put under a governor, the first incumbent being Luis de Unzaga y Amezaga. Each of the principal subdistricts was put under a Lieutenant-governor, Pedro Piernas going to St. Louis, Villiers to the Arkansas Post (now Fort Carlos III), and Athanase De Mézières at Natchitoches. Until 1771 Louisiana was an independent gobierno directly dependent on the Council of the Indies. In 1771 it was attached for military purposes to the captaincy-general of Havana, and for judicial matters to the Audiencia of Santo Domingo. In 1795 it was attached to the Audiencia of Havana. After 1783 West Florida and Louisiana were put under one governor. Later the province was divided into Upper and Lower Louisiana.
Unzaga and Gálvez.—Unzaga ruled till 1776, and proved popular, particularly since he shut his eyes to English smuggling in the lower Mississippi River. Unzaga's successor, Bernardo de Gálvez, nephew of the visitor, son of the viceroy, and himself a viceroy later, was a remarkable man. He too, was popular; he married a French wife, and stimulated tobacco raising by pledging himself to buy each year eight hundred pounds of tobacco.
Encouragement of commerce.—Trade regulations, as promulgated by Ulloa in 1766, restricted all trade to Spanish vessels, and certain specified Spanish ports. Under these conditions English smugglers very soon monopolized the trade of the lower Mississippi, and made their way among the tribes of the Gulf coast. This contraband Unzaga tacitly permitted for the good of the colony. In 1776 an agreement was made with France by which Louisiana was permitted to trade with the French West Indies, under the supervision of two French commissioners resident in New Orleans. Gálvez now promptly seized eleven English vessels and the commerce of the colony passed largely into the hands of the French. In 1778 the produce of the colony was admitted to any of the ports of France or the United States, and to any of the ports of Spain to which the commerce of any of the colonies was admitted. The exportation of furs was encouraged by exemption from duty for a period of ten years. English trade in Louisiana was now completely ruined. Under Spanish rule population grew steadily and by 1803 had reached about 50,000. After the American Revolution efforts were made to counter-colonize against the American advance.
The Spanish Frontier in the Later Eighteenth Century.
The English danger.—The principal military problems of the new government were to keep the English out and to keep the Indians quiet. Already English traders were entering the tribes west of the Mississippi, ascending the Missouri and the Arkansas, and reaching the borders of Texas overland, or ascending its rivers from the Gulf of Mexico. Trade in Pawnee and Spanish horses extended to the English seaboard colonies, Governor Patrick Henry being among the purchasers of thoroughbred Spanish stock. To keep out the English, defence was concentrated on the Mississippi and efforts made to control the Indian tribes.
Eastern Texas abandoned.—On the other hand, since Louisiana belonged to Spain, the defences of eastern Texas, and the weak missions which they protected, were now withdrawn. At the same time the few settlers, some five hundred in number, who lived on the border, were evicted and taken to San Antonio. But they demurred, sent their Creole leader Gil Ybarbo to Mexico to represent them, and were allowed in 1774 to settle on the Trinity River. Five years later, taking advantage of a flood and Indian raids, and led by Ybarbo, they moved to Nacogdoches (1779), and from there scattered eastward toward their former homes.
The fur trade continued.—Louisiana was Spain's first colony previously occupied by Europeans, and in it many departures were made from her traditional system. As a means of controlling the Indians of Louisiana, Spain utilized the corps of French traders already among the tribes, instead of attempting to use the mission as a means of control, as was being done at the same time in California. A regular system of licensed traders was installed, vagabonds and unlicensed persons were driven from the tribes, presents were annually distributed, and medals of merit were given to friendly chiefs. St. Louis, the Arkansas post, and Natchitoches became important centers for the fur trade and for distributing presents. To St Louis tribes went to receive presents from the Illinois country, the upper Mississippi, and the upper Missouri. To remove them from English influence, tribes were induced to cross the Mississippi to settle.
De Mézières.—One of the most difficult problems which confronted Spain was the control of the Red River tribes, which had been friendly to the French but hostile to the Spaniards. It was now necessary to win them over to Spanish allegiance. This was accomplished by Athanase de Mézières, lieutenant-governor at Natchitoches. He installed French traders, drove out vagabonds, expelled English intruders, called in the hostile Red River tribes to make treaties, and himself made a series of notable tours among them. In 1770 he held a great council at the Cadodacho post, where the Cadodacho chief Tin-hi-ou-en was mediator. Two years later he made an expedition through the Asinai, Tonkawa, and Wichita tribes, reaching the upper Brazos River, and going thence to San Antonio. His excellent report first made northern Texas well known to Spanish officials.
Croix's plans for a war on the Apaches.—It was in 1776 that the northern provinces of New Spain were put under a comandante general with his capital at Chihuahua. The first comandante, Teodoro de Croix, arrived at the frontier in 177 7. As his first great task he set about checking Indian hostilities, particularly those of the Apaches on the Texas-Coahuila frontier. The essence of his plan was to unite the Red River and the eastern Texas tribes (the Nations of the North) and chasseurs from Louisiana, commanded by Gálvez, with the soldiery of the Interior Provinces, commanded by Croix, in a joint war of extermination against the eastern Apaches.
Set aside by the American Revolution.—To consider the matter Croix held a council of war at San Antonio in January, 1778. The arrangement of details with the Indians was left to De Mézières. In 1778 he made a tour of the upper Red River, and in the following year again visited the Texas tribes. Spain soon afterward entered the American war, Gálvez was unable to leave Louisiana, and the conduct of the Apache War was left for the time being to Juan de Ugalde, governor of Coahuila.
Communication with Santa Fé and the Upper Missouri.—The explorations of De Mézières were soon followed by the opening of routes from Santa Fé to San Antonio, Natchitoches, and St. Louis. In this work the chief pathfinder was Pedro Vial. Just as the American Pike in his southwestern exploration (1807) was preceded by Vial and his associates, so Lewis and Clark, in their ascent of the Missouri River (1804), were anticipated by the agents of Glamorgan's fur trading and exploring company, who operated from St. Louis to the country of the Mandans (1794-1797).
READINGS
REFORMS OF CHARLES III AND GÁLVEZ
Addison, Joseph, Charles the Third of Spain; Altamira y Crevea, Rafael, Historia de España, IV; Chapman, C.E., The Founding of Spanish California, ch. IV; Danvila y Collado, Manuel, Reinado de Carlos III; Desdevises du Desert, Gaston, L'Espagne de l'Ancien Régime; Ferrer del Rio, Antonio, Historia del Reinado de Carlos III; Hume, M.A.S., Spain: Its Greatness and Decay; Priestley, H.L., José de Gálvez, Visitor-General of New Spain; Rousseau, François, Règne de Charles III d'Espagne, 1750-1788; Scelle, G., La Traite Négrière aux Indes de Castille; Viollet, A., Histoire des Bourbons d'Espagne.
CALIFORNIA
Academy of Pacific Coast History, Publications, I-III; Bancroft, H.H., History of California, I, 110-480; Chapman, C.E., The Founding of Spanish California; Eldredge, Z.S., The Beginnings of San Francisco, I, 31-170; Engelhardt, Fr. Zephyrin, Missions and Missionaries of California, I, 289-385; II, 3-414; Hittell, T.H., History of California, I, 300-429; 441-452; 509-540; Norton, H.K., Story of California, 1-103; Palou, Fr. Francisco, Relación Histórica de la Vida [de] ... Serra; Richman, I.B., California under Spain and Mexico, 32-158.
LOUISIANA
Bolton, Herbert E., Athanase de Mézières and the Louisiana-Texas Frontier, I, 66-122; Gayarré, C., History of Louisiana, III, 1-617; Hamilton, P.J., The Colonization of the South, 423-445; 447-456; Houck, L., The Spanish Régime in Missouri, I-II; Mason, E.C., "The March of the Spaniards across Illinois," in Magazine of American History, XV. 457-470; Robertson, J.A., Louisiana under the rule of Spain. France, and the United States; Shepherd, W.R., "The Cession of Louisiana to Spain," in The Political Science Quarterly, XIX, 439-458; Teggart, F.J., "Capture of St Joseph, Michigan, by the Spaniards in 1781," in The Missouri Historical Review, V, 214-228; Thwaites, R.G., France in America, 281-295.
CHAPTER XXII
THE NEW BRITISH POSSESSIONS (1763-1783)
PROVISIONS FOR DEFENCE, GOVERNMENT, AND THE FUR TRADE
Amherst's plan for defence.—While the Spaniards were occupying western Louisiana the British were organizing the country ceded by France and Spain east of the Mississippi, in Canada, and in the West Indies. In 1763 the Secretary of War asked General Amherst, commander-in-chief in America, for a plan of defence of the British possessions. In response he drew up a "Plan of Forts and Garrisons prepared for the security of North America" which reveals England's outlook upon her newly acquired territory. It provided for ten regiments of approximately seven hundred and fifty men each. The stated purposes were: (1) to keep the king's new subjects in Canada and Louisiana "in due subjection," (2) to keep the old provinces "in a state of Constitutional Dependence upon Great Britain," (3) to command the respect of the Indians, (4) to prevent encroachments of the French or Spaniards, (5) and to protect the colonies in case of war. The regiments were to be distributed in posts along the St. Lawrence, about the Great Lakes, in the Illinois country, along the lower Mississippi, and in Nova Scotia, South Carolina, Georgia, and the Floridas.
Purposes regarding the West.—Regarding the interior posts the particular aims expressed were to keep open the navigation of the St. Lawrence and the Great Lakes, maintain communication between Canada and the Gulf of Mexico, hold the western tribes in check, and guard against French or Spanish intrusion. A post at St. Augustine was especially desirable as a defence against Spain, and Pensacola and Mobile would command the commerce of the Gulf as well as the tribes of the Alabama Basin. The lower Mississippi posts were essential to control the Chickasaws. A post at Crown Point was not only needed to maintain a winter highway to Canada, but might also be useful to suppress disaffection in the maritime colonies, "who already begin to entertain some extraordinary Opinions, concerning their Relations to and Dependence upon the Mother Country."
The Proclamation of 1763.—In October, 1763, the king issued a proclamation creating, within the newly acquired territory, four distinct provinces, Quebec, East Florida, West Florida, and Grenada, and providing a form of government for them. Quebec comprised the Valley of the St. Lawrence from the western end of Anticosti Island to the 45th parallel and Lake Nipissing. Labrador, Anticosti, and the Magdalen Islands were attached to Newfoundland. St. Johns, Cape Breton, and the lesser adjacent islands were attached to Nova Scotia.
East Florida extended to Appalachicola River, and was bounded on the north by St. Mary's River and a line from the head of that stream to the junction of the Chattahoochee and Flint Rivers. The district between St. Mary's and Altamaha Rivers, formerly in dispute between Spain and England, was attached to Georgia. West Florida was the district south of latitude 310 and between the Appalachicola River and the Isle of Orleans. The Island of Grenada, the Grenadines, St. Vincent's, and Tobago were erected into the Government of Grenada.
Crown colonies created.—These new jurisdictions were made crown colonies. For each a governor was to be appointed, with power to call assemblies, "in such Manner and Form as is used and directed in the Colonies and Provinces in America which are under our immediate Government." Until such assemblies should meet, the governors, with their executive councils, were empowered to erect courts, having appeals to the privy council.
The Indian reservation.—For the time being all British possessions on the continent not included in the foregoing jurisdictions, or within the Territory of Hudson Bay, and all lands west or north of the streams flowing into the Atlantic Ocean, were reserved as crown lands for the use of the Indians. No colony might grant lands within this Indian reservation, and settlers were requested to move out. The considerable French settlements in the reserve were ignored.
Until 1755 the English government had managed its Indian affairs through the different colonies, but the results were far from satisfactory. In that year the government assumed political control over the Indians, creating a southern and a northern department, and appointing a superintendent for each. In 1761 the purchase of Indian lands was taken out of the hands of the colonies.
The New British Possessions, 1763-1783.
Regulation of Indian trade.—The acquisition of extensive territories in 1763 called for new trade regulations. The proclamation had created an Indian reserve and opened trade to all duly licensed subjects. In the following year Lord Hillsborough drew up a general plan for the management of Indians and the fur trade. It safeguarded the rights of the Hudson's Bay Company and provided for the continuation of the two superintendents, with three deputies for the northern and two for the southern district. In the North all trade must be conducted at regularly established posts, and in the South at the Indian towns. All traders must be licensed, must trade at schedule prices, and must have no dealings with Indians except at the prescribed places. By 1768 the plan had proved too expensive, and the management of the fur trade was restored to the individual colonies.
THE OCCUPATION OF THE FLORIDAS
The West Florida posts.—On August 6, 1763, Colonel Prévost took possession of Pensacola, which became the capital of West Florida. Shortly afterwards Mobile was occupied by Major Robert Farmar. The French troops there withdrew to New Orleans, as did some of the people, but most of the latter remained. Fort Tombecbé, renamed Fort York, was given a garrison of thirty men, for the express purpose of keeping the Choctaws hostile to the Chickasaws, but was abandoned in 1768. The French among the Choctaws moved across the Mississippi into Spanish territory, but continued to trade with the tribe.
The boundary and the river forts.—In 1764 the northern boundary of West Florida was moved north to 32° 28' to take in the Natchez settlements, and to make room for the land speculators who were seeking land grants on the lower Mississippi. A garrison was placed at Natchez (Fort Panmure). In connection with efforts to keep the Mississippi open and to establish navigation through the Iberville River, Fort Bute was bunt near the latter stream in 1766. These Mississippi posts were designed also to prevent French and Spanish smuggling among the Choctaws. But there was English smuggling likewise, and to stop it Spanish posts were later built on the other bank of the river. In 1769 the troops of most of the English posts were withdrawn to St. Augustine, but there was a protest at once. Pensacola drew up a memorial, and immigrants recently arrived at the Mississippi demanded protection. O'Reilly had just come to New Orleans, and it was feared that he might have designs on West Florida. In 1770, therefore, most of the troops were restored, and a new garrison was established at Manchac.
Indian agents and fur magnates.—The possession of West Florida proved an important asset to Great Britain in the control of the southwestern Indians, especially during the Revolution. John Stuart, Superintendent for the Southern Department, made his headquarters at Pensacola, but Mobile was the real center of control for the whole Southwest. Subagents convened at Mobile a great congress of all the tribes and effected an alliance with them, and soon afterward the Indian lands about Mobile were ceded to the English. The military authorities encouraged inter-tribal dissensions, and the Creeks and Choctaws were frequently at war, in which the Chickasaws sometimes joined. According to the general system, the fur trade of the Southwest was opened to all traders having a government license and a proper bond. The fur magnates at Mobile were the house of Swanson and McGillivray, who by 1777 had a branch house at Fort Bute, which conducted trade with the Illinois. At Pensacola Panton, Leslie, and Company, the largest business house, became an important factor in the trade and in the management of the tribes.
Politics and government.—West Florida was accorded a governor, council, and assembly. Governor George Johnstone arrived at Pensacola in October, 1764, but the first assembly was not elected until 1766. Mobile, Pensacola, and Campbell Town were electoral precincts at first, and after 1778 Natchez and Manchac were represented. The brief political experiences of the province were as interesting as those of the older colonies in early days. The governor and assembly frequently quarreled. In 1772 Governor Chester prorogued that body and for six years got along without it. More harmful than these quarrels were the factional disputes between the civil and military officials.
Development of West Florida.—When England took possession, Pensacola consisted of some forty thatched huts and small barracks, all enclosed within a palisade, but it was rebuilt, and practically dates from British rule. Mobile remained largely French, and was reduced in size by the emigration to New Orleans. British rule gave impetus to Mobile's commerce, and by 1776 the port was paying £4000 a year to the London custom house alone.
Immigration.—Efforts were made also to secure immigrants for West Florida. In 1763 the Board of Trade put an advertisement regarding land grants in the London Gazette, and in 1764 Governor Johnstone issued a circular to attract settlers. In 1765 or 1766 a colony from North Carolina went by sea and settled about Natchez and Baton Rouge. Speculators obtained large grants of land about Natchez as early as 1767, among them being Daniel Clark, later a great figure at New Orleans. Before the Revolution numerous settlers arrived from England, the West Indies, and most of the mainland colonies, including New England. Most of them settled on the Mississippi River between Manchac and Natchez. In 1772 three hundred persons from Virginia and the Carolinas are said to have been established on the lower Mississippi, and three or four hundred families were expected that summer. As a result, the Mississippi posts were repaired and civil government established. In 1775 a considerable immigration from New England was led by General Lyman. About the same time Colonel Putnam led a company from New England to the Yazoo district. In 1777, according to the botanist Bartram, more than half of the population of Mobile were people who had come from the northern colonies and Great Britain.
During the Revolution West Florida was a refuge for Loyalists. In November, 1776, Mathew Phelps led a colony of New Englanders to the lower Mississippi. Highland soldiers defeated in North Carolina that year took refuge in the province. Loyalists from Georgia and South Carolina settled on the Tombigbee River and Mobile Bay, and others from the same colonies settled on the Tensaws Bayou.
East Florida under British rule.—In East Florida, St. Augustine became the capital and the chief military post. St. Marks on the Gulf was occupied for military purposes and the posts of Matanzas, Picolata, and Mosquito were also maintained for a time. The military of both East and West Florida were under the general command at Pensacola. James Grant was made first governor. In East Florida there was no assembly till 1781. Difficulties between military and civil authorities prevailed as in West Florida.
At the time of the British occupation, St. Augustine was a small Spanish town with adobe houses and narrow streets. Under British rule East Florida prospered. Harbors were improved, and highways were constructed, one being built from St. Mary's River to St. Augustine. In 1766 some forty families went from the Bermudas to Mosquito Inlet to engage in ship-building. In the following year Dr. Turnbull brought fifteen hundred indentured colonists from the Mediterranean region and settled them at New Smyrna. In 1776 the indentures were cancelled and the settlers moved to St. Augustine, where their descendants still five. During the Revolution East Florida, like West Florida, became a Mecca for southern Loyalists.
MILITARY OCCUPATION OF THE ILLINOIS COUNTRY
Plans to occupy the Illinois country.—By the end of 1761 British troops had taken possession of all the lake posts from Niagara to Green Bay, besides Venango, Miamis, and Ouiatanon further south. In July, 1763, orders were sent by the Governor of Louisiana for the evacuation of the Illinois posts, and boats were prepared at Fort Pitt for sending four hundred English troops to relieve the French garrisons. But the conspiracy of Pontiac delayed the complete transfer of this region for nearly three years.
The conspiracy of Pontiac.—Early in the war the tribes north of the Ohio had ravaged the Virginia and Pennsylvania frontiers, but after 1758 they had been quiet, although they did not like the English. They feared eviction from their lands, English traders had proved arrogant and dishonest, and General Amherst was attempting a policy of economy in presents, in spite of the criticism of the better informed Indian agents. Pontiac, head chief of the Ottawas, organized a general revolt, embracing the Algonquins, some of the tribes of the lower Mississippi, and some of the Iroquois. By a simultaneous assault in May, 1763, all but three northwestern posts—Detroit, Fort Pitt, and Niagara—fell almost without a blow. At Presq'Isle, Le Boeuf, Venango, Mackinac, Sandusky, St. Josephs, and Ouiatanon, there were massacres, and the garrison fled from Green Bay.
Failure of the Loftus expedition.—It being impracticable now to send troops to the Illinois country by way of the Ohio, this was attempted by an expedition up the Mississippi Major Loftus was sent from Mobile with three hundred and fifty men to occupy Fort Massac, Kaskaskia, and Fort Chartres. In February, 1764, he left New Orleans, but when two hundred and forty miles up the river, at Rocher à Davion, he was attacked by Tunica Indians, whereupon he abandoned the expedition and returned to Mobile.
Peace.—While Colonel Bradstreet reoccupied the Lakes, General Gage, Amherst's successor, resorted to conciliation, and a series of peace embassies were sent to the Illinois country from Mobile and from the northern garrisons. The submission of the Ohio tribes, failure of hopes for aid from New Orleans, and news of the transfer of western Louisiana to Spain, led Pontiac to negotiate at Ouiatanon in 1765 with George Croghan. At Detroit Croghan secured peace with all the western tribes. Thomas Stirling then descended the Ohio with a detachment and in October occupied Fort Chartres. "Thus, after nearly three years of fighting and negotiating, British forces were in possession of the last of the French posts in the West."
Establishment of government.—In accordance with the Treaty of Paris a proclamation of General Gage guaranteed the inhabitants the free exercise of the Catholic religion. Settlers were allowed to sell their lands and emigrate, or to become British subjects on taking the oath of allegiance. The inhabitants of Kaskaskia and other places asked and received an extension of the time for decision to March, 1766. Many of them emigrated to St. Louis and Ste. Genevieve, or to New Orleans. The Proclamation of 1763 made no provision for civil government in the Indian reserve, and local administration was left to the military authorities and Indian agents. The French people were dissatisfied, and many misunderstandings arose between them and the English settlers and officers. By 1770 the complaint took the form of a demand for civil government, which was provided in 1774 by the Quebec Act.
LAND SPECULATION AND PLANS FOR WESTERN COLONIES
Western schemes.—Before the French and Indian War grants had been made by the British government of lands beyond the Alleghanies, and settlement on the back lands had been favored as a means of opposing, the French and of extending British trade. During the war the frontiers of settlement were contracted, but, in anticipation of victory, new grants were sought and new schemes proposed. Not only were lands desired, but prominent men proposed new colonial governments west of the mountains. Nearly all of the proposals involved territory in the Ohio Valley. After the Albany Congress of 1754 Franklin urged the formation of two barrier colonies in the West. In 1756 Thomas Pownall, ex-governor of New Jersey, made a similar proposal. About the same time Samuel Hazard of Philadelphia promoted the formation of a Presbyterian colony to embrace most of the Ohio Valley and extending across the Mississippi. In 1757 the Greenbrier Company secured 100,000 acres of land on the western waters.
The victory over the French stimulated new speculative and colonizing schemes for the West both in England and America. In June, 1763, the Mississippi Company was formed, composed of prominent Virginians, including Colonel George Washington and Richard Henry Lee. A memorial to the king was drawn asking for 2,500,000 acres on both sides of the lower Ohio, quit rent free for twelve years, and protection by royal forts, on condition of settling two hundred families. Late in 1763 a pamphlet published in Edinborough, Scotland, proposed a colony named Charlotiana, to include the country between the Wabash, Ohio, Mississippi, and the Great Lakes. About the same time Charles Lee proposed a colony on the Illinois and another on the Ohio.
Effect of the Proclamation.—The Proclamation of 1763 closing the Trans-Alleghany country to settlement seems to have checked for a time the schemes for speculation. The Proclamation contained an implied promise that the boundary would be revised, while it was well known that influential politicians in England favored the opening of the West. New schemes for western lands, therefore, were not long suppressed. In 1766 William Franklin, governor of New Jersey, launched a plan for two colonies, one at Detroit, the other on the lower Ohio. Through the aid of Benjamin Franklin, father of the governor, the Ohio country was favored by the Board of Trade, but in 1768 the plan dropped from sight. Meanwhile many other land companies were formed.
A policy of expansion adopted.—The policy of the ministry regarding the West was vacillating, and more so, no doubt, because of the pressure of conflicting interests. But in 1768 the ministry decided on a definite plan for western settlement, the principle being that expansion should be gradual and under control of imperial agents, who should purchase land from the Indians as needed. Johnson and Stuart, Indian superintendents, had already made tentative arrangements for revising the proclamation line. In 1765 the Six Nations ceded their claims to lands between the Ohio and the Tennessee. Stuart, by a series of treaties, secured a line from the southern boundary of Virginia to the St. Mary's River. Florida, thence along the tidewater line to the Appalachicola River. West of that point the line was not completed, but important cessions were made along the Mobile coast. In 1768 the former lines were ratified, and Stuart, in two treaties with the Cherokees and Creeks (October, November, 1768), secured the extension of the line to the mouth of the Kanawha River on the north and to the Choctaw River on the south. At Fort Stanwix in 1768 the Iroquois ratified essentially their cession of 1765. The lines did not correspond, since the Iroquois cession included Western Tennessee and Kentucky, which were not within the other cessions. Meanwhile the southern line was modified by the treaty of Lochaber by running it west along the southern boundary of Virginia to the Holston River, thence direct to the mouth of the Kanawha. The purpose of the change was to take in the recently formed Watauga settlement.
Vandalia.—Having extinguished the Indian titles, it was now possible to found a new colony back of Pennsylvania and Virginia, and such a project was put on foot. Samuel Wharton of Philadelphia formed a company for the purpose of purchasing part of the lands. The company included some of the leading men in England and America, among them being Benjamin Franklin and Thomas Walpole. Official aid was enlisted by including two members of the ministry. In 1769 the purchase was made, and, in spite of Lord Hillsborough's opposition, by 1775 the project of a new and separate province named Vandalia had been approved by king and council. The outbreak of the Revolution set the plan aside. Had it been carried out it would have cut Virginia off from her back lands. The Quebec Act of 1774 operated in the same direction, by attaching the Northwest to Quebec. Virginia therefore resisted. Governor Dunmore opposed the Vandalia colony, made grants of land both within and beyond it, and joined a company which purchased Indian lands north of the Ohio.
TRANS-ALLEGHANY SETTLEMENT
Western settlements before 1763.—But it was the backwoodsmen, and not the corporations, who opened the Trans-Alleghany country. Before the war a few settlements had been made on the western waters, In 1748 Draper's Meadows, on the Greenbrier, in West Virginia, were settled. Between 1750 and 1752 a settlement was made by the Ohio Company at Redstone on the Monongahela. By 1758 several small settlements had been made on the Holston, Watauga, and Cheat Rivers. But during the war these western settlements were abandoned, and the frontier pushed eastward a hundred miles or more.
The westward movement after the war.—The French and Indian War was scarcely over when the westward movement began again, regardless of proclamations or the deliberations of the Board of Trade. In 1760 Daniel Boone, from the Yadkin in North Carolina, "cilled a bar" on the Watauga River. Between 1761 and 1765 Wallen annually led hunters to the west. In 1765 Croghan surveyed the Ohio River, and the next year James Smith and others explored the Tennessee. In 1767 Finley was in Kentucky, and Stoner, Harrod, and Lindsay were at French Lick (the site of Nashville). In 1767 and 1770 Boone was "prospecting" for Judge Richard Henderson, a land speculator of North Carolina. At the same time Mansker led a party down the Cumberland and on to Natchez. By this time others had wandered far beyond the Mississippi and were causing the Spanish officials anxiety.
The hunters, traders, and prospectors were followed by surveyors and settlers. The chief participants in the movement were from the middle region and the South: Pennsylvania, Maryland, Virginia, and North Carolina. Prominent among the pioneers on the western waters were the Scotch-Irish who had settled the back country of the older colonies and stood waiting at the western passes.
The Appalachian barrier.—To reach the Mississippi Valley the frontiersman was forced to pass the Appalachian barrier, extending from Maine to Georgia. The easiest pass through it, by way of the Hudson and Mohawk Rivers, was impeded by the Six Nations who stood between the western frontier of settlement and the vacant lands beyond. Farther south the barrier was traversed by a series of interlocking rivers, flowing in opposite directions, whose valleys afforded trails. The Susquehannah led to the Alleghany, the Potomac to the Monongahela, the James and Roanoke to the Great Kanawha, the Great Pedee, the Yadkin, and Catawba to the head waters of the Tennessee. A series of longitudinal valleys on the eastern front of the southern Appalachians gave access from Virginia and North Carolina to the upper Tennessee, from whose valley an easy pass was found to Kentucky by way of Cumberland Gap.
The Indian barrier.—The Iroquois Confederacy, though friendly, was a retarding force to the northern stream of emigration. The Algonquin tribes north of the Ohio had been friendly with the French, and after the French and Indian War they favored the French traders rather than those from the seaboard colonies. At the southern end of the Appalachians westward expansion was retarded by the strong confederacies of the Cherokees, Creeks, Choctaws, and Chickasaws. The region between the Ohio and the Tennessee was the "dark and bloody ground" between the northern and southern tribes, but permanently inhabited by neither. It was this region which was opened to settlement by the Indian cessions between 1768 and 1770. The cessions were followed immediately by a movement of settlers into the area.
THE SETTLEMENT OF EASTERN TENNESSEE
The North Carolina Regulators.—The movement across the mountains was stimulated by a popular upheaval in the back country of North Carolina. Shortly before 1740 the Scotch-Irish and German migration reached North Carolina and by 1765 the lands along the headwaters of the Yadkin, Haw, Neuse, Tar, Catawba, and Deep Rivers had been occupied. Many English and Welsh also had settled in the same region. Between the Piedmont and the coastal plain was a sparsely settled country of pine forests. "Cut off ... from the men of the east, the men of the 'back country' felt no more sympathy for the former than they received from them." The coast country controlled the legislature and the courts. The men of the West complained that they were forced to pay excessive taxes, that the sheriffs were dishonest, and fees extortionate. An additional grievance was the scarcity of money. During 1765-1767 the frontiersmen began to organize and from 1767 to 1771 the back country was in a state of rebellion. Lawyers were seized and whipped, and the Hillsboro court was broken up. In 1771 the Regulators were defeated by Governor Tryon's troops in the battle of the Alamance and the rebellion soon subsided. During those troubled years many had sought new homes in the western valleys.
The Watauga settlement.—Permanent settlement was made in eastern Tennessee in 1769. In that year a band of pioneers moved down the valley from Virginia and settled on the Watauga River, a branch of the Tennessee, thinking that they were still in Virginia. A short time afterward they were joined by settlers from North Carolina, within whose bounds the colony proved to be. Two able leaders soon emerged. James Robertson, a backwoodsman and a "mighty hunter," went to Watauga in 1770 and took thither a colony of sixteen North Carolina families in 1771. A year later arrived John Sevier, a Virginian of Huguenot extraction. Like Robertson, he was an able Indian fighter and a leader of men.
The Watauga Association.—Finding themselves outside of Virginia and beyond the reach and protection of the North Carolina administration, the settlers, like the Pilgrim Fathers in a similar situation, reverted to the social compact—familiar to Scotch-Irish Presbyterians and to back-country North Carolinians who had "regulated" horse stealing—and formed a government for themselves. In 1772 a convention of the settlers created an independent government called the Watauga Association. It had a written constitution, vesting the administration in an executive committee of five, two of whom were Sevier and Robertson. This committee exercised most of the powers of sovereignty, making treaties, administering justice, granting lands, and making war on the Indians. In 1776 the Watauga Association, realizing the need of help, petitioned the Council of North Carolina to extend its government over the new settlements, and in 1777 they were organized as Washington County.
THE BEGINNINGS OF KENTUCKY
The surveyors and first settlers.—Settlement had also begun in what is now Kentucky. Ahead of the settlers went the prospectors and surveyors, who descended the Ohio and the Kanawha to select and survey lands. In 1770 and 1772 George Washington explored lands in what is now northeastern Kentucky. In 1773 the McAfees led a party of surveyors down the Ohio, crossed Kentucky, and returned over the Cumberland Mountains. In the following year several parties of surveyors and land hunters were sent by Virginia officials to lay out bounty lands for soldiers. Others went without official sanction. One party was led by John Floyd from Fincastle County, Virginia, who descended the Kanawha and Ohio to the Falls, crossed Kentucky, and returned by Cumberland Gap. During his expedition he surveyed lands for George Washington, Patrick Henry, and others. Attempts at settlement had already been made. In 1773 Daniel Boone led a colony from North Carolina toward Kentucky, but was driven back by Indians. The next year Harrod, of Virginia, founded a settlement in Kentucky called Harrodsburg, but it was broken up by Indians, whose hostilities drove out all settlers and land hunters.
Indian ravages.—The border war which now occurred was the culmination of a long series of troubles between the frontiersmen of Pennsylvania and Virginia, and the Indians of the Ohio Valley. The Delawares had been pushed over the Pennsylvania Mountains to the Muskingum and Tuscarawas Rivers. Among them settled the Moravian missionaries, who formed them into Christian towns and kept them peaceful when others were hostile. The Shawanee had been pushed north to the Scioto River, whence they marauded the Virginia border. Behind them were the hostile tribes who had taken part in Pontiacs War. Through 1773 an Indian uprising was threatening, and preparations were made in the westernmost settlements of Virginia. Early in 1774 many settlers fled from the Holston and Clinch Valleys. Minor outrages being committed along the Ohio, alarm, spread, and in April there was a retreat across the Monongahela, which was crossed by more than a thousand refugees in a single day.
Lord Dunmore's War.—Governor Dunmore now prepared for war, which, there is some ground for thinking, he helped to bring on as a means of strengthening Virginia's claims to the Northwest. To warn the surveyors and settlers Colonel Preston, lieutenant-sheriff and surveyor of Fincastle County, Virginia, sent Boone and Stoner through Kentucky. They went as far as the Falls of the Ohio, and saved most of the men on the frontier. The governor organized a campaign, himself leading the Virginia regulars down the Ohio, while the frontier levies were led by Colonel Andrew Lewis. They were to meet at the mouth of the Great Kanawha. When Lewis reached that point he was attacked before the arrival of Dunmore by the Indians under Chief Cornstalk, whom he defeated. Thereupon the Indians sued for peace with Dunmore, who had entered their country north of the Ohio. In the following October a treaty was made at Fort Pitt which kept the northern Indians quiet during the first two years of the Revolution and made it possible to settle Kentucky.
Henderson and Transylvania.—Harrodsburg was now refounded by Virginians (1775) who constituted the majority of the settlers. Henderson, the North Carolina land speculator, formed a land company, called the Transylvania Company. To improve his title in 1775 he made a treaty with the Overhill Cherokees paying them £10,000 for their claims to lands along and between the Cumberland and the Kentucky. Boone, with a party of thirty men, was sent ahead to clear a road for Henderson's colony from the Holston River to the Kentucky (1775). It became the famous highway known as the Wilderness Road. Henderson followed with his colony, founded Boonesborough, built a fort, and opened a land office, naming his colony Transylvania. He attempted to set up in the wilderness a modified proprietary régime. Having established his colony, he called a convention; the delegates made laws which Henderson approved, and a compact was formed between the delegates and proprietors defining the irrespective rights. The proprietors retained control by reserving to themselves the veto power.
Transylvania absorbed by Virginia.—Henderson's procedure was regarded as illegal, and he was denounced by the governors of both Virginia and North Carolina. When the Revolution broke out the proprietors sent a delegate to the Continental Congress and appealed to that body for protection, but, largely through Virginia's influence, the delegation was rejected. The Virginia settlers in Kentucky, led by Harrod, opposed Henderson's claim to lands, appealed to Virginia, and sent George Rogers Clark to the assembly. Virginia asserted sovereignty over Kentucky, and stormy times continued till 1777, when Kentucky with her present boundaries was organized as Kentucky County, Virginia.
THE UPPER OHIO AND MIDDLE TENNESSEE
Westsylvania.—While Henderson was founding Transylvania another region west of the mountains was being settled and was struggling for independent statehood. Emigrants from Pennsylvania, Maryland, Virginia, and other states had crossed the mountains and settled on the tributaries of the upper Ohio in what are now western Pennsylvania, West Virginia, and eastern Ohio. By the middle of 1776 there were said to be 25,000 families on the tributaries of the Ohio above the Scioto River. But the land which they occupied was in dispute between Virginia and Pennsylvania, and the Indiana and Vandalia Companies, and the settlers took up the struggle, quarreling over land titles and jurisdiction. The disorders prevented effective organization against the Indians. Shortly after the Declaration of Independence the settlers memorialized Congress, asking independent statehood as a "sister colony and fourteenth province of the American confederacy," under the name of Westsylvania, whose boundaries they described, but the request was not granted.
The Cumberland settlement.—Robertson was the type of frontiersmen desirous to be ever on the move. In 1779 he prospected at French Lick, returned to Watauga, raised a colony, and in the fall led it forth. The women and children were conducted by Donelson down the Tennessee and up the Cumberland, while Robertson, guided by Mansker, led the men overland. Nashborough, now Nashville, was founded at the Cumberland Bend, and other stations were occupied along the river. In 1780 a convention formed an "Association" much like that of Watauga, but after three years of independence the district became Davidson County, North Carolina.
THE PROVINCE OF QUEBEC
The French people.—At the time of the conquest the Canadian people numbered about 65,000 living in the St. Lawrence Valley, with several thousand scattered among the western posts. The settlers were in the main a frugal, industrious, unlettered, religious people. They were of two distinct classes, the gentry and the peasant tenants. After the war there was a considerable emigration to France of the official, noble, and commercial classes, leaving chiefly cultivators of the soil and fur traders. By 1775 the population had grown to perhaps 90,000, chiefly through natural increase of the French. By 1784 the population was 113,000.
The British settlers.—The conquest left in the province and attracted to it later a small body of British settlers but by 1775 they did not number more than five or six hundred. Most of them lived in the towns of Quebec and Montreal, and engaged in business, especially in the fur trade, many as agents for English houses, others being independent merchants. When Hillsborough restored seignorial tenure, many of them acquired seigniories, though they continued to live by trade.
Military rule.—British rule in Canada began with the capitulation of Montreal in September, 1760. General Amherst was made governor-general, with lieutenant-governors at Quebec, Montreal, and Three Rivers. From that time to the enforcement of the Proclamation of 1763 Canada was under military rule. But French law and customs were followed in the main, and there was little discontent.
Civil government established.—Civil government was established in August, 1764. The governor was assisted by an executive council composed of the lieutenant-governor, chief justice, and eight citizens. The government provided by the Proclamation of 1763 was unsuited to a population almost wholly French, professing the Catholic religion, and living under laws and customs of their own. The Proclamation provided for an assembly, but none was held in Quebec because the French people would not take the test oath, and the British settlers were too few in numbers to warrant an assembly representing them alone. Uncertainty existed regarding tithes and the future status of the Catholic Church. The Proclamation contemplated the establishment of British law, but practice was uncertain. The French inhabitants were not politically ambitious, but the British were aggressive in their demands for an assembly and the uniform establishment of English law.
The Quebec Act.—Under these circumstances a change of system was deemed necessary. It was provided by the Quebec Act of 1774, the first parliamentary legislation for Canada. The act maintained the privileges of the Catholic clergy, tithes from Catholic subjects being continued. French civil procedure was established, with some exceptions, but English criminal procedure was enforced. Provision was made for an appointive executive council with powers to make ordinances for the province, but no provision was made for a provincial assembly.
Boundaries extended.—The population of the Illinois country was similar to that of Quebec. The French habitants there had been demanding civil government, and it had been complained by the Montreal traders that the prosperity of Canada had been impaired by cutting off the western posts. Therefore the boundaries of Quebec were extended to include the region between the Ohio River and the Upper Mississippi. By the Proclamation of 1763 Labrador east of River St. John's, Anticosti, and the Magdalens, had been attached to Newfoundland. Labrador now began to develop commerce with the interior and the North and with Newfoundland. Opposition to the fishing admirals of Newfoundland caused these three districts to be annexed to Quebec in 1774.
Not intended as a blow at liberty.—The Quebec Act was regarded in the other colonies as a blow at popular liberties and as an encroachment upon colonies whose chartered boundaries extended into the Northwest. It was in fact an administrative act intended primarily as a means of providing for the interests of the great body of the inhabitants, the French. The attachment of the Ohio country to Quebec, however, checked the natural spread of settlement from the seaboard colonies, and the act, on the other hand, prevented the assimilation of the French people by the English in Canada.
The Loyalists in Canada.—During the American Revolution a considerable number of Loyalists crossed into Canada and settled at the border posts. Many others joined the British army against the Americans. At the close of the war some of the border counties of New York were almost depopulated. In 1783 there were in the Montreal district seventeen hundred Loyalists at seventeen posts, not counting enlisted men. Of those who migrated after the revolution the greater number at first settled in Nova Scotia. By the end of 1784 the number there exceeded 28,000 and caused the forming of the new province of New Brunswick. Over three thousand went to Cape Breton Island, and three times that number to the interior of Canada. Thirteen hundred settled at Kingston and formed the nucleus of Upper Canada, which was separated from Lower Canada in 1791. More important than this, the Revolution determined the course of Canadian history. In order not to be absorbed by the United States, Canada was forced into unswerving loyalty to the British Empire.
THE NORTHERN FUR TRADERS
Supervision of the fur trade.—The fur trade of Quebec under the new régime was supervised according to the principles of the Proclamation of 1763. The most fundamental fact was that the French monopolistic system was discontinued, except at certain "King's posts" in the lower St. Lawrence Valley. The trade was open to any duly licensed subject, superintendents were established at the posts, local courts were erected in the interior, and settlement limited to the immediate neighborhood of the posts in order not to drive away the fur bearing animals.
The French traders ruined.—The conquest had destroyed the French fur trading organization. Under the mercantile system then in vogue, supplies and markets had now to be sought in England. The French merchants were ruined, and the entire trade of the Great Lake region was thrown into the hands of the British traders. The French coureurs de bois, however, remained in the country, and, in the employ of the British, continued to be the backbone of the fur gathering business in the interior.
The rush to the interior.—As early as 1761 British traders of Montreal began to enter the field left vacant by the French. Pontiac's War caused a suspension of their activities, and during it British traders were plundered and murdered. By 1765, however, there was a new rush to the interior, though it was 1771 before they could safely trade in the most remote posts on the Saskatchewan. In the meantime the Indians had learned to take their furs to the posts on Hudson Bay or down the Mississippi.
Extent of operations.—The American Revolution destroyed the western fur trade of the seaboard colonies and threw the commerce of the entire Northwest into the hands of the Quebec and Montreal traders. By the close of the war they were conducting operations on both sides of the Great Lakes, in the Illinois country, beyond the upper Mississippi, on the Winnipeg, Saskatchewan, Churchill, and Athabasca Rivers, to the neighborhood of Great Slave Lake. They traded on the Assiniboine, and may have reached the Missouri by that route.
Management of the trade.—During and after the Revolution the value of the furs annually sent from Montreal and Quebec to London was probably $1,000,000. The trade centered mainly in Montreal. In London great mercantile establishments throve by the commerce. At Montreal other great houses were founded. Detroit and Michillimackinac were interior supply posts, where branch houses or lesser merchants conducted business. Wintering partners and clerks went with the fleets of batteaux into the far interior, but most of the common hands or engagés were French and half-breed coureurs de bois, just as in the case of the Spanish fur trade in Louisiana. The entire business was conducted on the credit system.
The fur magnates.—Many of the fur magnates were Scotchmen. Among the Montreal merchants of importance in this period were Alexander Henry, Benjamin and Joseph Frobisher, James Finlay, and Peter Pond. Henry was one of the earliest in the West. Finlay is said to have been among the first on the Saskatchewan River. The Frobishers were leading traders on the Saskatchewan and Churchill. Pond was probably the pioneer on the Athabasca, having wintered there in 1778-1789.
The Northwest Company formed.—The free access of all licensed traders to the interior resulted in reckless competition in regions remote from the military posts. Acts of violence were committed and Indians were involved in the contest. Besides the grave disadvantages of competition, there were obvious advantages of combination. In 1779, therefore, nine enterprises were consolidated for one year. The success caused the arrangement to be repeated, and finally in 1783-1784 the Northwest Company was organized and became permanent. This company soon monopolized the larger part of the Montreal trade, and became the great rival of the Hudson's Bay Company.
Advance of Hudson's Bay Company.—After the Peace of Utrecht the Hudson's Bay Company had returned to an era of prosperity. Urged on by French competition, by 1700 expeditions inland had been made by Kelsey (1691) and Sanford, and Henley House had been built a hundred and fifty miles inland from Fort Albany; and by 1720 other minor inland expeditions had been made by Macklish and Stewart, but in the main the Company had held to the shores of the Bay. Instead of sending employees inland, as did the French, reliance was placed on furs brought by the Indians to the posts, all of which were close to the Bay. The monopoly enjoyed was a cause of jealousy among British merchants, and critics arose, notably Arthur Dobbs, who charged that the Company had failed in its obligation to seek the northwest passage and explore the interior. Coerced by criticism, between 1719 and 1737 the Company made some explorations, but little was accomplished.
Hearne's explorations.—After 1763 criticism of the Company was reinforced by the rise of the Montreal trade, and new explorations northwestward were undertaken. After two unsuccessful attempts in 1769 and 1770 to reach the Coppermine River overland, in December, 1770, Samuel Hearne set out from Fort Prince of Wales to seek "a North-West Passage, copper-mines, or any other thing that may be serviceable to the British nation in general, or the Hudson's Bay Company in particular." Going west, then north, on July 18, 1771, Hearne reached the mouth of the Coppermine River near latitude 68°, where he took formal possession of the Arctic Ocean for the Company. Returning by way of Lake Athabasca, which he discovered and crossed, he reached his fort on June 30, 1772.
Rival posts in the interior.—Hearne's explorations were indicative of a new policy. Coerced by the aggressive Montreal traders, the Company now pushed into the interior in a struggle for the mastery. Side by side the two, companies placed rival forts on all the important streams from the Hudson Bay to the Rockies and from the Red River of the North to Great Slave Lake.
READINGS
Alden, G.H., New Governments west of the Alleghanies before 1780; Alvord, C.W., "Virginia and the West: An Interpretation," in The Mississippi Valley Historical Review, III, 19-38; The Critical Period, 1763-1765; The Mississippi Valley in British Politics; Alvord, C.W., and Carter, C.E., editors, The New Régime, 1765-1767; Bassett, J.S., "The Regulators of North Carolina," in American Hist. Assoc., Annual Report, 1894, pp. 141-212; Bourinot, J.G., Canada under British Rule, 1760-1905 (G.W. Wrong revision), chs. 2-3; Bryce, George, The Remarkable History of the Hudson's Bay Company, chs. 8-13; Carter, C.E., Great Britain and the Illinois Country, 1763-1774; "The Beginnings of British West Florida," in The Mississippi Valley Historical Review, IV, 314-341; Coffin, Victor, The Quebec Act; Hamilton, P.J., Colonial Mobile, chs. 23-31; The Colonisation of the South, chs. 20-21; Henderson, A., "Richard Henderson and the Occupation of Kentucky, 1775," in The Mississippi Valley Historical Review, I, 341-363; Hinsdale, B.A., The Old Northwest, ch. 8; Howard, G.E., Preliminaries of the Revolution, 1763-1775, ch. 13; Roosevelt, Theodore, The Winning of the West, I-II; Siebert, W.H., "The Loyalists in West Florida and the Natchez District," in The Mississippi Vauey Historical Review, II, 465-483; Stevens, W.E., "The Organization of the British Fur Trade, 1760-1800," in The Mississippi Valley Historical Review, III, 172-202; Thwaites, R.G., Daniel Boone; Thwaites, R.G., and Kellogg, L.P., editors, Documentary History of Dunmore's War, 1774, Introduction; Turner, F.J., "Western State-Making in the Revolutionary Era," in American Historical Review, I, 70-87, 251-269; Wallace, S., The United Empire Loyalists; Winsor, Justin, The Westward Movement, 38-100; Wood, W., The Father of British Canada; Davidson, G.C., The North West Company.
THE REVOLT OF THE ENGLISH COLONIES
CHAPTER XXIII
THE CONTROVERSY OF THE ENGLISH COLONIES WITH THE HOME GOVERNMENT (1763-1775)
THE BACKGROUND OF THE CONTEST
Nature of the causes.—While British statesmen were working out a system of government for the newly acquired domains, in the empire forces of disintegration were at work which brought on the American Revolution. The causes of that convulsion cannot be traced to a group of events or laws. Through a long period social, political, and economic forces were at work which gradually brought thirteen of the mainland colonies into open rebellion. Because this opposition is more evident after the French and Indian War, and because the economic is the most obvious phase of the struggle, historians have sometimes concluded that the laws passed by parliament between 1763 and 1776 were the cause of the Revolution. The policy pursued by the British government no doubt hastened it, but alone does not account for it.
A mixed population.—For more than a century the colonies had been receiving new elements which were producing a society in many respects different from that of England. America had been the recipient of many of the radicals, the down-trodden, and the discontented from the mother country. The acquisition of New Netherlands had brought under British control a considerable number of Dutch, Swedes, and Finns. The Huguenot migration which followed the revocation of the Edict of Nantes had added another element. The German and Scotch-Irish influxes had brought in thousands. Welsh, Scotch, Irish, and Jews were also to be found in the colonies. America, then as now, was a melting pot of the nations.
Lack of American nationality.—Influenced largely by climatic and physiographic conditions, distinct industrial systems had developed. In the northern colonies the small farm prevailed, in the South the plantation system. The North produced the seamen, fishermen, and merchants, while few of the southerners were seafarers. The frontier with its foreign elements, its scattered settlements, and freedom from restraint had produced a society which differed from the tide-water region. The fur-trader, the cattleman, the lumberman, and the small farmer were distinctly different in speech, dress, habits, and point of view from the Boston merchant, the Philadelphia Quaker, or the Virginia planter. Separatist tendencies were stronger than those of coalescence. A Virginian was a Virginian and not an American. There was little in common between the New Englander and the southern planter, or between the people of the Hudson Valley and the Quakers.
Class distinctions.—In individual colonies society was continually growing in complexity. Though the great mass of the population continued to be rural, town life was becoming an important factor. Members of an aristocracy, of which the governor was usually the central social figure, were inclined to rear their heads above their fellows. The merchants and lawyers, ever increasing in numbers, found themselves outside the social pale of the official aristocracy, a source of silent mortification which was a real force in producing radicals.
Evolution of English society.—English as well as American society had also undergone a rapid evolution. Puritan England had passed away; the Stuarts, the Hanoverians, and foreign conquests had transformed the viewpoint of the Englishman. Little was there in common between John Milton and Horace Walpole, or between a Cromwell and a Newcastle. The sudden greatness that had come through the Seven Years' War well-nigh turned the heads of Englishmen. To acquire wealth, to wield power, and to live gaily seemed to be the ideals of the upper class Englishman of the reign of George III. The colonial who still considered the mother country as the traditional England of Magna Carta, the Puritan Revolution, and the Bill of Rights, had as little understanding of a Townshend as had a Townshend a comprehension of the colonial.
The assemblies control the purse.—The governmental institutions of the colonies had gradually evolved toward a common type, whose constituent parts were the governor, council, and assembly, the governor and council, except in Connecticut and Rhode Island, representing imperial or proprietary authority, and the assembly the will of the colonial inhabitants. The power of the assemblies to control the purse had been steadily growing, until the colonies considered the principle established both by precedent and by inherent rights guaranteed by the English constitution. By controlling the budgets and the salaries of the governors, the assemblies held the whip hand over the executives.
English and colonial ideas of representation.—The meaning of the term representation differed in England and the colonies. To the Englishman parliament represented the British Empire and legislated for the whole of it, allowing the colonies to handle local matters within their chartered rights. Parliament was regarded as representing the three estates or classes of society, rather than individuals. The idea that every Englishman was represented by a man in whose selection he had had a voice had not become a part of the English political system. Members of parliament were frequently chosen in rotten boroughs. A few thousand men at most chose the entire parliamentary body. The king's ministers, selected from the party which could command a majority in the House of Commons, directed public policy and enforced their will upon a subservient commons. In America the suffrage was usually restricted by a property or church qualification, but every member of an assembly actually represented a colonial community and a known constituency. When the colonial orator declared for no taxation without representation, he was talking in the terms of a system that had grown up in America, but which England did not begin to adopt until the Reform Bill of 1832.
The causes of the development of nationalism.—French political philosophers and observant travelers had predicted that the removal of French power from America would cause the colonies to seek independence. Franklin ridiculed the idea, for he believed that colonial jealousies were too strong to allow united action, a view which was also held by Pitt. After the French and Indian War the English government, by enforcing and extending the colonial system, quickened public opinion, overthrew separatist tendencies, and brought many of the colonists to think and act together in opposition to English policy. When this was attained, a national consciousness had come into existence which gradually developed into open rebellion.
Illicit traffic during the French and Indian War.—Since the reign of Anne England had not enforced the trade laws strictly. The Molasses Act of 1733 had been practically a dead letter from the date of its passage and the other navigation acts had been frequently violated. Smuggling was winked at by governors and customs officials, who in many cases profited from the traffic. During the French and Indian War the colonies traded extensively with the French West Indies. This was especially galling to England, whose chief weapon against France was control of the seas. Though the colonies in 1756 were forbidden to trade with the French, the colonial skippers evaded the command by shipping goods to the Dutch ports of Curaçoa and St. Eustatius, or to the French West Indies. In 1757 parliament forbade the exportation of food stuffs from the colonies to foreign ports, but the colonials continued to make shipments to the French or Dutch colonies and to bring back cargoes of molasses, sugar, and rum. To stop Dutch trade with the French colonies, Dutch merchant vessels were seized. As the English navy gradually isolated or captured the French West Indies, the colonials found a new method of circumventing the regulations by shipping to Monte Cristi, a Spanish port in Española near the French boundary. A commerce of less importance but of similar nature was also maintained with Florida and Louisiana. In 1760, when the English navy had gained the upper hand, the illicit commerce diminished but did not entirely cease. When Spain entered the war a considerable increase occurred. The naval and military authorities did all in their power to end the traffic with the enemy, for they considered that its continuance meant a prolongation of the war.
Writs of assistance.—To prevent smuggling English officials resorted to the issuance of writs of assistance. These were general search warrants which enabled the holder to search any house, ship, or other property where smuggled goods might be stored. The writs naturally aroused great opposition among the merchants, who claimed that they were illegal. In 1761 when the Boston customs officers applied for the writs, the merchants objected to them. When the merchants' cause was presented before the Massachusetts Supreme Court, James Otis argued that the writs, being general, were illegal and struck at the liberty of the individual. "No acts of parliament can establish such a writ.... An act against the constitution is void." The courts upheld the legality of the writs but Otis's speech did much to arouse and formulate public opinion.
The Parson's Cause.—In Virginia Patrick Henry performed a similar function in formulating public opinion. The speech which made him the leader of the Virginia radicals was delivered in connection with a suit brought by one of the Virginia clergy. Tobacco was the medium of exchange in the Old Dominion and ministers were paid annually 17,000 pounds of tobacco. In 1755 and 1758, the burgesses passed acts which allowed debts to be redeemed at two pence for each pound of tobacco. This worked a hardship upon the ministers, who naturally desired the benefit of the high price of tobacco to compensate them for the hard years when prices were low. The acts were disallowed by the crown in 1759, and the ministers attempted to recover their losses. In a suit brought in 1763 by Reverend James Maury, Patrick Henry appeared for the vestry. Realizing the weakness of his legal position, Henry resolved to carry the jury by an emotional attack upon the king's prerogative. He argued that the act of 1758 was a law of general utility consistent with the original compact between ruler and ruled, upon which government was based, and that the king, by disallowing this salutary act, became a tyrant and forfeited his right to the obedience of his subjects.
REFORMS OF THE GRENVILLE MINISTRY
Economy and reform.—At the end of the French and Indian War, England was burdened with a staggering debt. To build up the resources of the empire, increase the revenues, and protect the dominions were the objects of the ministers of George III. In this program the colonies were expected to play their part. The Bute Ministry planned to enforce the navigation acts, to tax the colonies directly, and to use the colonial revenue to support an army in America. The powers of the admiralty courts were immediately enlarged and commanders of war vessels were authorized to act as customs officials. Soon after Grenville came into office (April, 1763), he ordered customs collectors who were lingering in England to proceed at once to their colonial stations and he instructed the governors to enforce the trade laws rigidly.
Trade encouragement during 1764-1765.—To encourage commerce several important provisions were made during 1764 and 1765. To stimulate the fur business the old duties were abolished and an import duty of only one pence a skin and an export duty of seven pence were levied. To stimulate hemp and flax production bounties were paid on those products shipped from the colonies to England. The bounty on indigo was somewhat reduced but was still sufficient to protect the planters. The duties on whale fins were repealed to the great benefit of Massachusetts. The rice business was stimulated by allowing Georgia and the Carolinas to ship without restrictions to the southward.
The Sugar Act.—Grenville's beneficial measures were more than offset by the Sugar, Colonial Currency, Stamp, and Quartering Acts. The Sugar Act "was a comprehensive measure, whose openly expressed aim was, in the first place to raise a colonial revenue, and in the second to reform the old colonial system both in its administrative and in its economic features." The act confirmed and modified the Molasses Act of 1733. The duty on sugar shipped to the British colonies was raised but that on molasses was lowered. To injure the French island trade, the importation of foreign rum or spirits and commerce with Miquelon and St. Pierre were forbidden. Oriental and French textiles, Portuguese and Spanish wines, and coffee, if brought directly to the British colonies, were taxed heavily, but if shipped from England the duty was low. To protect South Carolina a duty was imposed upon foreign indigo shipped to the colonies. With a few exceptions no drawbacks were henceforth to be allowed, and revenues derived from the Sugar Act were to be paid into the royal exchequer. They were to be kept separate from other moneys and were to be used only for the protection of the British colonies in America.
Stringent regulations were provided for the enforcement of the Sugar Act and other navigation laws. At the option of the informer or prosecutor, penalties for breach of the trade laws might be recovered in any court of record in the district where the offence was committed or in any admiralty court in America. The accused was required to give security for costs if he lost his suit, but if he won his case, he was not entitled to costs if the judge certified that the grounds of action seemed probable. Furthermore in the Molasses Act which was now confirmed, the burden of proof was placed upon the owner or claimant.
Every shipmaster was required to give a bond to land only enumerated goods at European ports north of Cape Finisterre and to possess a certificate from the customs collector at the point of loading. West Indian goods not properly certified were to be treated as foreign goods. Vessels cleared from British ports must contain only goods loaded in Great Britain. This, however, did not apply to salt and Irish linen. Breaches of these regulations subjected the law breaker to severe penalties.
Regulation of Colonial Currency.—Another important measure was the Colonial Currency Act. Lack of specie had compelled the issuance of colonial paper money, and though Massachusetts had retired such issues in 1749, most of the colonies were still suffering from depreciated and unstable currency. To protect the English merchant, parliament passed the Colonial Currency Act which prevented colonists from paying their debts to the home country in depreciated currency and stopped the issues of unsound money. The act caused a shortage of the medium of exchange at the time that the colonists were deprived of the West Indian commerce which had supplied them with specie to settle balances in London. The act produced embittered feeling which paved the way for greater opposition.
Colonial protests.—When it became known in the colonies that the Ministry intended to enforce a more rigid policy which included the levying of internal taxes by parliamentary enactment, vigorous protests were made. Memorials, resolutions, and addresses poured in upon the king, lords, commons, and Board of Trade, and numerous pamphlets appeared which presented the economic and constitutional viewpoint of the colonists.
The Massachusetts protest.—The Boston town meeting urged the assembly to use its influence to protect the rights of the colonies and in its instructions to the Boston representatives the principles were stated that there should be no taxation without representation and that colonials were entitled to full rights of Englishmen. It was also suggested that other injured colonies should be asked to coöperate in seeking redress. A committee of the assembly presented a memorial drafted by Otis which contained the additional principle that parliament had no right to alter the constitution. The memorial was sent to the Massachusetts agent in England with instructions to urge the repeal of the Sugar Act and to protest against the proposed Stamp Act. A committee of correspondence headed by Otis was authorized to inform the other colonies of the action of Massachusetts and to seek their coöperation. As the action had been taken by the assembly without the consent of the council, the governor was soon petitioned to call the general court. He complied and a petition was drawn which temperately protested.
The Rhode Island protest.—Before the Sugar Act was passed a remonstrance was prepared in Rhode Island, which was to be presented to the Board of Trade if three other colonial agents would coöperate. Committees of correspondence were also formed in various towns. After the passage of the act the committee of correspondence of which Governor Hopkins was a member sent out a circular letter protesting against the Sugar Act and the proposed Stamp Act, In November, 1764, the assembly sent a petition to the king in which the principle was stated that an essential privilege of Englishmen was that they should be governed by laws made by their own consent.
Connecticut protest.—In Connecticut Governor Fitch, at the suggestion of the assembly, prepared an address to parliament which protested against the proposed Stamp Act or any other bill for internal taxes. This and the governor's book of Reasons Why the British Colonies in America should not be Charged with Internal Taxes by Authority of Parliament were sent.
New York protest—In March, 1764, the New York merchants presented to the council a memorial against the renewal of the Molasses Act. In October the assembly appointed a committee of correspondence and sent statements of grievances to the king and the lords, and a petition to the commons. In the petition the significant statement was made that the loss of colonial rights was likely to shake the power of Great Britain.
Pennsylvania's protest.—The Pennsylvania assembly considered that parliament had no right to tax the colony. Jackson, the colonial agent, was instructed to remonstrate against the proposed Stamp Act and to endeavor to secure the repeal or modification of the Sugar Act. Franklin was sent over to assist Jackson.
Maryland and Virginia.—In Maryland the governor prevented the meeting of the assembly, but the Virginia council and burgesses prepared an address to the king, a memorial to the lords, and a remonstrance to the commons. The Virginians claimed the rights and privileges that their ancestors had had in England and laid down the fundamental principle of no taxation without representation.
The Carolinas.—North Carolina protested strongly and in South Carolina the assembly appointed a committee which instructed the colonial agent to complain of the laws of trade. The instructions also declared that a Stamp Act would violate the inherent right of every British subject to be taxed only by his own consent or by his representatives. The governor prorogued the assembly before a vote could be taken upon the committee's action, but the instructions, nevertheless, were sent.
The Stamp Act.—In spite of colonial protests Grenville pursued his policy, the appeals of the colonies being rejected under the rule that petitions against money bills should not be received, and in March, 1765, parliament passed the Stamp Act. By its provisions stamps were to be placed on commercial and legal documents, pamphlets, newspapers, almanacs, playing cards, and dice. The enforcement of the act was placed under the management of English commissioners who were empowered to appoint persons to attend in every court or public office in the colonies to see that the law was enforced. For infringements of the law there were heavy penalties which might be collected through the admiralty courts if the informer or prosecutor so elected. Certain cases of forging and counterfeiting were punishable by death. The revenue derived from the Stamp Act was to be paid into the exchequer to be used for colonial defence.
Quartering Act.—The ministry intended to establish an army of 10,000 men in the colonies and the annual Mutiny Act of 1765 authorized the sending of such troops as might be deemed necessary. This was followed by the Quartering Act As "the publick houses and barracks, in his Majesty's dominions in America, may not be sufficient to supply quarters for such forces: and whereas it is expedient and necessary that carriages and other conveniences, upon the march of troops ... should be supplied for that purpose," it was enacted that, if colonial barracks were insufficient, officers and troops were to be quartered in public hostelries. If more room were needed, vacant buildings were to be rented. Troops were to be supplied with fire, candles, vinegar, salt, bedding, cooking utensils, and small quantities of beer, cider, or rum. Persons giving houses for troops and furnishing supplies were to be reimbursed by the province. The colonies were to furnish conveyances at rates fixed by the act, but if the expense exceeded the rate, the province had to make up the deficit.
Colonial opposition.—To the colonies the Stamp Act, the Quartering Act, and the extension of admiralty jurisdiction were unconstitutional. Trials in the admiralty courts had always been looked upon with disfavor, as they violated the right of trial by jury. The new regulation allowing alleged violators of the trade laws to be taken to Halifax for trial was looked upon as a dangerous innovation. The Quartering Act was viewed as a violation of the constitutional principle that troops were not to be quartered upon the people. The provisions of the law were especially aggravating to New York which, because of the strategic position of the colony, would have to bear an undue part in the support and transportation of troops. But the Stamp Act aroused the greatest furor. All of the elements of discontent united against an act which encroached upon the right of the assemblies to control taxation. Indirect taxation was not looked upon as taxation. To the colonial economists the navigation acts were merely trade regulations and the right of parliament to regulate commerce was fully recognized. But a direct tax imposed by parliament to support an obnoxious soldiery set in motion the forces of discontent and produced a unity of opposition which surprised the ministers of George III.
The Virginia Resolutions.—Virginia took the lead in opposition. On May 29, 1765, the burgesses resolved themselves into a committee of the whole to consider the steps necessary to be taken in consequence of the Stamp Act. Patrick Henry, the "rustic and clownish youth of the terrible tongue," introduced a series of resolutions which boldly challenged the British government. The preamble stated that, as the House of Commons had raised the question of how far the general assembly had power to enact laws for laying taxes and imposing duties payable by the people of Virginia, the House of Burgesses, to settle and ascertain the same to all future time, resolved: (1) that the first adventurers and settlers of Virginia brought with them and transmitted to their posterity and to other English subjects who had come to five in the colony all the rights of the people of Great Britain; (2) that these were granted to them by two charters of James I; (3) that taxation of the people by themselves or by their representatives was a distinguishing characteristic of British freedom without which the ancient constitution could not exist; (4) that the people of Virginia had uninterruptedly enjoyed the right of being governed by their own assembly in matters of taxes and internal police, a right which had never been forfeited and had been constantly recognized by the kings and people of Great Britain. (5) Therefore it was resolved that the general assembly had the sole right and power to lay taxes and impositions upon the inhabitants of Virginia, and that every attempt to vest such power in any other person or persons had a tendency to destroy British as well as American freedom; (6) that the inhabitants of Virginia were not bound by any law or ordinance designed to impose any tax upon them other than those imposed by the general assembly; (7) and that any person who maintained that Virginians were bound to obey such laws not imposed by the assembly should be deemed an enemy of the colony.
The resolutions precipitated an acrimonious debate in which the democratic members of the western counties supported Henry against the aristocratic leaders. The committee of the whole appears to have adopted the resolutions, but on the following day the burgesses rejected the preamble and the last two resolutions, the other five being passed by a slender majority. Henry then left the assembly and the following morning the conservatives expunged from the record the fifth resolution. The manuscript of the entire series, except the third resolution which was omitted by error, was already on its way to the other colonies and was widely published. "Beyond question the Virginia resolves mark an important crisis in the impending revolution."
Resistance and violence.—In June the Massachusetts general court, at the suggestion of Otis, sent a circular letter to the other colonial assemblies asking them to send delegates to meet at New York in the following October to consider the danger from the Stamp Act. Before the delegates met fierce opposition appeared in nearly every colony. Remonstrances came from towns, counties, and assemblies. Newspapers and pamphlets inveighed against the act, and non-importation agreements were made in many localities. Associations called "Sons of Liberty" sprang up. At first they worked secretly, but they soon announced their committees of correspondence which worked to unify the opposition.
In Boston occurred riots of greater violence than in any other place. On August 14 the stamp distributor's effigy was hung on the "Liberty Tree," and after other demonstrations, that night a mob demolished a building which it was believed the collector was erecting for an office. On August 26 the houses of two of the customs officials were sacked and the house of Chief Justice Hutchinson was pillaged and destroyed. At Newport the stamp distributor and a sympathizer found it necessary to seek safety on a British man-of-war. Scenes of violence occurred in the other colonies and the stamp distributors resigned with more haste than dignity.
REPEAL OF THE STAMP ACT
The Stamp Act Congress.—The Stamp Act Congress met at New York on October 7, 1765. Nine colonies were represented, Virginia, North Carolina, Georgia, and New Hampshire failing to send delegates. Prominent among those in attendance were John Dickinson of Pennsylvania, John Rutledge and Christopher Gadsden of South Carolina, and James Otis of Massachusetts. On October 19 a declaration of rights and grievances, originally drafted by Dickinson, was adopted. In the declaration the argument was presented that the colonies were entitled to the inherent rights and liberties of native-born Englishmen, one of which was that no taxes were to be imposed upon them except by their own consent or by their representatives. The colonists were not and from their local circumstances could not be represented in the House of Commons, their only representatives being those in the colonies who alone had the constitutional right to impose taxes upon them. All supplies to the crown being free gifts of the people, it was unreasonable and inconsistent with the principles and spirit of the British constitution for the people of Great Britain to grant to the king the property of the colonists. Trial by jury was an inherent right of every British subject in the colonies, but the Stamp Act and other laws, by extending the jurisdiction of the admiralty courts, had a tendency to subvert the rights and liberties of the colonists. The duties imposed by recent acts of parliament would be burdensome and grievous, and from the scarcity of specie the payment of them would be impracticable. The recent restrictions would make it impossible to purchase the manufactures of Great Britain. The right to petition the king or either house of parliament was also asserted. By an address to the king and by applications to both houses of parliament, they endeavored to procure the repeal of the Stamp Act, of clauses in recent acts which increased admiralty jurisdiction, and of recent acts placing restrictions on American commerce.
Repeal of the Stamp Act.—In July, 1765, Grenville fell from power, but not because of opposition to the Stamp Act. The Marquis of Rockingham, a man of moderate ability, was selected to form the new cabinet. The question of the repeal of the Stamp Act came up in parliament early in 1766. During the debate in the commons on February 13, Franklin, then agent for Pennsylvania and Massachusetts, was questioned regarding the colonial attitude, and he made it clear that the Stamp Act could not be enforced. The American cause was strengthened by the powerful support of Pitt and by the protests of English merchants and manufacturers who were losing trade through colonial boycotts. After a momentous debate, the act was repealed.
The Declaratory Act.—Although parliament had given ground it did not surrender, for in the Declaratory Act of March 18, 1766, it asserted its right to tax the colonies. The act declared that the colonies were subordinate unto and dependent upon the crown and parliament, and that the king by and with the consent of parliament had full power and authority to make laws to bind the colonies in all cases. All resolutions, votes, orders, and proceedings in the colonies denying the power and authority of parliament to make laws imposing taxes and regulations were declared null and void.
Other legislation.—The Quartering Act was then renewed, but with certain changes to make it more effective. The imposts on textiles which had previously been collected in America were henceforth to be collected at the point of exportation. The duty on molasses was changed from three pence a gallon on the foreign product to one penny a gallon on all molasses brought to the continental colonies.
Colonial rejoicing.—The Declaratory and other acts attracted little attention in America, where there was great rejoicing over the repeal of the Stamp Act. The constitutional principles for which the colonists had contended had in no wise been conceded, but to the colonist his point seemed won. He was soon to be rudely awakened.
THE TOWNSHEND ACTS
Townshend.—In July, 1766, Rockingham fell from power and the Pitt-Grafton Ministry was formed. Unfortunately for the colonies, Pitt was in ill-health and took little part in shaping policies. The strong man of the cabinet was Charles Townshend. He was fully in sympathy with Grenville's ideas, and was responsible for a new series of irritating acts.
Suspension of the New York assembly.—Trouble had arisen in New York over the enforcement of the Quartering Act. In June, 1766, in reply to Governor Moore's request that provision be made for the expected troops, the assembly excused itself from compliance but intimated that about £4000 then in the treasury might be used. Later the assembly passed an act making provision for one year for a thousand men and one company of artillery. When a request was made for full compliance with the Quartering Act, the assembly refused. On December 19 it was prorogued, and on June 15, 1767, was suspended by act of parliament.
Colonial customs commissioners.—Another act provided for a board of commissioners of customs to be established in America. The preamble stated that, as the colonial customs officials had found it inconvenient to apply to the commissioners in England for directions when difficulties arose, and as colonial shippers were greatly delayed in carrying on business, commissioners were to be stationed in America. Five commissioners were appointed with headquarters at Boston.
Revenue acts.—A new revenue act was passed "for making a more certain and adequate provision for defraying the charge of the administration of justice and the support of civil government, in such provinces where it shall be found necessary, and toward further defraying the expenses of defending, protecting, and securing" the dominions in America. Duties were imposed upon glass, red and white lead, painter's colors, tea, and paper. Drawbacks were allowed on coffee and cocoanuts, but chinaware was no longer subject to drawback. Writs of assistance were declared legal. By another act a drawback for five years was granted on tea reëxported from England to Ireland or the colonies.
Dickinson's "Farmer's Letters."—The Townshend Acts were received with alarm throughout the colonies. "Awed by the suddenness and magnitude of the peril, the colonial leaders acted with circumspection and rare self-control." The most powerful statement of the colonial viewpoint came from John Dickinson whose "Farmer's Letters" were read throughout the colonies, were published in London, translated into French, "and were read by everybody in the two capitals of civilization who read anything more serious than a playbill." Dickinson recognized the vagueness of the constitutional relations of the colonies to the mother country. He urged that a spirit of compromise should prevail and that no abstract theory of sovereignty should be pushed to its logical conclusions. He admitted that parliament possessed legal authority to regulate the trade of the empire, but the recent attempts to raise a revenue he considered a most dangerous innovation. "Great Britain claims and exercises the right to prohibit manufactures in America. Once admit that she may lay duties upon her exportations to us, for the purpose of levying money on us only, she then will have nothing to do but to lay those duties on the articles which she prohibits us to manufacture, and the tragedy of American liberty is finished."
"I would persuade the people of these Colonies ... to exert themselves in the most firm, but the most peaceable manner, for obtaining relief. If an inveterate resolution is formed to annihilate the liberties of the governed, English history affords examples of resistance by force."
"Let us consider ourselves as ... freemen, ... firmly bound together by the same rights, interests, and dangers ... What have these colonies to ask, while they continue free; Or what have they to dread, but insidious attempts to subvert their freedom?... They form one political body, of which each colony is a member."
The Massachusetts protest—In Massachusetts the Townshend Acts were received by a public which was already irritated by the untactful course of Governor Bernard. Soon after the repeal of the Stamp Act he had negatived the election of Otis as speaker of the assembly, and when that body retaliated by refusing to reelect certain members of the council, the governor had refused to accept six members elected by the popular party. Difficulties had also arisen when the governor demanded compensation for those who had suffered by the Stamp Act riots and when he demanded compliance with the Quartering Act.
The first protest of Massachusetts against the Townshend Acts was on October 28, 1767, when the Boston town-meeting renewed the non-importation agreement The General Court convened on December 30 and shortly afterward the acts were read in the assembly and referred to a committee for consideration. The committee drafted a letter to the colonial agent which reviewed the arguments against taxation and protested against the Townshend Acts. A petition to the king and letters to members of the ministry were also prepared. A circular letter to the assemblies in the other colonies, drawn by Samuel Adams, was adopted on February 11, 1768.
The circular letter stated that it seemed necessary that the representatives of the several assemblies should act in harmony "upon so delicate a point" as the recent imposition of duties and taxes. The argument regarding taxation without representation was restated, and objection was made to the payment of the salaries of governors and judges by the crown, to the large powers of appointment given to the commissioners of the customs, and to the Quartering Act. Denial was made that independence was in the minds of the Massachusetts representatives and the letter closed with an expression of confidence in the king. Several of the colonies sent sympathetic replies and Virginia issued a circular letter to the other colonies calling upon them to unite with Massachusetts in her petition for redress.
Hillsborough's reply.—When the Massachusetts protests reached England, they came before a ministry which was prejudiced by letters from royal officials in America. Lord Hillsborough, who had recently been appointed to the newly created position of colonial secretary, laid the Massachusetts protests before the cabinet. On April 21 he sent letters to all the colonial governors, with the exception of Bernard, ordering them to ignore the Massachusetts circular letter. If the assemblies took notice of it, they were to prorogue or dissolve them. Bernard was commanded to require the Massachusetts assembly to rescind its action and to declare its disapprobation of its recent action. The Massachusetts assembly refused and the other assemblies commended its course.
The customs officials defied.—Acts of violence soon occurred. The warship Romney was anchored in Boston harbor and the captain angered the people by impressing seamen, one of whom was rescued. On the same day the sloop Liberty, owned by John Hancock, arrived with a cargo of Madeira wine. The customs collector was locked up by the crew while the cargo was landed and a false entry made. The Liberty was seized and moored under the guns of the Romney. A riot then occurred; the houses of two of the customs officials were damaged and a boat belonging to the controller was burned. The officials fled to the Romney and later took refuge in Castle William. The Boston town-meeting requested the removal of the war vessel, but the governor refused on the ground that such action would be beyond his jurisdiction. At Newport a revenue cutter was burned and at Providence a coat of tar and feathers was administered to a customs official.
Action of the Boston town-meeting and the Massachusetts convention.—Before the occurrence of these riotous acts, the ministry had determined to send troops to Boston. When this became known, the town-meeting assembled in Faneuil Hall and resolved that the inhabitants defend their rights, and they were called upon to provide themselves with arms. When the governor refused to summon the assembly, the selectmen called a convention of delegates from the Massachusetts towns. Ninety-six towns responded. The governor refused to recognize the convention, but it remained in session for six days and did not adjourn until a statement of grievances had been formulated. On September 28, 1768, the day of adjournment, two regiments arrived at Boston.
Prisoners accused of treason to be tried in England.—The rebellious acts of Massachusetts were condemned by parliament which also advised the enforcement of the statute of Henry VIII which allowed the government to bring to England for trial persons accused of treason committed outside of the kingdom. This aroused a storm of protest. In Virginia the burgesses adopted resolutions which asserted that the right of taxation was vested in the House of Burgesses, that petitioning the sovereign was an undoubted privilege of the colony, and that it was lawful and expedient to procure the concurrence of other colonies "in dutiful addresses, praying the royal interposition in favour of the violated rights of America;" that trials for treason or for any felony or crime committed in the colony should be held in the courts of that colony, and that the sending of suspected persons beyond the sea for trial was derogatory of the right of trial by a jury of the vicinage and deprived the accused of summoning witnesses. The resolutions were sent to the other assemblies. When the governor dissolved the burgesses, the members met in a private house and drew up a non-importation agreement. Other assemblies approved the Virginia resolutions and non-importation agreements were signed throughout the colonies.
Departure of Bernard.—Massachusetts continued to be the center of unrest. The unpopularity of Governor Bernard increased when it became known that he was collecting evidence against Samuel Adams. The public ire grew more intense when some of the governor's letters to the Ministry were published. The council drew up charges against him and the assembly petitioned for his recall. In July, 1770, he voluntarily departed, leaving Hutchinson in charge.
The Boston "Massacre."—The troops remained in Boston where they were heartily detested. Difficulties between soldiers and townspeople became more and more frequent and in March, 1770, there was a serious collision. On the fifth a sentinel at the custom house was pelted with snow balls, and when he called for aid the guard came to his assistance. A soldier was knocked down, shots were fired by the guard, and several citizens were killed or wounded. Preston, the commanding officer of the guard, surrendered to the civil authorities, and the privates were placed under arrest. The selectmen demanded the withdrawal of the troops to Castle William and Hutchinson hesitatingly complied. When the soldiers were brought to trial, they were defended by John Adams and Josiah Quincy, who obtained acquittal for all but two who were lightly sentenced.
BEGINNING OF ORGANIZED RESISTANCE
Partial repeal of the Townshend Acts.—The Townshend Acts had proved a complete failure. Exports from England to America had dropped from £2,378,000 in 1768 to £1,634,000 in 1769. The customs were yielding little revenue while the colonial military establishment had become extremely expensive. In addition the colonies had been brought close to rebellion. Lord North, who became Prime Minister on January 31, 1770, hoped to end the commotions in America which had been so injurious to English merchants and manufacturers. He accordingly obtained a repeal of the duties on paints, glass, and paper, but at the suggestion of the king, the tea tax was retained in order to maintain the principle that parliament had the right to tax the colonies. The economic result of the repeal was immediately evident, for in 1770 the English exports to America reached nearly two million pounds sterling and during the next year more than doubled.
Arbitrary attitude of the governors.—The public, however, was kept in a state of agitation by the arbitrary acts of the governors who reflected the royal will. In Georgia the governor vetoed the assembly's choice for speaker, provoking a controversy which ended in the dissolution of the assembly. In South Carolina the governor was in frequent quarrels with the assembly, first over the salaries of the judges, then regarding the veto of an appropriation but, and finally over convening the assembly at Beaufort instead of at Charleston. Virginia was irritated by the royal instructions which forbade the governor to assent to any law which would prohibit or obstruct the importation of slaves. In Maryland the governor by proclamation revived a law regulating fees which had expired by limitation, an action which was looked upon as an assertion of the right to levy taxes.
In Massachusetts the General Court, which was to have met at Boston in January, 1770, was called to meet at Cambridge on March 15. The assembly objected to the change of time and place and demanded a copy of Hutchinson's instructions, but he refused to comply. The assembly would do no business while thus constrained to hold its sessions away from Boston, and declared that the people and their representatives had a right to withstand the abusive exercise of the crown's prerogative. Under protest the assembly finally proceeded to business, but another difficulty immediately arose when the colonial troops were removed from Castle William which was then garrisoned by the regulars. In July, 1771, Hutchinson, who had recently been appointed governor, vetoed a bull which provided for the salaries of the crown officials, an action which called forth a protest from the assembly which held that royal instructions were thus given the force of law. The following year the assembly was informed that henceforth the salaries of the governor and judges would be paid by the crown.
The Gaspee affair.—In Rhode Island an event occurred in 1772 which had far-reaching influence. The numerous inlets and islands of Narragansett Bay made smuggling easy, and revenue vessels, though constantly on the alert, experienced great difficulty in detecting the illicit traders. The revenue boats St. Johns and Liberty were destroyed by men from Newport and the customs officials were annoyed by suits to recover vessels and cargoes which they had seized; Admiral Montagu accordingly ordered that seized vessels be sent to Boston. To Rhode Islanders Dudington, the commander of the Gaspee, was especially obnoxious. According to Trevelyan, "He stopped and searched vessels without adequate pretext, seized goods illegally, and fired at the market boats as they entered Newport harbour. He treated the farmers on the islands much as the Saracens in the Middle Ages treated the coast population of Italy, cutting down their trees for fuel, and taking their sheep when his crew ran short of meat." The injured parties made their voices heard, and the case was laid before the Admiral, who approved the conduct of his subordinate officer, and announced that, "as sure as any people from Newport attempted to rescue a vessel, he would hang them as pirates." On June 9 the Gaspee ran aground seven miles below Providence and during the night the vessel was boarded, Dudington was wounded, he and his crew were put on shore, and the vessel was burned. The act of violence aroused the British government and orders were sent to the governor of Rhode Island, the admiralty judge at Boston, and the chief justices of Massachusetts, New Jersey, and New York to act as a commission of inquiry. The commission held sessions in January and May, 1773, but failed to obtain any evidence.
Local committees of correspondence.—The arbitrary acts of the crown officials, the extension of the royal prerogative, and the Gaspee affair made possible the organization of the radical elements in the colonies. In Massachusetts opposition centered in Samuel Adams, "the man of the town meeting," who put forth pamphlet after pamphlet which struck at the encroachments upon colonial rights. "While he restated the old argument against the right of parliament to tax, he closely examined the foundations of the claim of the ministers to govern by royal instructions. He had grasped the idea that the king, lords, and commons, as well as the colonies, were subject to the authority and bound by the limitations of constitutional law." In the assembly, in the town meeting, through the press, on the street, among the sailors, fishermen, and ropemakers, he advocated the necessity of union. During the contest over the salaries of the crown officials, Adams seized the opportunity to put his ideas into tangible form. On November 2, 1772, in the Boston town meeting he moved that a committee of twenty-one be appointed to state the rights of the colonists, particularly of Massachusetts, and to communicate and publish the same to the Massachusetts towns and to the world as the sense of Boston "with the infringements and violations thereof that have been or ... may be, made; also requesting of each town a free communication of their sentiments on this subject." By January, 1773, more than eighty towns in Massachusetts had committees.
"The Boston committee of correspondence has been likened to a political party manager. It provided for regular meetings, consulted with similar bodies in the vicinity, stimulated the spread of committees in surrounding towns, kept up a correspondence with them, prepared political matter for the press, circulated it in newspapers and broadsides, matured political measures, created and guided public sentiment—in short, heated the popular temper to the boiling point of revolution and then drew from it the authority to act."
Standing committees of correspondence.—Aroused by the Gaspee inquiry, the Virginia burgesses on March 12, 1773, adopted resolutions which provided for a standing committee of correspondence and inquiry whose business was "to obtain the most early and authentic intelligence of all such acts and resolutions of the British Parliament, or proceedings of Administration, as may relate to or affect the British colonies in America, and to keep up and maintain a correspondence and communication with our sister colonies, respecting these important considerations; and the result of such their proceedings, from time to time, to lay before this House." The committee was also instructed to obtain information regarding "the principles and authority on which was constituted a court of inquiry, said to have been lately held in Rhode Island, with powers to transmit persons accused of offences committed in America to places beyond the seas to be tried." The speaker was instructed to transmit to the speakers of the different assemblies of the British colonies on the continent copies of the resolutions, that they might lay them before their assemblies and request them to appoint a person or persons to communicate from time to time with the committee of the burgesses.
The Virginia suggestion was first acted upon by the Rhode Island assembly, which on May 15 informed Virginia of the appointment of a committee of correspondence. Before the close of the month the assemblies of Connecticut, New Hampshire, and Massachusetts had appointed similar committees. The South Carolina assembly acted in July, Georgia in September, Maryland and Delaware in October, and North Carolina in December. The New York assembly appointed its committee on January 20, 1774, and New Jersey on February 8. The Pennsylvania assembly dissolved without taking action.
The committees did not prove to be active agents, because (1) "there was little or nothing for them to do;" (2) they "were chosen from members of the assembly, all of whom were desirous of going home when the assembly adjourned"; (3) "the assembly committees were extremely cautious about acting on their own authority." "However, the choice of such committees was not entirely without result. The popular assembly in each colony received preliminary testing. Constitutional questions were raised and discussed, and arguments disseminated.... More important still had been the demonstration that a body could be created which might continue to act in successful opposition to the crown when the royal governors dissolved or prorogued the assemblies."
THE TEA CONTROVERSY
Attempted relief of the East India Company.—During this period George III and his ministers took the fatal step of attempting to force tea upon the colonies. The colonists had refrained from using tea which paid a duty and had supplied themselves with smuggled tea from France, Sweden, and Holland. At this time the East India Company was on the verge of bankruptcy, a condition due in part to the loss of American customers. In the company's warehouses a vast amount of tea had accumulated. As a measure of relief the directors of the company advised the repeal of the tea duty, but "a course which went direct to the point was not of a nature to find favor with George the Third and his Ministers." Instead they allowed the company a drawback of the entire tea duty in England, but the tea was to be subject to the three penny tax payable in the colonies.
The tea arrives.—George III was soon to learn that he could not force tea down colonial throats. Late in 1773 several tea-laden ships arrived at American ports. In Charleston the agents of the company resigned, and when the duty was not paid, the collector seized the tea and stored it in a damp cellar. In Philadelphia a public meeting resolved that the duty on tea was illegal and persons who assisted in its being landed were declared public enemies. Under pressure of public opinion the consignees resigned and the captain of the tea vessel wisely decided not to unload his cargo. "When New York learned that the tea-ships allotted to it had been driven by a gale off the coast, men scanned the horizon, like the garrison of Londonderry watching for the English fleet in Lough Foyle, in their fear lest fate should rob them of their opportunity of proving themselves not inferior in mettle to the Bostonians."
The Boston Tea Party.—The Massachusetts people had recently been greatly irritated by certain private letters of Hutchinson, Oliver, and Paxton. The letters had been obtained in England by Franklin and had been sent under the seal of secrecy to some of the Massachusetts leaders who, however, published them. Before the excitement subsided three tea-laden vessels arrived at Boston. Hutchinson refused to allow the ships to leave until regularly cleared and this could not be done until the entire cargo had been unloaded. A mass meeting held in the Old South Church resolved that the tea should not be landed, and when the governor ordered the dispersal of the meeting, the bearer of the proclamation met with insult. Neighboring towns agreed to assist Boston, with force if necessary, and a guard watched the vessels to see that none of the tea was landed. On December 17 the cargo would be seized by the collector for non-payment of duty. On the evening of December 16, fifty or sixty men disguised as Indians boarded the tea ships, rifled the chests, and threw the contents into the bay.
The course of Massachusetts.—The British government was being sorely tried by Massachusetts. On January 29, 1774, a petition of the general court for the removal of Hutchinson and Oliver came before the Privy Council Committee for Foreign Plantations. The petition was pronounced a seditious document. Franklin was summoned before the committee, was charged with intercepting letters, and was dismissed from the deputy postmaster-generalship. Soon after the Boston Tea Party, the assembly voted to impeach Justice Oliver for accepting a salary from the crown. In retaliation Hutchinson dissolved the assembly and soon left the colony.
LORD NORTH'S COERCIVE POLICY
The intolerable acts.—The revolutionary acts which were taking place in America, especially those in Massachusetts, caused deep concern in England. Pitt and Burke favored conciliation as the only means of preserving the empire, but the king insisted upon repression. The ministry speedily adopted a legislative program to punish Massachusetts, and parliament legalized the ministerial policy by passing the so-called intolerable acts.
Boston Port Act.—The first of these acts closed the port of Boston from June 1, 1774, until such time as "it shall be made to appear to his Majesty, in his privy council, that peace and obedience to the laws shall be so far restored in the said town of Boston, that the trade of Great Britain may safely be carried on there, and his Majesty's customs duly collected." The king was not to open the port until the inhabitants of Boston had given full satisfaction to the East India Company and to the revenue officers and others who had suffered by the recent outbreaks.
Massachusetts Government Act.—By the "regulating act" the people of Massachusetts were deprived of most of their chartered rights. After July 1, 1774, the council was to be appointed by the king instead of by the assembly. The governor was to appoint and remove, without the consent of the council, all judges of the inferior courts, the attorney general, provosts, marshals, and other officers belonging to the council or courts of justice. Sheriffs were also appointed by the governor but could not be removed without the consent of the council. The chief justice and judges of the superior court were to be appointed by the governor, but were to hold their commissions during the king's pleasure, and they could not be removed unless by order of the crown. Grand and petit juries were to be summoned by the sheriffs instead of being chosen in town meetings. Except for elections, town meetings were to be called only by consent of the governor and discussion was to be limited to subjects stated in the leave. The people were still allowed to elect the assembly.
Administration of Justice Act—The third act provided, "That if any inquisition or indictment shall be found, or if any appeal shall be sued or preferred against any person, for murther, or other capital offence, in the province of the Massachusetts Bay, and it shall appear, by information given upon oath to the governor.., that the fact was committed by the person against whom such inquisition or indictment shall be found, or against whom such appeal shall be sued or preferred..., either in the execution of his duty as a magistrate, for the suppression of riots, or in the support of the laws of revenue, or in acting in his duty as an officer of revenue, or in acting under the direction and order of any magistrate, for the suppression of riots, or for the carrying into effect the laws of revenue, or in aiding and assisting in any of the cases aforesaid; and if it shall also appear, to the satisfaction of the said governor ... that an indifferent trial cannot be had within the said province, in that case, it shall and may be lawful for the governor ... to direct, with the advice and consent of the council, that the inquisition, indictment, or appeal, shall be tried in some other of his Majesty's colonies, or in Great Britain." The act also made it possible to transport witnesses to the scene of the trial.
Quartering Act, June 2, 1774.—The fourth law was entitled "An act for the better providing suitable quarters for officers and soldiers in his Majesty's service in North America." It provided that, if any officers or soldiers should be without quarters for twenty-four hours after a proper demand had been made, the governor might order that uninhabited houses, outhouses, barns, or other buildings be made fit for quarters. The law was to remain in force until March 24, 1776. Though the act was general in its terms, in reality it was intended "to facilitate the establishment of a temporary military government in Massachusetts." Of ominous import was the appointment of General Gage as governor of Massachusetts.
The Quebec Act.—The Quebec Act which extended the province of Quebec to the Ohio River also aroused the anger of Massachusetts, New York, Connecticut, and Virginia, as it deprived those colonies of large tracts of western lands which they claimed under their ancient charters. It was not intended as a coercive act, but was so considered in the colonies.
THE FIRST CONTINENTAL CONGRESS
Call for a congress.—On May 10 a copy of the Port Act was received in Boston. On the twelfth the committee of correspondence met with eight neighboring committees and recommended non-intercourse with Great Britain. The other colonies were asked to follow the same course. While this was taking place the four additional regiments which Gage had called for began to arrive and on June 1, 1774, the port was blocked by men-of-war. Boston began to receive money and supplies from other towns and colonies, and a new impetus was given to the formation of committees of correspondence. Committees in New York and Philadelphia recommended the appointment of delegates to a general congress. The Virginia burgesses resolved to set aside June 1 as a day of fasting and prayer. The governor dissolved the house, but the burgesses assembled on May 27 at the Raleigh Tavern and adopted a resolution calling for a congress. Copies of the resolution were sent to the other assemblies.
On June 17 the Massachusetts assembly resolved, "That a meeting of committees from several colonies ... is highly expedient and necessary, to consult upon the present state of the colonies, and the miseries to which they are and must be reduced by the operation of certain acts of Parliament respecting America, and to deliberate and determine upon wise and proper measures, to be by them recommended to all the colonies, for the recovery and establishment of their just rights and liberties, civil and religious, and the restoration of union and harmony between Great Britain and the colonies, most ardently desired by all good men: Therefore, resolved, that the Hon. James Bowdoin, Esq., the Hon. Thomas Cushing, Esq., Mr. Samuel Adams and Robert Treat Paine, Esqrs., be appointed a committee ... to meet with such committees or delegates from the other colonies as have been or may be appointed, either by their respective houses of burgesses or representatives, or by convention, or by the committees of correspondence appointed by the respective houses of assembly, in the city of Philadelphia, or any other place that shall be judged most suitable by the committee, on the 1st day of September next; and that the speaker of the house be directed, in a letter to the speakers of the house of burgesses or representatives in the several colonies, to inform them of the substance of these resolves."
Meeting of the First Continental Congress.—Every colony but Georgia responded to the call. In September over fifty delegates assembled in Carpenters' Hall at Philadelphia. Among them were John and Samuel Adams of Massachusetts, John Dickinson of Pennsylvania, Richard Henry Lee, Patrick Henry and George Washington of Virginia, Roger Sherman of Connecticut, John Jay of New York, and Edward and John Rutledge of South Carolina. "The congress of 1774 was not thought of by the people as a congress in the modern legislative sense. It was rather a convention of ambassadors of subordinate, but distinct communities which had found it needful to take counsel of one another regarding a crisis in their common relations to the parent state, in order, if possible, to adopt some common plan of action. It was essentially an advisory or consultative body. In another aspect it may be regarded as the completion of the revolutionary party organization of which the basis was laid in the committees of correspondence."
The Suffolk Resolves approved.—The delegates were soon divided into well-defined groups; the radicals led by Samuel Adams wanted resistance, the conservatives headed by Joseph Galloway favored compromise. The radicals succeeded in getting Congress to approve the resolves recently drawn up in the Suffolk County convention in Massachusetts. The resolves declared that no obedience to the recent acts of parliament was due from Massachusetts, advised that no money be turned into the treasury by the tax-collectors until the restoration of the constitution, denounced as enemies the king's councillors who had not resigned, and threatened armed resistance. Congress published these resolves with its resolutions commending the course of Boston.
A plan of union.—The conservatives favored a plan of union proposed by Galloway, which provided for a crown appointed president-general and a council of deputies chosen every three years by the legislatures. The acts of the council were to be subject to parliamentary veto and acts of parliament relating to the colonies might be vetoed by the council. The plan was defeated by a narrow margin.
The Declaration and Resolves.—On September 7 a committee of two from each colony had been appointed to draw up a statement of the rights of the colonies, instances of their violation, and means of restoring them. Agreement on the committee's report was reached on October 14. The declaration of grievances thus adopted complained that parliament had imposed taxes upon them and under various pretences, but in fact for the purpose of raising revenue, had established a board of commissioners with unconstitutional powers, and had extended the jurisdiction of the admiralty courts, not only for collecting duties, but for trial of causes arising merely within the body of a county. Complaint was also made that judges had been made dependent on the crown for salaries, that standing armies had been kept in times of peace, and that the removal to distant places for trial of prisoners charged with treason and certain other crimes had been legalized. The intolerable acts were described as "impolitic, unjust, and cruel, as well as unconstitutional." Other complaints were the dissolution of assemblies when they attempted to deliberate on grievances, and treating with contempt petitions for redress.
Congress accordingly resolved that the inhabitants of the English colonies in North America were "entitled to life, liberty and property: and they had never ceded to any foreign power whatever, a right to dispose of either without their consent;" that they were entitled to the same rights as their ancestors; "that the foundation of English liberty, and of all free government, is a right in the people to participate in their legislative council: and as the English colonies are not represented ... in the British parliament, they are entitled to a free and exclusive power of legislation in their several provincial legislatures, where their right of representation can alone be preserved, in all cases of taxation and internal policy, subject only to the negative of their sovereign." For the mutual interests of both countries they consented to parliamentary regulation of external commerce. The right of trial by their peers of the vicinage, rights confirmed by royal charters and secured by provincial codes, and the right of assembly and petition were asserted. Keeping of a standing army in time of peace without the consent of the legislature of the colony where the army was kept was declared illegal. The exercise of legislative power by a crown appointed council was declared "unconstitutional, dangerous and destructive to the freedom of American legislation."
"All and each of which the ... deputies, in behalf of themselves, and their constituents, do claim, demand, and insist on, as their indubitable rights and liberties; which cannot be legally taken from them, altered or abridged by any power whatever, without their own consent, by their representatives in their several provincial legislatures."
The acts passed by parliament since 1763 to which they were opposed were then enumerated. "To these grievous acts and measures, Americans cannot submit, but in hopes their fellow subjects in Great-Britain will, on a region of them, restore us to that state, in which both countries found happiness and prosperity, we have for the present, only resolved to pursue the following peaceable measures: 1. To enter into a non-importation, non-consumption, and non-exportation agreement or association. 2. To prepare an address to the people of Great-Britain, and a memorial to the inhabitants of British America: and 3. To prepare a loyal address to his majesty, agreeable to resolutions already entered into."
Non-importation, non-consumption, and non-exportation.—By commercial restrictions the delegates hoped to force the British government to change its policy. On September 22 Congress voted to request colonial merchants and others not to place orders for British goods and to delay or suspend orders already sent until Congress could make known its policy. Five days later it resolved that from December 1 there should be no importation of goods from Great Britain or Ireland, or of British or Irish make, and that such goods be neither used nor purchased. On September 30 it was resolved that exportation to Great Britain. Ireland, and the British West Indies ought to cease after September 10, 1775, unless grievances were redressed, and a committee was appointed to formulate a plan for the enforcement of non-importation, non-consumption, and non-exportation.
The Association.—On October 20 the delegates adopted the "Association" which provided that after December 1 British or Irish goods, East India tea, molasses, syrups, paneles, coffee, and pimento from the British plantations or from Dominica, wines from Madeira or the Western Islands, and foreign indigo should not be imported into British America. It was agreed that slaves should not be imported or purchased after December 1, and slave traders were not to be allowed to rent vessels or purchase goods. Non-exportation was not to be put into force until September 10, 1775, but if redress had not been obtained by that time, American goods would be cut off from Great Britain, Ireland, or the West Indies. Rice, however, might be exported to Europe. Congress agreed to encourage frugality, economy, and industry, to promote agriculture, the arts, and manufactures, especially of wool, and to discourage extravagance and dissipation. Merchants and manufacturers were not to raise prices. A committee in each county, city, and town was to observe the conduct of persons, and if violations of the Association were discovered, the truth was to be published in the newspapers. If any colony did not accede to the Association, intercourse with that colony was to be cut off.
Attempts to obtain coöperation of other Colonies.—Congress also made an effort to obtain the cooperation of neighboring colonies by an address to the people of Quebec and by letters to the inhabitants of St. Johns, Nova Scotia, Georgia, and East and West Florida. A memorial to the people of British America, an address to the people of Great Britain, and a petition to the king were also prepared. May 10, 1775, was set as the date for the assembly of another congress, and on October 26 the First Continental Congress dissolved.
North's conciliatory resolution.—In January, 1775, parliament began consideration of the petition to the king and other papers relating to America. Chatham moved the withdrawal of the troops from Boston but the motion was defeated. On February 1 he presented a plan of conciliation based upon mutual concessions, but this was also rejected. On February 20 Lord North undertook the unexpected rôle of conciliator by a resolution which was considered in committee of the whole and passed by the commons a week later. The resolution provided "that when the Governour, Council, and Assembly, or General Court, of any ... colonies in America, shall propose to make provision ... for contributing their proportion to the common defence, (such proportion to be raised under the authority of the General Court, or General Assembly, of such Province or Colony, and disposable by Parliament,) and shall engage to make provision also for the support of the Civil Government, and the Administration of Justice, in such Province or Colony, it will be proper, if such proposal shall be approved by his Majesty and ... Parliament ... to forbear, in respect of such Province or Colony, to levy any Duty, Tax, or Assessment, or to impose any farther Duty, Tax, or Assessment, except only such Duties as it may be expedient to continue to levy or to impose for the regulation of commerce; the nett produce of the Duties last mentioned to be carried to the account of such Province or Colony respectively."
The Restraining Act.—The effect of North's resolution was nullified by the Restraining Act, which, in spite of Burke's powerful speech on conciliation, became law on March 13. This act confined the commerce of the New England colonies to Great Britain, Ireland, and the British West Indies, and prohibited the New Englanders from fishing in the northern fisheries, until "the trade and commerce of his Majesty's subjects may be carried on without interruption." In April the act was extended to New Jersey, Pennsylvania, Delaware, Maryland, Virginia, and South Carolina. The British government thus closed the door of conciliation and made the American Revolution inevitable.
READINGS
Adams, J., Works, II, 337-517; Adams, S., Writing, II-III; Becker, C.L., Beginnings of the American People, 202-253; Beer, G.L., British Colonial Policy, 1754-1765, 72-315; Bigelow, J., The Life of Benjamin Franklin, II, 7-337; Channing, E., A History of the United States, III, 29-154; Dickinson, J., Writings, in Historical Society of Pennsylvania, Memoirs, XIV, 307-406; Doyle, J.A., "The Quarrel with Great Britain, 1761-1776," in Cambridge Modern History, VII, 148-208; Fisher, S.G., The Struggle for American Independence, I, 1-300; Frothingham, Richard, The Rise of the Republic, 158-455; Henry, W.W., Patrick Henry, I, 24-357; Howard, G.E., Preliminaries of the Revolution; Hutchinson, P.O., The Diary and Letters of his Excellency Thomas Hutchinson, I; Johnson, E.R., History of Domestic and Foreign Commerce of the United States, I, 84-121; Journals of the Continental Congress, I (Worthington C. Ford, ed.); Lecky, W.E.H., History of England in the Eighteenth Century, III, 290-460; Lincoln, C.H., The Revolutionary Movement in Pennsylvania, 1760-1776; MacDonald, William, Select Charters, 272-396; Trevelyan, G.O., The American Revolution, Part I, 1-253; Tyler, M.C., Literary History of the American Revolution, I; Patrick Henry, 32-134; Van Tyne, C.H., The American Revolution, 3-24; Becker, C.L., The Eve of the Revolution; Eckenrode, H.J., The Revolution in Virginia; Schlesinger, A.M., The Colonial Merchants and the American Revolution, 1763-1776.
CHAPTER XXIV
FROM LEXINGTON TO INDEPENDENCE (1775-1776)
THE OPENING OF HOSTILITIES
Enforcement of the Association.—The Association adopted by the Continental Congress was approved throughout the colonies. In county and town meetings, in assemblies, provincial congresses, or special conventions, the patriot party expressed its approval. Though the New York assembly refused to sanction the proceedings of Congress, the committee of correspondence and many counties chose inspection committees. In Georgia the patriots had a difficult time, but when the provincial congress assembled at Savannah in March, 1775, forty-five of the deputies ratified the Association and local inspection committees were formed.
Military preparations.—Throughout the colonies military preparations were in progress. In October, 1774, Charles Lee wrote from Philadelphia to an English nobleman, "Virginia, Rhode Island and Carolina are forming corps. Massachusetts Bay has long had a sufficient number instructed to become instructive of the rest. Even this Quakering province is following the example." In December the provincial convention of Maryland recommended that all males between the ages of sixteen and fifty should form themselves into military companies. Delaware made provision for the arming and drilling of militia. Connecticut ordered the towns to double their military supplies, and Rhode Islanders seized forty-four cannon from the Newport batteries.
Whigs, neutrals, and Tories.—In spite of the military ardor thus displayed, public opinion was by no means a unit. In general the people were divided into three groups, patriots, neutrals, and Loyalists. Among the patriots, or Whigs as they were called, was a small group of ultra-radicals who favored independence. A great majority of the Whigs stood for strenuous opposition to British policy but not for independence. The neutrals in the main presented three shades of opinion: those with patriot sympathies but who were still wavering, those who were indifferent or were religiously opposed to violence, and those who had Loyalist leanings but had not made a definite decision. The third great group was composed of Loyalists or Tories. These were not all of like mind, one portion being openly in favor of the king but not ready to take up arms, the rest being openly belligerent. As the Revolution progressed shadings within groups gradually disappeared, wavering neutrals linked themselves with patriots or Loyalists, and sections became distinctly Whig or Tory.
Even before the adoption of the Association, ill feeling showed itself. As Howard says, "Tarring and featherings was becoming the order of the day.... Loyalists were bitterly stigmatized as Tories and traitors, and the cause of liberty was sullied by acts of intolerance and persecution." Channing says, "The story of tarring and featherings, riotings and burnings becomes monotonous, almost as much so as the reading of the papers that poured forth from counties, towns, conventions, meetings, congresses, and private individuals."
Revolution in Massachusetts.—The people of Massachusetts refused to submit to the Regulating Act. The "mandamus" councillors were threatened with violence and either declined the appointment or resigned, and the courts were unable to sit. On September 1, 1774, Gage sent soldiers to seize some powder stored near Boston and a rumor spread that the war ships had fired on Boston. The militia began to gather from neighboring counties, and Israel Putnam summoned the Connecticut militia to march to the assistance of Boston.
Gage refused to allow the meeting of the assembly called for October 5, but most of the representatives met at Salem where they declared themselves a provincial congress. A few days later the congress moved to Concord and then to Cambridge. It appointed a committee of safety which was empowered to call out the militia, and other committees attended to the collecting of stores and general defence. After the gathering of the second provincial congress on February 1, 1775, the committee of safety under the leadership of John Hancock and Joseph Warren was authorized to distribute arms.
Lexington.—On April 18 the watchful patriots discovered that British troops were preparing for an expedition, and William Dawes and Paul Revere were sent to spread the alarm. Soon after dawn of April 19 the British troops approached Lexington where they found sixty or seventy minutemen under arms. When they did not obey the order to lay down their arms and disperse, a shot was fired, followed by a volley which killed eight and wounded ten of the colonials. The regulars went on to Concord where another encounter occurred at the old North Bridge where the British had stationed a guard. After destroying some stores, the troops started back toward Boston. By this time the militia had gathered, and the incensed farmers and villagers from behind trees, rocks, and fences poured in a deadly fire which did not slacken until the soldiers were relieved at Lexington by troops under Lord Percy. When the march was resumed the battle began again, nor did it cease until the weary soldiers reached Charlestown.
Boston with Environs During the Revolution (Based on map in G.O. Trevelyan, The American Revolution, Part I, at end).
Boston besieged.—The news of Lexington started thousands of New England volunteers toward Boston. John Stark led the New Hampshire men; Israel Putnam left his plow in the furrow to lead the Connecticut volunteers; and Nathanael Greene headed the Rhode Islanders. The volunteer forces in a few weeks were reinforced by large bodies of colonial troops. The Massachusetts congress voted to raise thirteen thousand six hundred men, and it called upon the other New England colonies to bring the army up to thirty thousand. The Rhode Island assembly voted to raise fifteen hundred men, and Connecticut six thousand, two-thirds of whom were to be sent to the aid of Boston. Gage, who had been reinforced with troops under Howe, Clinton, and Burgoyne, found his army of six or seven thousand veterans shut up in Boston by an undisciplined and poorly organized force, which, however, outnumbered him three or four to one.
Bunker Hill.—The city was open to attack from Dorchester Heights and the Charlestown hills. To forestall the British, the colonials decided to occupy Bunker Hill. On the night of June 16 Colonel William Prescott was sent to fortify the position. For reasons which are not entirely clear, he led his men to Breed's Hill where a redoubt was constructed. When dawn disclosed the fortification, the warships and batteries opened fire. Prescott asked for reinforcements and small detachments came to his assistance. A British council of war was called. Clinton suggested the seizure of the causeway on Charlestown neck, a movement which would have cut off the colonial force from the mainland. But Gage and Howe, underestimating the fighting ability of their opponents, foolishly insisted upon a frontal attack. Twice the British were repulsed with staggering losses, but during the third charge the colonials exhausted their ammunition and were forced to retreat, first to Bunker Hill and then back to their own lines. Though the colonials technically had suffered a defeat, great was the rejoicing over the battle, for colonial troops had proven their prowess against the British regulars and had taken a toll of two for one.
Ticonderoga and Crown Point—While the troops were gathering about Boston, it occurred to Benedict Arnold that Ticonderoga would be an easy prize. He submitted his ideas to Warren and the committee of safety, who authorized him to proceed with not over four hundred men to reduce the fort. On the way to Boston Arnold had divulged his thoughts to certain Connecticut friends who immediately organized an expedition with the same object. Ethan Allen and others from the Hampshire grants had also conceived the idea of capturing the fortress and were on the march when joined by Arnold, who had gone forward ahead of his troops. Immediately the question of rank arose and after considerable discussion Allen and Arnold agreed to command jointly for the time being.
On May 10 Ticonderoga surrendered without a struggle and this was followed by an easy conquest of Crown Point and Ft. George. By this time Allen completely ignored his colleague, but the arrival of about a hundred of Arnold's men gave him his opportunity. Having captured a British schooner Arnold decided to make a raid on St. Johns. The town was easily captured and a British sloop fell into the hands of the audacious colonial. The operations supplied the Whig army with much needed artillery and stores, and it opened the way for operations in Canada.
Rebellion in Virginia.—Virginia at the same time was in a state of rebellion. The second revolutionary convention assembled at Richmond in March, 1775, and Patrick Henry boldly sounded the call to arms. The governor, Lord Dunmore, in alarm ordered the removal of the gunpowder from the magazine at Williamsburg and soon several thousand armed men made ready to march on the capital. When some of the leaders hesitated, Henry placed himself at the head of an armed band and marched toward Williamsburg. The governor discreetly agreed to pay for the powder, but two days later (May 6, 1775) issued a proclamation charging the people "not to aid, abet, or give countenance to the said Patrick Henry, or any other persons concerned in such unwarrantable combinations." In May a legal assembly was called but the members appeared in arms, and an attempted conciliation failed when it became known that a trap was prepared to kill any one who tampered with the magazine. Fearful of the mob, the governor fled to a war vessel.
The Mecklenburg Resolves.—The news of Lexington aroused every colony. South Carolina immediately raised two regiments. In North Carolina some of the frontiersmen held a meeting at Charlotte, Mecklenburg County, and passed resolutions that crown commissions in the colonies were null and void, and that colonial constitutions were suspended. They also made governmental regulations until Congress could provide laws for them. The original resolutions were destroyed and afterward were reproduced from memory in the form of the so-called "Mecklenburg Declaration of Independence" of May 20. Reliable historians now reject the authenticity of this document, but the original resolves were undoubtedly genuine.
THE SECOND CONTINENTAL CONGRESS
The delegates.—The Second Continental Congress assembled at Philadelphia on May 10, 1775, all but Georgia and Rhode Island being represented. On May 13 Lyman Hall, representing St. John's parish, Georgia, arrived, but not until July 20 was notice received that Georgia had acceded to the Association and appointed delegates. Stephen Hopkins, the first Rhode Island delegate to appear, arrived May 18. Peyton Randolph of Virginia was elected president, but he found it necessary to leave Congress on May 24, and John Hancock was chosen president. Most of the delegates had been in the first Congress; among the new members was Benjamin Franklin, who had recently returned from England; Thomas Jefferson was elected to represent Virginia in the place of Peyton Randolph.
Nature of the work of Congress.—The conservative Whigs were still in the majority. They favored another petition to the king, but the state of war was recognized by all and Congress shouldered the responsibility of directing the Revolution as a defensive war. The early activities of Congress were devoted mainly to the raising, organizing, and equipping of the armies, to building and equipping a fleet, to perfecting the organization of the Revolution, to protecting the frontiers and obtaining alliances with the Indians, to enforcing the Association, to justifying the Revolution and seeking aid outside of the thirteen colonies, and to seeking redress from the British crown.
Military preparations.—Congress worked strenuously to raise troops and to obtain munitions and other stores. Efforts were made to stimulate recruiting, to perfect the organization of the militia, and to hasten the assembling of forces. The manufacture of cannon, guns, and gunpowder was encouraged and attempts were made to increase the supplies of lead, nitre, and salt. Congress recommended to the various assemblies and conventions that they provide sufficient stores of ammunition for their colonies and that they devise means for furnishing with arms such effective men as were too poor to buy them.
Organization of the army.—The armies already in the field were recognized by Congress. On June 14 a committee was appointed to draft rules for the army and on the following day Washington was appointed to command the continental forces. Arrangements were soon made for the appointment of four major-generals, eight brigadier-generals, and minor officers. The first major-generals were Artemus Ward, Charles Lee, Philip Schuyler, and Israel Putnam, Schuyler being placed in command of the New York department. Rules and regulations for the army were also adopted and provision was made for the establishment of a hospital.
Organization of the navy.—For the protection of the coasts Congress at first depended upon the efforts of individual colonies, recommending that they make provision, by armed vessels or otherwise, for the protection of their harbors and navigation on their coasts. Colonial vessels were utilized to capture British transports, but it soon became evident that a navy under congressional control would be more effective. During October, 1775, Congress decided to fit out four vessels and on November 28 adopted rules for the regulation of the navy. On December 13 provision was made for the building of thirteen war craft and on the twenty-second officers were appointed. Ezek Hopkins was made commander-in-chief of the fleet; the captains were Dudley Saltonstall, Abraham Whipple, Nicholas Biddle, and John B. Hopkins. Among the first-lieutenants was John Paul Jones.
Prizes and privateers.—On November 25 Congress adopted regulations regarding prizes, and advised the legislative bodies to erect admiralty courts or to give to the local courts admiralty jurisdiction. It also provided "That in all cases an appeal shall be allowed to Congress, or such person or persons as they shall appoint for the trials of appeals." In March, 1776, Congress resolved "That the inhabitants of these colonies be permitted to fit out armed vessels to cruize on the enemies of these United Colonies." In April Congress adopted a form of commission and instructions to commanders of privateers, and decided to issue letters of marque and reprisal.
First steps in financing the Revolution.—The financing of the Revolution was one of the most difficult tasks confronting Congress. The first step in raising money was taken on June 3, 1775, when a committee was appointed to borrow £6,000 to purchase gunpowder. A committee was also appointed to bring in an estimate of money necessary to be raised. On June 22 Congress resolved to emit $2,000,000 in bills of credit and pledged the "confederated colonies" for their redemption. Once embarked upon the perilous course of paper finance, issue followed issue in rapid succession. At first the promissory notes passed readily, but they soon began to depreciate and eventually became worthless. Nevertheless they carried the Revolution through its most trying years.
Establishment of a post office.—The need of "speedy and secure conveyance of intelligence from one end of the Continent to the other" was recognized and a committee was appointed to consider the establishment of posts. On July 26 the post office was established, Benjamin Franklin being elected Postmaster General. He was authorized to establish "a line of posts ... from Falmouth in New England to Savannah in Georgia, with as many cross posts as he shall think fit."
An Indian policy adopted.—Control of the Indians was vital for the safety of the frontier. It was felt that if the British ministry should induce the tribes to commit hostile acts, the colonies would be justified in entering into alliances with Indian nations. It was hoped that the Iroquois might be kept neutral. "Talks" were prepared, goods to be used as presents were purchased, and money was provided. The frontier was laid off into three departments which were placed under commissioners. The Six Nations and tribes to the north of them were in the northern department; tribes between the Iroquois and the Cherokee were in the middle department; and the Cherokee and Indians south of them were in the southern department.
Enforcement of the Association.—Congress continued the policy of trade restriction. On May 17 it resolved that exports to Quebec, Nova Scotia, the Island of St. Johns, Newfoundland, Georgia except St. John's parish, and to East and West Florida, must cease, and that supplies must not be furnished to the British fisheries. After Georgia appointed delegates, the colony was admitted to the Association. On June 2 Congress resolved that no bill of exchange, draught, or order of any British officer should be honored, and that no money, provisions, or other necessaries be furnished the British army or navy.
On June 26 Congress resolved that, as attempts were being made to divide the people of North Carolina and defeat the Association, it was recommended to that colony to associate for the defence of American liberty and to organize the militia, Congress offering to provide pay for a thousand men in the colony. On July 4 a resolution was adopted that the restraining acts were "unconstitutional, oppressive, and cruel," and that commercial opposition should be made to them.
As doubts had arisen with respect to the true spirit and construction of the Association, on August 1 Congress defined it as follows: "Under the prohibition ... to export to, or import from, the Islands of Great Britain and Ireland, this Congress intends to comprise all exportation to, and importation from, the islands of Jersey, Guernsey, Sark, Alderney, and Mann, and every European island and settlement within the British dominions: and that under the denomination of the West Indies, this Congress means to comprehend all the West India islands, British and foreign, to whatever state, power, or prince belonging, or by whomsoever governed, and also the Summer islands, Bahama Islands, Berbicia and Surinam on the Main, and every island and settlement within the latitude of the southern line of Georgia and the Equator."
The necessity of obtaining supplies forced Congress to make special provisions for the importation of munitions of war. On July 15, 1775, a resolution was adopted that "every vessel importing Gun powder, Salt petre, Sulphur, provided they bring with the sulphur four times as much salt petre, brass field pieces, or good muskets fitted with Bayonets, within nine Months from the date of this resolution, shall be permitted to load and export the produce of these colonies, to the value of such powder and stores aforesd, the non-exportation agreement notwithstanding." On November 2 Congress adopted a resolution to close the ports until March 1, but from time to time special provisions were made for the exportation and importation of goods. The delegates frequently discussed the question of opening the ports, as shown by John Adams's Autobiography which says: "This measure ... labored exceedingly, because it was considered as a bold step to independence. Indeed, I urged it expressly with that view, and as connected with the institution of government in all the States, and a declaration of national independence." On April 6, 1776, the ports were opened to world commerce except trade with Great Britain and her possessions.
Letter to the people of Canada.—The congressional leaders hoped to strengthen their resistance by obtaining the coöperation of the Canadians. A letter "to the oppressed inhabitants of Canada" was approved on May 29. Congress condoled with them "on the arrival of that day, in the course of which, the sun could not shine on a single freeman in all your extensive dominion.... By the introduction of your present form of government, or rather present form of tyranny, you and your wives and your children are made slaves.... We are informed you have already been called upon to waste your lives in a contest with us. Should you, by complying in this instance, assent to your new establishment [the Quebec Act], and a war break out with France, your wealth and your sons may be sent to perish in expeditions against their islands in the West Indies. We yet entertain hopes of your uniting with us in the defence of our common liberty."
Attempts to influence public opinion in the British Empire.—Congress hoped by appeals to the inhabitants of the British Isles to arouse public opinion, thereby bringing pressure to bear upon a Ministry and subservient parliament which had shown themselves to be irresponsible and tyrannous. Addresses to the people of Great Britain and Ireland were accordingly prepared. A letter to the Lord Mayor, aldermen, and liveries of London was drawn up expressing thanks "for the virtuous and unsolicited resentment you have shown to the violated rights of a free people." A letter of friendship was sent to the assembly of Jamaica and a communication regarding commerce was sent to Bermuda.
Statement to the army.—On July 6 Congress approved a declaration setting forth the causes and necessity of taking up arms, which was to be published by Washington upon his arrival at Boston. The declaration presented the usual arguments regarding constitutional rights and gave an account of the progress of events. That independence was desired was denied in the following words: "We have not raised armies with ambitious designs of separating from Great Britain, and establishing independent states. We fight not for glory or for conquest.... In our own native land, in defence of the freedom that is our birth right,... and for the protection of our property ... we have taken up arms."
Petition to the king.—The radicals believed that a war of independence could not be avoided, but the conservatives restrained them, hoping that the force of public opinion, a bold show of resistance, and commercial restrictions would change the ministerial policy. Another direct appeal to the king was decided upon and on May 29 resolutions were adopted, "that with a sincere design of contributing by all the means in our power, not incompatible with just regard for the undoubted rights and true interests of these colonies, to the promotion of this most desirable reconciliation, an humble and dutiful petition be presented to his Majesty." The petition, signed on July 8, was couched in respectful terms as the following quotation shows: "We ... beseech your Majesty, that your royal authority and influence may be graciously interposed to procure us relief from our afflicting fears and jealousies, occasioned by the system before mentioned, and to settle peace through every part of your dominions, with all humility submitting to your Majesty's wise consideration whether it may not be expedient for facilitating those important purposes, that your Majesty be pleased to direct some mode, by which the united applications of your faithful colonists to the throne, in pursuance of their common councils, may be improved into a happy and permanent reconciliation; and that, in the mean time, measures may be taken for preventing the further destruction of the lives of your Majesty's subjects; and that such statutes as more immediately distress any of your Majesty's colonies may be repealed."
Reply to Lord North.—As several of the colonies were desirous of knowing the congressional attitude toward Lord North's conciliatory resolution, on July 31 Congress adopted a formal report which closed with the following statement: "When the world reflects how inadequate to justice are these vaunted terms; when it attends to the rapid and bold succession of injuries, which have been aimed at these colonies, when it reviews the pacific and respectful expostulations, which ... were the sole arms we opposed to them; when it observes that our complaints were either not heard at all, or were answered with new and accumulated injury,... when it considers the great armaments with which they have invaded us, and the circumstances of cruelty with which they have commenced and prosecuted hostilities; when these things we say, are laid together and attentively considered, can the world be deceived into an opinion that we are unreasonable, or can it hesitate to believe with us, that nothing but our own exertions may defeat the ministerial sentence of death or abject submission."
Stubborn attitude of the government.—George III and his ministers had gained no wisdom from the rebellious attitude in America. The petition, which had been entrusted to Richard Penn, reached London on August 14, but not until a week later did Lord Dartmouth, the secretary for the colonies, consent to look at a copy of the document and not until September was it presented to the king. On August 23 George III published a proclamation which declared the Americans rebels, and after his examination of the petition, the king saw no reason for revising it. At the next session of parliament acts were passed which prohibited trade with the thirteen colonies, ordered the seizure and confiscation of ships engaged in trade with them, and permitted British commanders to impress sailors from seized vessels.
The German mercenaries.—A reorganization of the cabinet had forced the amiable Dartmouth out of the colonial office, his successor being Lord George Germaine. Lord Rochford was made secretary of state for the southern department, and Lord Suffolk was retained in the northern department to which office fell the business with Germany. The British army was sadly in need of recruits. In Scotland the men of Argyllshire and Inverness-shire readily entered the army for colonial service, but in Ireland and England the people showed little enthusiasm for a war which was intended to subdue their freedom-loving brethren over the seas. To raise the necessary troops the king turned to the continent. An attempt to obtain the use of the Scotch troops which had long been in Dutch service failed and Catherine II refused to furnish Russian infantry, but in Germany British overtures met with better success. The Landgrave of Hesse-Cassel, the Duke of Brunswick, and some other needy princes were willing to sell the services of their subjects for British gold. During the war over thirty thousand mercenaries were hired in Germany for service in America. In the words of Lecky, "The conduct of England in hiring German mercenaries to subdue the essentially English population beyond the Atlantic, made reconciliation hopeless, and the Declaration of Independence inevitable."
PROGRESS OF THE WAR
Burning of Falmouth.—Events were also taking place in America which were convincing the public that the war for independence must be fought to the bitter end. In October, 1775, four British war vessels sailed into the harbor of Falmouth, now known as Portland, and set fire to the town. Three-fourths of the dwellings were destroyed and a thousand unoffending people were made homeless.
The Canadian campaign.—The efforts of Congress to enlist the Canadians in the colonial cause did not meet with success and the invasion of Canada was determined upon. Two forces were sent northward. One under Richard Montgomery was to proceed by the Lake Champlain route, seize Montreal, and then march to Quebec. The other under Benedict Arnold was to go up the Kennebec and down the Chaudière, and join the other force. Montgomery captured Montreal and then made a juncture with Arnold. On December 31 an attack was made on Quebec, but Montgomery was killed, Arnold was wounded, and the forces were repulsed. But in spite of terrible sufferings in his army, Arnold kept Quebec in a state of blockade the rest of the winter.
Siege of Boston.—When Washington arrived at Cambridge, he found a disorganized army which was short of food, ammunition, and uniforms, and without hospital service. Fortunately the British did not take advantage of the situation, and gradually the commander brought order out of chaos. By March, 1776, Washington was prepared to make an offensive move. Taking advantage of the fact that the British had not fortified Dorchester Heights, on the night of March 4 colonial troops seized the position which commanded Boston. On the seventeenth the British army, accompanied by about a thousand Loyalists, sailed for Halifax.
Fighting in Virginia and North Carolina.—While Washington was besieging Boston, Lord Dunmore was making reprisals along the Virginia rivers. After the defeat of some of his Loyalist supporters at Great Bridge, the governor caused the burning of Norfolk on January 1, 1776. North Carolina was also torn by civil war. Governor Martin had been driven from the colony, and from the refuge of a war vessel commissioned Donald McDonald to collect an army of Loyalists in the central and western counties. He also appealed to Sir Henry Clinton for aid. With a force of sixteen hundred men McDonald marched toward the coast, but on February 27, 1776, he was met by patriot forces at Moore's Creek and his Loyalist army was practically annihilated. When Clinton's fleet appeared off the coast, ten thousand North Carolina militia were ready to meet him. Clinton lingered for a time off Cape Fear and then sailed to Charleston where he hoped to arouse the Loyalists of the coasts and the German settlers of the interior.
Defence of Charleston.—Edward Rutledge with six thousand militia prepared to defend the city. Colonel Moultrie, with his forces back of rude fortifications on Sullivan's Island, made ready to defend the harbor. On June 28 the fleet attacked. Most of the British shot buried themselves in the palmetto logs and banks of sand from behind which Moultrie's men poured a fire which wrought havoc on the crowded decks. An attempt to make a landing proved a failure and Charleston was saved.
THE LOYALISTS
The people not united.—Up to 1774 the majority of Americans were not united in opposition to British policy, but acts of violence and retaliation, the meeting of Congress, and the organization of revolutionary committees, brought about a rapid crystallization of public opinion. Loyalty to Great Britain was the normal state. The Whigs were the nullifiers and eventually the secessionists. That they were able to perfect an organization and carry on a successful rebellion has obscured the fact that they were in reality but an active minority. The masses were indifferent or were loyal supporters of Great Britain. It is impossible to estimate accurately the number of Loyalists; they varied with localities and fluctuated with the fortunes of war. Some historians estimate them as a third of the population, others as one-half.
The Tory element in the colonies.—The great Loyalist stronghold was New York. There the moderate Tories had controlled the situation for several years. They had favored the assembling of the First Continental Congress, but when that body adopted the Association, they opposed it. After the battle of Lexington the Whigs grew in power and succeeded in setting up a provincial congress. But several counties remained Loyalist, and until the occupation of New York City by British troops a state of civil war existed in the province. After that event the British lines furnished a refuge for Tories from all the colonies.
Next to New York Pennsylvania contained the largest Tory element. There the Quakers, the proprietary interests, and a large German population combined to oppose the Whig movement. In New Jersey, Maryland, and Delaware, the Tory element was so numerous that only with the greatest difficulty did the Whigs obtain the support of those colonies for independence. In New England the Loyalists were not powerful. In Massachusetts, New Hampshire, and Rhode Island they formed an insignificant part of the population, but in the region which afterward became the state of Vermont and in Connecticut they were numerous enough to be a menace.
In the South, Virginia was dominated by the Whigs. The impolitic acts of Lord Dunmore had alienated all but a small element of the population. The Scotch merchants of Norfolk and many planters had supported the governor, but his reprisals on the coast, his proclamation offering freedom to negroes and indented servants who would enlist, and the burning of Norfolk destroyed the Tory power in the province. North Carolina, which had recently been torn by the War of the Regulators was probably about equally divided, and in South Carolina and Georgia the farmers and cattlemen of the interior were usually Loyalists; but the British naval demonstrations and the defeat of Tory bands did much to win converts to the Whig cause in the three southern colonies.
A classification of the Loyalists.—The Loyalists, or Tories as they were called in derision, have been classified by Professor Van Tyne as the office holders whose incomes depended upon the existing régime; those whose friends were among the official class or who depended upon that class for preferment; the majority of the Anglican clergy; the conservative people of all classes, especially the wealthy merchants, the aristocracy of culture, of dignified professions and callings, and of hereditary wealth, and those who held office by virtue of wise selection; the king worshipers, who were moved by theory of government rather than by concrete facts; the legality Tories who believed that parliament had a constitutional right to tax the colonies; the religious Tories whose dictum was fear God and honor the king; and the factional Tories who were influenced by family feuds and political animosities.
The religious division.—The religious factor was one of the most important causes of division. An Anglican bishopric for the colonies had long been contemplated and the dissenting churches believed that the ministry was about to urge its establishment. In New England where the Congregational church was in the ascendency and in those sections where the Presbyterians and Baptists were powerful, the establishment of an episcopate was especially feared. Already the Anglican church numbered three hundred parishes in America. Throughout the colonies it was the church of the official class and in the South it was the church of the aristocracy. The southern Episcopalians were divided on the paramount political questions, but in New York the religious and political parties coincided. New York politics for many years had been factional, the De Lanceys who were Episcopalians being leaders in invariable opposition to the Livingstons who were Presbyterians. Both in New York and Connecticut those of the Episcopal faith were almost invariably Loyalists.
The Tory argument.—The Tories believed in no taxation without representation, but they differed with the Whigs in their interpretation of the word representation. The Tories accepted the English meaning which was based upon the idea that a man enjoyed representation not by the fact that he had voted for a member of parliament but by his belonging to one of the three great estates of the nation, each estate being represented in parliament. They admitted that this was an imperfect type of representation, but it was the ancient constitutional type. They believed that the relationship of the colonies to the mother country should be defined more clearly, but they did not believe that the Whigs had a right to demand a fundamental change in the constitution of the British Empire.
Moses Coit Tyler has pointed out that the other Tory arguments were based upon questions of expediency, (1) Was it expedient to reject the taxing power of parliament? (2) Was separation from the empire expedient? The Whigs argued that parliamentary taxes might become confiscatory. The Tories replied that parliament recognized the principle that all parts of the empire should be taxed equitably and justly, and that a powerful minority, which counted among its members Fox and Burke, were bent upon protecting the colonies. The Tories could see no reason for separation. They pointed out that until the beginning of 1776 the Whigs had consistently disavowed the idea of independence. Why then this sudden change? The Tories believed that concessions were about to be made which would make separation unnecessary and undesirable.
Persecution of the Loyalists.—After Lexington the Loyalists became intolerable to the Whigs. They must show their allegiance to the patriot cause or suffer the consequences. The favorite method of persecution was tarring and feathering, but riding the Tory on the liberty pole or ducking occurred frequently. Under the direction of the revolutionary committees freedom of speech was suppressed and the liberty of the press was destroyed. Any one who opposed the Association was considered an enemy; he must agree or be persecuted. When the Loyalists attempted to form counter associations, they were met with stern methods of repression. Whig clergymen held conferences in Loyalist communities to try to convert them, and obdurate places were visited by armed bands. When the Tories attempted to arm, their leaders were seized.
Congress attempts to control the Loyalists.—The Loyalists were lacking in organization, and when the governors were driven from the colonies, they lost their natural leaders. When calls for aid came from the deposed officials, many Tories formed bands and attempted to coöperate with the British forces. So serious was the situation that Congress, as early as October, 1775, recommended to the revolutionary governments that they arrest every person who might endanger the colonies or "the liberties of America." On December 30 a congressional committee reported that the Tories of Tryon County, New York, had collected arms and munitions, and that several Loyalists had enlisted in British service. Orders were issued to General Schuyler to seize the stores, disarm the Tories, and apprehend their leaders.
Congress extends the olive branch.—Congress hoped to win over a large part of the Loyalists and on January 2, 1776, it passed a pacific resolution which stated that as certain honest, well-meaning, but uniformed people had been deceived by ministerial agents, it recommended to the various committees and friends of American liberty to treat such persons with kindness and attention, to view their errors as proceeding from want of information, to explain to them the true nature of the controversy, and to try to convince them of the justice of the American cause. The colonial governments were instructed to frustrate the machinations of enemies and restrain wicked practices. It was the opinion of Congress that the more dangerous ones should be placed in custody, and to accomplish this the local authorities were given the right to call to their aid the continental troops.
The Queen's County Tories.—Immediately afterward Congress learned that the Tories of Queen's County, New York, were especially troublesome. Congress accordingly decided that they should be put outside of the protection of the United Colonies, that all trade and intercourse with them should cease, and that none of them should be allowed to travel or reside outside of that county without a certificate from the revolutionary government of New York. Violators of this provision were to be imprisoned for three months and lawyers were forbidden to try causes for them. Troops were sent into the county.
Disarming of the Loyalists.—A congressional committee which had under consideration the defence of New York, on March 14 advised the disarming of the Loyalists on Staten Island. Congress immediately ordered that eight thousand men be sent to the defence of New York and recommendation was made to all the colonies to disarm all persons "notoriously disaffected to the cause of America," or who refused to associate to defend, by arms, the United Colonies. The confiscated arms were to be used in arming troops.
THE DECLARATION OF INDEPENDENCE
The colonies advised to form temporary governments.—Up to the beginning of 1776 the Whigs disavowed the purpose or desire for independence. But in spite of the view of the conservatives, Congress had been forced to assume the direction of the war and had been called upon to advise several of the colonies regarding the course to be pursued in organizing their governments. In answer to an inquiry from Massachusetts, Congress replied that no obedience was due to the parliamentary act altering the charter, and that the governor and lieutenant-governor were to be considered absent and the offices vacant. As there was no council, the provincial convention was advised to write letters to the inhabitants of the places which were entitled to representation in the assembly, requesting them to choose representatives; and when the assembly was chosen, it was to elect councillors, "which assembly and council should exercise the powers of Government, until a Governor, of his Majesty's appointment, will consent to govern the colony according to its charter." New Hampshire was advised to call a full and free representation of the people who might establish such a form of temporary government as would "produce the happiness of the people and most effectually secure peace and good order in the province" during the dispute with Great Britain. Similar advice was given to South Carolina and Virginia.
Paine's "Common Sense."—The attitude of the British government, the events on the Canadian frontier and about Boston, and the burning of Falmouth and Norfolk, fanned the flames of rebellion to a white heat. When Tom Paine issued his pamphlet Common Sense, "the first open and unqualified argument in championship of the doctrine of American Independence," he found a receptive audience. The pamphlet held up to scorn the idea of kingship, argued that the security and happiness of the British people were due to their character and not to their constitution, asserted that the British colonial system was based upon English self-interest, and that only injuries and disadvantages would result from continued allegiance to Great Britain. Reconciliation, Paine argued, would result in the ruin of America, because England, ruled by self-interest, would still be the governing power, because any arrangement which might be obtained would be a temporary expedient, and because nothing but independence would keep the peace of the American continent. From every point of view, independence, he declared, was necessary. "The period of debate is closed. Arms, as the last resort, must decide the contest.... By referring the matter from argument to arms, a new era for politics is struck; a new method of thinking hath arisen. All plans, proposals, and so forth, prior to the nineteenth of April ... are like the almanacs of last year." The pamphlet met with immediate success. It was read throughout the colonies and convinced thousands that independence was necessary.
The independence movement in the three southern colonies.—Early in 1776 three southern colonies took definite steps toward independence. In February a small revolutionary group in Savannah instructed delegates to agree to any measure for the general good which might be adopted by Congress. In March South Carolina gave similar instructions, and on April 12 the provincial congress of North Carolina instructed its delegates to concur with representatives from other colonies in declaring independence. In spite of the action of South Carolina, the colony was probably unconvinced of the necessity of separation from Great Britain until the Charleston hostilities.
Congress advises the colonies to suppress the authority of Great Britain.—On May 10 Congress recommended to the various assemblies and conventions that where no sufficient government had been established, such governments as would best conduce to the happiness and safety of the people and of America in general should be established. Five days later Congress adopted a preamble to this resolution which contained the significant statement that the exercise of every kind of authority under the British crown should be suppressed and all the powers of government exerted under the authority of the people of the colonies.
The German mercenaries.—On May 21 Congress received copies of the treaties which Great Britain had made with the Duke of Brunswick, the Landgrave of Hesse-Cassel, and the Count of Anhalt-Zerbst, by which they agreed to furnish about seventeen thousand troops to be used against the rebellious colonies. These treaties were immediately published and were a potent force in bringing some of the wavering colonies to instruct their delegates for independence.
Lee's Resolution.—In Virginia a convention was called to form a new government, and on May 15 the Virginia delegates in Congress were instructed to propose independence. Accordingly on June 7 Richard Henry Lee moved in Congress "That these United Colonies are, and of right ought to be, free and independent States, that they are absolved from all allegiance to the British Crown, and that all political connection between them and the State of Great Britain is, and ought to be, totally dissolved. That it is expedient forthwith to take the most effectual measures for forming foreign alliances. That a plan of confederation be prepared and transmitted to the respective Colonies for their consideration and approbation."
The debate on the resolution.—A declaration of independence at that time was opposed by James Wilson, Robert R. Livingston, John Dickinson, Edward Rutledge, and others. They declared that they were friends of the measure but thought that it should be postponed until the people demanded it. The middle colonies, they thought, "were not yet ripe for bidding adieu to British connection, but ... were fast ripening." They argued that a declaration which was not unanimous would cause foreign powers either to refuse to make alliances with the colonies or to insist upon hard terms. It was believed that a successful termination of the New York campaign would make alliances possible on excellent terms.
John Adams, Lee, Wythe, and others argued for an immediate declaration. They saw no reason for waiting for every colony to express itself. They argued that a declaration of independence alone could bring about desired alliances. Without it the colonies would never know whether or not aid could be obtained from France or Spain. It was pointed out that the New York campaign might not be successful and that an alliance ought to be made while affairs bore a hopeful aspect. If an alliance were made at once with France, she might assist in cutting off British supplies and might divert enemy forces by an attack on the British West Indies. It was also pointed out that an immediate alliance would assist the people, who were in need of clothing and money.
Committees appointed.—It was decided to get the consent of the colonies before issuing the declaration, but a committee composed of Thomas Jefferson, John Adams, Benjamin Franklin, Roger Sherman, and Robert R. Livingston was appointed to prepare the document. Congress also decided to appoint committees to formulate a plan of confederation and to draft a form of treaties.
New England takes formal action.—The New England colonies had favored independence for some time. They now took formal action. In May Rhode Island instructed its delegates to agree to any acts which would hold the colonies together. In June Massachusetts, Connecticut, and New Hampshire instructed their delegates to support Lee's resolution.
The independence movement in the middle colonies.—The middle colonies still stood out and Congress made great efforts to induce them to give their support. After a hard struggle with Governor William Franklin, on June 22 the provincial congress of New Jersey authorized its delegates to agree to independence. Pennsylvania had been held back by the Quakers, Germans, and proprietary interests. When the conservative assembly refused to sanction independence, a vast crowd assembled in Philadelphia and voiced its displeasure. The Loyalists were terrorized and a patriot convention was formed which agreed to favor independence. Delaware formed a new government but failed to instruct its delegates regarding independence. In Maryland the provisional government induced Governor Eden to leave the colony and a special convention called by the council of safety gave the delegates the desired instructions. New York failed to express itself in favor of the great measure.
The Declaration of Independence.—On July 1 Lee's motion was debated in Congress, John Adams speaking for an immediate declaration of independence and Dickinson for delay. When the debate closed, nine states voted in the affirmative. Pennsylvania and South Carolina opposed immediate action; the Delaware vote was a tie, and the New York delegates were excused from voting. The final vote was postponed until the next day. The arrival of Rodney of Delaware gave the vote of that state for the Declaration. Dickinson and Morris did not appear and the other delegates from Pennsylvania voted in the affirmative. The South Carolina delegates, influenced by news that a great British fleet was off New York, took matters in their own hands and voted for independence. New York alone stood out.
The congressional committee had entrusted the preparation of the Declaration to Thomas Jefferson. After it had undergone the fire of criticism, on the evening of July 4 the document was approved by twelve states. On the following day copies signed by President Hancock and Secretary Thomson were sent to the various assemblies. The other signatures were added later. Although the New York delegates had not voted for the Declaration, on July 9 the New York provincial congress approved it, completing the long chain of states which stretched along the Atlantic seaboard from Nova Scotia to East Florida.
Contents of the Declaration.—This immortal document begins by setting forth certain "self-evident truths" concerning the rights of mankind and the nature of government. Then follow in nearly thirty paragraphs a list of charges against King George III, and a review of the efforts of the colonies to obtain redress. The last paragraph declares, in the resounding words of Lee's Resolution, "That these United Colonies are, and of right ought to be Free and Independent States; that they are absolved from all allegiance to the British Crown, and that all political connection between them and the State of Great Britain, is and ought to be totally dissolved." A new nation had been born.
READINGS
MILITARY EVENTS AND THE CONTINENTAL CONGRESS
Bolton, C.K., The Private Soldier under Washington; Channing, Edward, History of the United States, III, 155-206; Fiske, John, The American Revolution, I, 100-197; Greene, F.V., The Revolutionary War, 1-27; Journals of the Continental Congress (Worthington C. Ford, ed.), II-VI; Lecky, W.E.H., History of England in the Eighteenth Century, III, 461-500; Smith, J.H., Our Struggle for the Fourteenth Colony, I, 107-165; Trevelyan, G.O., The American Revolution, I, 254-390; Van Tyne, C.H., The American Revolution, 24-49; Winsor, Justin, Narrative and Critical History, VI, 1-274; Adams, C.F., Studies Military and Diplomatic, 1775-1865, pp. 1-21.
THE LOYALISTS
Flick, A.C., Loyalism in New York (Columbia University, Studies in History, etc., XIV, No. 1.); Tyler, M.C., "The Party of the Loyalists in the American Revolution," in The American Historical Review, I, 24-45; Van Tyne, C.H., The Loyalists in the American Revolution; Wallace, S., The United Empire Loyalists.
THE DECLARATION OF INDEPENDENCE
Friedenwald, H., The Declaration of Independence; Hazelton, J.H., The Declaration of Independence; Trevelyan, G.O., The American Revolution, II, 133-171; Van Tyne, C.H., The American Revolution, 50-101; Becker, C.L., The Eve of the Revolution, 200-256.
CHAPTER XXV
THE STRUGGLE FOR THE MUDDLE STATES (1776-1777)
THE CONTEST FOR NEW YORK
Preparations to defend New York.—After the evacuation of Boston it was realized that New York would be a probable point of attack and great exertions were made to put it in a state of defence. Washington arrived on April 13, 1776; his troops, delayed by bad roads, came straggling in, and new levies began to arrive, the army being gradually augmented until it numbered about twenty thousand men. But the effective fighting force was several thousand less, for disease was ever present. Furthermore the raw recruits were poorly trained and equipped, and there were not enough artillerymen to man the batteries. The only cavalrymen who appeared were a small force from Connecticut and these, for reasons best known to himself, Washington did not retain in service. The defences were strengthened by works at Paulus Hook on the Jersey shore, and others on Governor's Island and at Red Hook on Long Island. Eleven redoubts were erected on Manhattan Island along the battery and up to a point opposite Hell Gate, and the hamlet of Brooklyn was fortified with seven redoubts. Obstructions were placed in the Hudson and a second line of defence was established at Forts Washington and Lee. Many historians point out that New York should have been abandoned, for Washington's army was too small to cope with the British, the Tories were certain to keep the enemy informed of the movements, the defences were not powerful enough to control the water approaches, and an active enemy could run by the defenses and land troops in the rear of the American army. To make the situation worse, the line of hills on Long Island, known as Brooklyn Heights, commanded New York. To occupy them it was necessary to divide the army, and in case of defeat, the defenders would be separated by a difficult channel from the main army on Manhattan Island. As Trevelyan observes, Washington "placed, and kept, his troops in a position where they were certain to be defeated, and where, when defeated, they would most probably be surrounded and destroyed."
The British plan.—The British government hoped to annihilate the armies and cut off New England from the other colonies. By occupying New York and sending converging armies, one from the north, the other up the Hudson, the government believed that it could accomplish its purpose. Large reinforcements were sent to Quebec, and during July and August, 1776, British forces were concentrated on Staten Island and a great fleet assembled. The first forces to arrive at New York were those under General Howe which he brought from Halifax. Large reinforcements under Admiral Lord Howe and forces under Clinton and Cornwallis augmented the army until it numbered about thirty thousand men.
An attempt at conciliation.—Lord Howe hoped that peace could be made, and soon after his arrival, he addressed a letter to "George Washington, Esquire," but the epistle, which failed to recognize the position of the commander-in-chief, was returned. A personal envoy from Lord Howe also met with a rebuff. The British admiral had prepared a circular letter to several of the royal governors setting forth his authority as commissioner and stating the conciliatory terms sanctioned by the cabinet. These contained a mere promise of pardon to those who returned to allegiance and assisted in the restoration of tranquillity. In fact John Adams was marked out for a halter, but this was not divulged. The letters fell into the hands of Congress which ordered that they be published "that the good people of these United States may be informed of what nature are the commissioners, and what the terms, with the expectation of which, the insidious court of Britain has endeavoured to amuse and disarm them...."
Battle of Long Island.—General Howe finally decided to attack the American position on Long Island. On the twenty-second and twenty-third of August twenty thousand troops and forty cannon were disembarked at Gravesend Bay, six or seven miles south of Brooklyn, but not until the evening of the twenty-sixth did the British advance. Washington had been misinformed as to the size of the landing force and had stationed only nine thousand men on Long Island. These were under General Nathanael Greene, but stricken by illness, he was forced to retire from the command on August 23, and Sullivan who succeeded him was superseded by Putnam on the twenty-fifth. Washington spent the twenty-sixth on the island and superintended the disposition of the forces.
The chief line of defence was the densely wooded Brooklyn Heights which were crossed by several roads. One ran up from Gravesend near the coast; four miles to the eastward two wagon roads from Flatbush penetrated the heights; three miles farther east a highway ran from the village of Jamaica. About five thousand men were sent to defend the Gravesend and Flatbush roads but Jamaica Pass was neglected. The British frontal attacks met with stubborn resistance from the forces of Stirling and Sullivan, but their valor was useless for a large British force pushed along the Jamaica road and got in the rear of the American positions. A portion of the army succeeded in getting back to the Brooklyn intrenchments, but Sullivan and Stirling with about eleven hundred men were captured and several hundred were killed.
The withdrawal from Brooklyn.—Howe, who remembered the disastrous frontal attack at Bunker Hill, decided not to attack the Brooklyn defences until supported by the fleet, which was held back by an adverse wind. His caution saved the American army. Washington saw that Brooklyn was untenable and he secretly planned to evacuate it. A brave show of force was made by bringing over three regiments and by keeping up a fusillade while water craft were being collected. Favored by a subsidence of the storm and by a fog, during the night of the twenty-ninth the entire army was successfully withdrawn.
Harlem.—After the battle of Long Island the British commissioners made overtures to Congress and a committee composed of Franklin, Edward Rutledge, and John Adams went to Staten Island for a conference, but it failed completely. There was nothing to do but to fight it out. That Manhattan Island should have been abandoned immediately after the defeat at Brooklyn Heights has been maintained by strategists, but Congress hesitated to evacuate New York City and Washington does not appear to have insisted upon a withdrawal. As Trevelyan observes, "It is equally difficult to explain satisfactorily why Howe was so long about landing..., and why Washington was so slow in evacuating the city." On September 10 Hancock informed Washington that Congress did not desire to have him hold the city longer than he thought proper. Washington immediately acted. The removal of stores was hastened and most of the troops were withdrawn to Harlem Heights about halfway up the island, but Putnam was left in the city with some infantry and artillery, and five brigades were posted at points along the eastern shore. Not until September 13 did the British begin the movement for the occupation of Manhattan Island. On that day and the next several war vessels moved up into the East River and at eleven o'clock on the morning of the fifteenth British forces landed at Kip's Bay. There the American troops disgraced themselves by slight resistance followed by a confused flight. Howe neglected to follow up his initial success; had he done so he could have cut off the garrison of New York, but his procrastination allowed Putnam's force to rejoin the main army. Not until four in the afternoon did the British commence "a stately progress northward" and not until the next morning did they attack the American position. This time Washington's troops behaved well and the British were checked.
White Plains.—For four weeks the British army remained in front of the American position at Harlem. Howe finally decided upon his plan of campaign; leaving a force to protect New York City, on October 12 he moved his main army to the Westchester Peninsula with the object of getting on the flank and rear of the American army, and cutting off its supplies from the east; war ships were sent up the Hudson to cut off a retreat into New Jersey. After his landing on the peninsula Howe's movements were very slow and it was not until October 25 that he took up a position a few miles south of White Plains, The dilatory movement had given Washington the opportunity of moving his army to the mainland, and when Howe finally arrived near White Plains, he found the American army blocking his advance.
The British commander had just been heavily reinforced and his overwhelming army should have made short work of Washington's forces, but again Howe failed to win a decisive victory. On October 28 he ordered a general engagement and the first assault drove in the American outposts. A mile to the west of the main position was Chatterton's Hill which was held by fourteen hundred men. Against this hill Howe sent eight regiments. Five which advanced for a frontal attack were checked and the defenders only retired when outflanked by the other three. A general engagement did not develop and on October 31 Washington retired to a line of heights somewhat back of his former position.
Northern New Jersey, New York and Its Environs during the Revolution (Based on map in G.O. Trevelyan, The American Revolution, Part II, Vol. I, at end).
The withdrawal from Quebec.—While Washington's army rested at White Plains, heartening news came from the north; and especially good news it was, for during the summer the reports from the Canadian border had been filled with stories of defeat and distress. Congress had made great efforts to reinforce the army before Quebec, but on May 1 when General Thomas arrived to take command, he had found less than two thousand men assembled and half of them were in the hospitals. Within a week the first British reinforcements arrived and Carleton took the offensive. Thomas was forced to fall back to Sorel and the Americans were driven from their camp near Montreal.
The army falls back to Crown Point.—On June 5 General John Sullivan arrived at Sorel with three thousand troops. As Thomas had died of the smallpox Sullivan took command. He determined to attack Three Rivers but the surprise failed and his troops were routed. On June 14 an English fleet carrying Carleton's army came up the river. Sullivan immediately broke up his camp and retired to Crown Point, where for the time being he was out of reach of the enemy, for Carleton's vessels were of too deep draft to navigate the Sorel River. But disease proved to be more dangerous than the British, for smallpox and dysentery carried off the men by hundreds.
Ticonderoga becomes the base.—General Philip Schuyler was in command of the northern department with headquarters at Albany and General Horatio Gates was now in charge at Crown Point. In July Gates withdrew most of the depleted force to Ticonderoga. Large numbers of troops were sent north so that by August the garrison numbered thirty-five hundred. Arnold equipped a fleet of small vessels which he hoped would delay if it would not check the British advance.
Valcour Island.—During the summer Carleton's shipyard at St. Johns was busy building the fleet which would give him control of Lake Champlain. On October 4 Carleton advanced with an army of twelve thousand men. Arnold started with his fleet manned by only five hundred men to harass the advance. He ran into the narrow channel between Valcour Island and the western shore and there on October 11 encountered the light advance craft of the British fleet. For five hours he held his own. During the night he withdrew his shattered boats to an island twelve miles to the south where he attempted to repair the damage. On October 13 when the fog lifted, it disclosed the British fleet. Arnold immediately sent off his best vessels and with his crippled ships stayed to fight. One vessel struck its colors but Arnold ran his flag ship and four gondolas into a creek and burned them. He then hastened to Ticonderoga where he displayed tremendous energy in strengthening the fortifications. The spirited fight on the lake, the strength of the American position, and the lateness of the season convinced Carleton that it was useless to continue the operations. On November 3 he evacuated Crown Point and began the withdrawal to Canada. Washington was thus relieved from the danger of an enemy from the north.
Tactical movements.—Before he was aware of Carleton's withdrawal, Howe had determined to force Washington's army into the open. He sent a force of Hessians to occupy the northern end of Manhattan Island and on November 5 moved his main army to Dobb's Ferry on the Hudson, from which vantage point he could strike at Fort Washington, advance toward Albany, or threaten Philadelphia. Washington's position was endangered and the situation was made doubly precarious by the fact that his army was being depleted by desertions and by the termination of enlistments. To counteract the British movement he sent one corps to Hackensac in New Jersey, and Heath's division was stationed at Peekskill to protect the Hudson. Charles Lee was left at White Plains with about seven thousand men subject to future orders.
Forts Washington and Lee.—The British moved next against Forts Washington and Lee, which, garrisoned by about five thousand men, were under the supervision of General Greene. They ought to have been abandoned, but Washington unfortunately left the decision to his subordinate who believed that they could be held. On November 16 overwhelming forces advanced against Fort Washington which was obliged to surrender. Cornwallis secretly sent six thousand troops across the Hudson and on November 20 advanced against Fort Lee. He all but surprised it and Greene, with the greatest difficulty, succeeded only in saving the garrison.
THE NEW JERSEY CAMPAIGN
Retreat to the Raritan.—The fall of the forts had added greatly to the difficulty of the situation, for Washington's army was in danger of being enveloped. To avert disaster he determined to retreat into New Jersey. He accordingly crossed the Passaic and moved to Newark. The forces under Lee were ordered to join the retreating army, but that vain and conceited officer, who had visions of becoming commander-in-chief as soon as Washington was eliminated, refused to obey orders. On November 28 Washington marched out of Newark and as his rear guard left the town the advanced guard of the British entered it. The American army pushed on to New Brunswick where it found a temporary haven behind the Raritan. On December 1 Cornwallis's troops reached the river, but there he was halted by an order from Howe not to advance until he arrived with reinforcements.
Expedition against Rhode Island.—A week later Howe came up with a single brigade. Instead of concentrating his troops to crush the remnant of Washington's army, the British commander decided to send two divisions to conquer Rhode Island. They easily occupied the island but it was a fruitless venture for "several thousand Royal troops were thenceforward locked up in a sea-girt strip of land no larger than the estate of many an English Lord-Lieutenant."
Retreat across the Delaware.—Washington's army was constantly reduced by desertion and sickness, and the New Jersey people failed to rally to his assistance. It has been estimated that not a hundred men enlisted during the retreat across the state. The people of New Jersey paid dearly for their indifference, for during the winter they were constantly subjected to indignities from the Hessians who were billeted upon them. Among the atrocious acts was the pillaging of Princeton College. Taking advantage of British inactivity, Washington prepared to retire beyond the Delaware, from New Brunswick having ordered the collection of boats for many miles along the river front. Covering his retreat with fourteen hundred of his best troops under Stirling, the army and stores were landed on the Pennsylvania shore. When the British troops arrived on the eastern bank, they were forced to halt, for not a boat was available and the short-sighted Howe had failed to provide his army with pontoons.
To the British commander the campaign was over and he prepared to go into winter quarters, fancying that the rebellion was practically crushed and that the spring campaign would be a mere parade. The Whig use appeared to be lost and gloomy forebodings and grumblings of discontent took the place of declamation and heroics. On December 10 Congress resolved to defend Philadelphia but two days later it adjourned and hied away to Baltimore. Washington's lack of authority had frequently hampered his military operations, but this difficulty was now removed, for before adjournment Congress resolved, that until otherwise ordered, Washington was to have full power to direct operations.
Washington's army reinforced.—The dispirited army which crossed the Delaware was soon strongly reinforced. After many days of inaction, General Lee had left his camp at White Plains with the intention, as he grandiloquently put it, of reconquering New Jersey. After the retreat of Carleton, Schuyler had sent seven battalions under Sullivan to assist Washington, but Lee succeeded in getting control of four of them. On December 13 he was captured at a tavern at Baskingridge. As soon as Sullivan heard of it, he started the troops for the Delaware and on the twentieth of December joined Washington. Four other battalions from Schuyler's army arrived shortly afterward and General Mifflin brought in a goodly body of Pennsylvania militia. Before Christmas the army numbered eight thousand.
Position of the Hessians.—To the east of the Delaware was a Hessian division under Colonel Von Donop, Colonel Rail being stationed at Trenton with three regiments. Rail had taken to measures to strengthen a naturally weak position; highways converged to the north of the village and artillery stationed at the junction could sweep the streets. Scouting parties and spies informed Washington that Rail's troops were scattered through the town and that the place was practically without defences.
Trenton.—Washington determined to strike. With the greatest secrecy he perfected his plans. One body of troops under Cadwalader was to attack Von Donop's position at Bordentown and Ewing with a thousand men was to strike at troops stationed on Assumpink Creek, while Washington with Greene and Sullivan in command of twenty-four hundred men and eighteen cannon were to advance against Trenton from the north. During a furious tempest on Christmas night Washington succeeded in crossing the Delaware, but Ewing failed to get over and Cadwalader crossed too late to coöperate. At four in the morning Washington's troops began the weary march toward Trenton. While the valiant army was toiling over the frozen roads, the Hessians were sleeping off the effects of their Christmas wassail. At 8:15 the American forces drove in the Hessian outposts. Aroused from his bed Rail tried to make a stand, but the streets were raked with round shot and the sharpshooters fired relentlessly into the huddled Hessians, several hundred of whom fled across the Assumpink Creek bridge and escaped to Bordentown. Rail tried to rally his men but fell mortally wounded. When Sullivan cut off the retreat to the south and Greene ordered up his reserves, resistance ended. Nine hundred prisoners, a thousand muskets, six field pieces, and a large quantity of stores fell into the hands of the successful commander. But not in terms of men and guns should the battle of Trenton be judged. Its importance lies in the fact that Washington had won a clean cut victory when the Whig cause was tottering and by that victory had raised the drooping spirits of a despairing nation.
Movements of the armies.—When the news of Trenton reached New York, it roused the British from their fancied security. Lord Cornwallis at the head of eight thousand men proceeded by forced marches toward the west. Washington had determined to hold a position east of the Delaware, and on December 30 he again crossed the river and by January 2, 1777, had assembled five thousand men and forty pieces of artillery just below Trenton. As Cornwallis approached the American position, he realized the costliness of a frontal attack, and decided that as soon as his forces assembled he would attempt a flanking movement from Allentown.
Princeton, January 3, 1777.—Washington saw the danger and decided on a daring plan. On the night of January 2 all was activity in the American camp. Sentinels challenged, infantry moved about in the light of the camp fires, and the sound of pick and shovel was plainly audible to the British. But in the darkness to the rear another kind of activity was in progress. Cannon, stores, and baggage were being silently moved to Bordentown and Burlington, and at one in the morning the bulk of the army began a stealthy march which at daybreak brought them out within a mile and a half of Princeton. Three of Cornwallis's regiments had remained there during the night and were now under way. Suddenly the first of these troops under Colonel Mawhood found themselves confronted by the American advance guard. The British charged bravely, scoring an initial success, but Washington's presence in front of his lines steadied the troops and they soon forced a retreat. Sullivan then led the advance against the two remaining regiments, which were driven through and beyond Princeton, leaving three hundred prisoners in Washington's hands. The roar of the guns brought the unwelcome tidings to Cornwallis that the American army had escaped, had cut across his rear, and had defeated three of his crack regiments.
Morristown.—Five miles beyond Princeton Washington turned to the north and soon established his army in a powerful position at Morristown where they remained in security the rest of the winter. Howe made no attempt to dislodge his opponent, but concentrated ten thousand troops in camps at New Brunswick and Perth Amboy. The Jersey people had been cured of their Toryism; supplies poured into the American camp, while the British experienced the greatest difficulty in securing fuel and food, and by March 1 were reduced to a ration of salt provisions and "ammunition bread." When Washington reached Morristown he had about four thousand men and during the winter his army did not increase, but he made the most of the opportunity to drill his men and perfect his organization. Throughout the country men were drilling for the spring campaign, powder mills were being built, and lead mines were being opened. The greatest shortage was in muskets, but fortunately these were obtained from France.
Middlebrook.—In May, 1777, everything was in readiness and Washington led his army to a powerful position at Middlebrook, only a few miles from the British camp at New Brunswick. On June 13 Howe transferred large forces to the southern bank of the Raritan, but he failed to draw Washington from his point of vantage and on the nineteenth he began the withdrawal of his army to Staten Island, having had the satisfaction only of a rear guard action with Stirling's division.
THE STRUGGLE WITH BURGOYNE
British plans for 1777.—Howe's plan for the campaign of 1777 called for fifteen thousand more troops. With this addition he believed that he could crush Washington and conquer Pennsylvania, New Jersey, and New York. The subjugation of the southern colonies would then be attempted, followed by operations in New England. But Lord Germaine thought otherwise. Ignoring the general in the field, he planned to send a force under St. Leger down the Mohawk Valley, a second army under Burgoyne to penetrate New York by the Lake Champlain route, while Howe was to proceed up the Hudson Valley. The three armies were to meet at Albany. The plan looked good on paper, but it failed to take into account the long distances to be traversed and the difficulties of transportation on the frontier. When Germaine planned the campaign, he should have sent precise orders to Howe, but this he failed to do, and on May 18 he even wrote acquiescing in the proposed expedition against Philadelphia and expressing the hope that the business might be concluded in season so that Howe could coöperate with Burgoyne.
Ticonderoga and Ft. Independence.—On June 15, 1777, General Schuyler learned that Burgoyne's army was in motion and that St. Leger was concentrating forces on the upper Mohawk. The American army was in a sorry plight for smallpox and dysentery were still the bane of the northern department. Congress had done much to destroy efficiency by temporarily removing Schuyler. At a time when all should have been working in harmony, Gates was intriguing with members of Congress to overthrow his superior. The advance part of the army was at Ticonderoga. Across the narrow bay Fort Independence had been erected and a bridge connected the fortifications, which were commanded by General St. Clair who had only twenty-five hundred men to man works which demanded ten thousand defenders.
The Region of Burgoyne's Invasion (The large map is based on E.G. Foster's Historical Chart; the inset is from Trevelyan, The American Revolution, Part II, Vol. I).
Burgoyne captures the forts.—Late in June Burgoyne's flotilla carrying about eight thousand soldiers reached Crown Point. His engineers soon discovered the fundamental weaknesses of the American position. Mt. Hope dominated the passage to Lake George and Sugar Hill towered above the forts. On July 2 the former position was occupied by the British and on July 5 St. Clair saw Sugar Hill bristling with cannon. He realized that the forts were untenable and on the night of July 6 he loaded his stores and light artillery on barges and sent them under convoy to Skenesborough. The main body of troops under St. Clair attempted to reach the same place by a circuitous route which led through Hubbardtown.
The disastrous retreat.—Burgoyne's vessels broke through the impediments and pursued the American flotilla. They encountered it at anchor in South Bay and short work they made of it. The Americans destroyed the stores and buildings on the shore before they retreated. General Fraser had been sent in pursuit of St. Clair's forces and at Hubbardtown he fell in with the American rear guard and defeated it. St. Clair succeeded in getting his troops to Ft. Edward where he joined Schuyler. Only three thousand men barred the way to Albany.
The withdrawal to Stillwater.—Schuyler sent out calls for help to New England, to New York, and to Washington. While waiting for reinforcements he destroyed the standing crops, drove off the stock, and broke up the roads. Having despoiled the country, he abandoned Fort Edward and withdrew to Stillwater on the west bank of the Hudson. It was not long before reinforcements began pouring in. Although his army was inferior to that of Howe, Washington sent on Morgan's riflemen and he ordered Putnam to send two brigades. General Lincoln was sent to organize the New England militia and Benedict Arnold was called from Connecticut to help Schuyler.
Bennington.—Burgoyne reached the head of Lake Champlain on July 10, but from that point his progress was exceedingly slow, the twenty miles to Ft. Edwards being traversed in as many days. Schuyler's work of devastation had been complete and the British commissariat suffered accordingly. To replenish his depleted stores, Burgoyne embarked upon a rash enterprise. At Bermington large quantities of stores had been collected and a Tory named Philip Skene suggested that they would be an easy prize. Burgoyne followed Skene's advice and sent Colonel Baum with five or six hundred troops to make the capture. Near Bennington John Stark was in command of two brigades of New England troops and at Manchester were the remnants of regiments which had retreated from Hubbardtown. On August 15 Baum came in touch with Stark's forces, but he hesitated to attack and proceeded to intrench. The New England troops gradually encircled the position, and when they attacked on the afternooon of the sixteenth, they killed, wounded, or captured nearly the entire force. While the Americans were engaged in plundering the camp, they were suddenly attacked by another force of six hundred under Breymann, sent by Burgoyne at Baum's request. Things were going badly for Stark's men when Seth Warner with forces from Manchester arrived. After a sharp contest Breymann's troops were driven from the field with a loss of a third of the rank and file. The day's fighting had deprived the invaders of a considerable force which they could not afford to lose in the face of an army which was increasing daily.
Oriskany.—While Burgoyne was advancing, St. Leger was invading the Mohawk Valley. On August 3 his army of British regulars, Hessians, Canadians, Tories, and Indians invested Ft. Stanwix. Colonel Herkimer gathered the Tryon County militia and went to the relief of the fort, but at Oriskany, which was only six miles from the fort, he was surprised. In the desperate battle the losses were higher in proportion to men engaged than in any other battle of the war. Herkimer was killed and so badly cut up were the militia that the expedition was unable to proceed.
Ft. Stanwix relieved.—Schuyler realized the danger of a flank attack from the Mohawk Valley. St. Leger must be checked. Schuyler called for a volunteer to lead a relief expedition. Arnold offered his services and at the head of eight hundred men advanced up the valley. As he proceeded his force was continually increased by recruits. As he approached Ft. Stanwix, Arnold succeeded in creating the impression that his army was of overwhelming numbers. The Senecas were the first to desert St. Leger and the Tories soon made off to the woods. Abandoned by his allies, St. Leger retreated, leaving behind stores, tents, and artillery. The battle of Bennington and the retirement from the Mohawk Valley sealed the fate of Burgoyne.
Gates supersedes Schuyler.—By the middle of August Schuyler had the satisfaction of being in command of a force which outnumbered Burgoyne's army. But on August 19 Horatio Gates arrived at Albany with a commission to take command. Gates was a man of little ability, but of an unscrupulous, intriguing, and ambitious nature. He had spent many months at the seat of government influencing members of Congress, a task made easy by the fact that the New England delegates disliked Schuyler. With victory already assured, Gates came forward to reap the honors. Burgoyne was in a sorry plight. His line of communication was in danger of being cut and his force had been reduced to about six thousand effectives. In vain he looked for despatches from Howe, but though he had sent ten messengers, an ominous silence was his only answer. Two courses were open to him; an ignominious retreat or an advance that at best was but a forlorn hope. Fortunately for the American cause he chose the latter.
First battle of Bemis's Heights, September 19.—On September 13 the British army crossed the Hudson on a bridge of boats and encamped at Saratoga. Six miles to the south was a table land called Bemis's Heights which the Americans had fortified. Between the heights and the river stretched a pasture five hundred yards in width. It was a position easily defended provided Gates extended his left wing. This he failed to do and Burgoyne, quick to see the opportunity for a turning movement, disposed his forces in such a manner that while Philips in command of the British left and Burgoyne in the center engaged the American army, General Fraser on the right could encircle the heights. Arnold saw the danger and besought Gates to let him attack the British right. Gates finally consented and Arnold immediately flung his men against Fraser's position. A confused fight occurred in the tangled underbrush, and though Morgan's riflemen got out of hand, the effect of the attack was to stop Fraser's advance. Having been reinforced, Arnold threw his troops against the British center at Freeman's Farm. A very hot engagement ensued and victory would probably have resulted had Gates engaged Philips, but the American commander failed to attack and the British left came to the assistance of the hard-pressed center. At nightfall Arnold fell back a short distance, but he had saved the American army and had inflicted such great injury that Burgoyne was unable to continue the battle the next day.
Clinton fails to coöperate.—The British commander fortified his position and there his army remained inactive for more than a fortnight. The situation was daily becoming more critical, for Lincoln had succeeded in cutting the line of communication with Canada. A belated despatch had reached Burgoyne informing him of Howe's expedition against Philadelphia. He also received information which led him to believe that Clinton expected to clear the Hudson and come to his relief. Early in October Clinton captured three forts on the lower Hudson, but instead of following up his success, he returned to New York and left the northern army to its fate.
Second battle of Bemis's Heights.—The situation in the American camp was far from harmonious. Gates had not mentioned Arnold's division in his official report of the recent battle. This slight was followed by studied insults and cowardly persecution. The protests of the regimental officers caused Arnold to postpone his resignation, but Gates deprived him of his command and elevated Lincoln. On October 7 Burgoyne again prepared to attack the American lines. His initial assault was repulsed and Fraser was mortally wounded. Soon after the fighting began Arnold put himself at the head of his old troops and broke the British center. The British right wing was also forced back, but Gates did nothing to follow up the advantage. Arnold seized the opportunity and assaulted Freeman's Farm. There he was repulsed but he turned his troops against a redoubt on the right and carried it by assault. The redoubtable general, however, was severely wounded, his thigh bone being shattered, but his generalship had won the battle which broke the British army.
Burgoyne's surrender.—The day after the battle Gates pushed forward his left wing, a movement which threatened to pen Burgoyne between the Hudson and a hostile army. The British commander should have sunk his heavy guns in the river and beaten a hasty retreat, but instead he attempted to save his stores and artillery. He fell back eight miles and took a position on the north bank of Fishkill Creek near Saratoga. Gates threw a force across the Hudson which prevented a crossing, troops were posted on the flank of the British Camp and the main army was drawn up on the south bank of Fishkill Creek. The British were trapped and Burgoyne at last realized that the game was up. On October 13 he called a council of war at which it was decided to negotiate terms. Gates demanded an unconditional surrender, but Burgoyne refused and the next day Gates, who appears neither to have been able to win a battle or to make the most of a fortunate situation created by the bravery and skill of another, agreed that Burgoyne should surrender with the honors of war and that his army should be given free passage to Great Britain upon the condition that they would not serve in North America during the war. Congress, to its shame, did not carry out the agreement and the troops were kept as prisoners in America.
THE CONTEST FOR PHILADELPHIA
Howe moves on Philadelphia.—While the northern army was struggling with Burgoyne, another great contest was taking place in Pennsylvania. Germaine had not given Howe definite orders to coöperate with Burgoyne and, in fact, had approved the proposed expedition against Philadelphia. After the retirement from before Middlebrook, Howe's movements were a mystery to Washington. In July he learned that the British fleet was being prepared for a voyage, but whether the enemy would sail up the Hudson, or strike at Boston, Philadelphia, or Charleston, he could not tell. To forestall an advance northward Washington moved his army toward the New York highlands. On July 31 he heard that the British fleet had appeared in Delaware Bay. Immediately the American army was started for Philadelphia, but before the city was reached the astonishing news came that the fleet had disappeared. Washington immediately went into camp twenty miles north of Philadelphia to await developments. Two weeks later the British fleet sailed into Chesapeake Bay and on August 25 the army, which numbered seventeen thousand, began to disembark at the Head of Elk at the northern end of the bay.
Battle of the Brandywine.—As soon as Washington heard of the British landing, he started his army southward. On August 24 eleven thousand men paraded through the spacious streets of Philadelphia and on September 9 the army was posted on the north bank of the Brandywine. The main road to Philadelphia crossed the stream at Chad's Ford and here Wayne's division was stationed. Below the ford the steep banks were defended by a small force of militia. Above Wayne were Greene's well-drilled brigades, and the right was held by Sullivan. On September 10 Howe concentrated his army at the Kennet Square meeting house, where he divided it into two columns. At four the next morning Cornwallis in command of one column started for the upper fords of the Brandywine; by making this wide detour it was hoped that he could get in the rear of the American right wing. An hour later General von Knyphausen in command of the other column advanced toward Chad's Ford. He drove a small group of skirmishers across the stream, arranged his army as if for an assault, and opened with his artillery. Washington spent the morning in uncertainty, but at length Sullivan sent word that Cornwallis's troops were getting in his rear. Washington immediately ordered him to throw his entire force across the path of the enemy, but the movement was not carried out with precision and soon the wings of Sullivan's force were routed. Stirling, who held the center, made a gallant defence, but with both flanks exposed, he was forced to retire. When Von Knyphausen heard the firing, he advanced across Chad's Ford, and carried Wayne's intrenchments. Washington had ordered Greene to go to Sullivan's assistance. His men covered four miles in about forty minutes and then came into action against Cornwallis's victorious troops. For an hour the battle raged with great intensity, and as darkness set in, Greene drew off his men. His stubborn fight had saved the army, which was brought together at Chester.
Paoli.—Washington moved his army thirty-five miles up the Schuylkill and the British encamped south of the river near Valley Forge. To harass the rear of Howe's army Washington sent Wayne's division across the Schuylkill. At 1 A.M. on September 21 this force was surprised near the Paoli Tavern. The British fell upon the American camp with sword and bayonet, and before the grim work was over Wayne had lost more than three hundred men.
The British in Philadelphia.—On September 23 the British army crossed the Schuylkill and began to advance toward Philadelphia. When the news reached the city a Whig exodus began, probably a third of the population taking their departure. Congress removed the prisoners, archives, and most of the stores; upon Washington it conferred dictatorial powers for sixty days in the vicinity, and then adjourned to Lancaster and later to York. On September 25 Howe entered the capital.
Morristown, New Jersey, to Head of Elk, Maryland (1777) (Based on map in G.O. Trevelyan, The American Revolution, Part. III, op. p. 492).
Germantown.—Within a week Washington was ready to try to retake the city. The approach from the northwest lay through Germantown. In the outskirts Howe had stationed a strong force of infantry. Near the center of the village the fine brick mansion of Benjamin Chew, the Chief Justice of Pennsylvania, formed the pivot of the second line of defence which was commanded by Colonel Musgrave. A mile to the rear lay the bulk of the British army. Washington planned to advance in four columns. Armstrong with the Pennsylvania militia on the right was to get in the rear of the British left. Sullivan commanded the next column to the east and was followed by the reserve under Stirling. A third column was commanded by Greene, and the Maryland and New Jersey militia, forming the fourth column, were to strike the British right. Save for a few shots fired by Armstrong's men, the militia failed to get into the fighting.
The dawn of October 4 broke in a dense fog, which destroyed the possibility of coöperation and led to much confusion. Sullivan's men arrived first and soon drove the British from their advanced position. Then followed an attack which centered at Chew's house where Musgrave and his men had taken refuge. The sound of the firing attracted some of Greene's men who joined in the attack. The brick walls proved too strong for the American three-pounders, and most of the forces of Sullivan and Greene passed on to attack the next line where five brigades of royal troops were drawn up along a narrow lane. The American units became separated, Greene having advanced a considerable distance ahead of Sullivan's troops. Suddenly Sullivan's force broke and fled in an unaccountable panic. This placed Greene in great jeopardy, for his flank was exposed and British reinforcements were approaching, but he coolly saved his men and guns. So heavy were the British losses that no serious attempt was made to follow the retreating army which was able to get away with all its artillery.
Opening the Delaware.—Philadelphia was firmly held by the British but the Delaware was still closed. At Billingsport a fort had been built and an obstruction had been thrown across the river. Another obstruction blocked the passage below Mud Island, on which stood Fort Mifflin and opposite on the Jersey shore was Ft. Mercer. A flotilla of small craft patrolled the Delaware. On October 4 part of Lord Howe's fleet anchored in the river and two days later the obstruction at Billingsport was removed. On October 22 Colonel von Donop attempted to capture Ft. Mercer but he met with a bloody repulse. After this defeat the British proceeded with more caution in the reduction of Ft. Mifflin. Shore batteries were constructed which bombarded Mud Island for days. On November 15 two battleships navigated the difficult channel and soon battered the walls of the fort to pieces. At nightfall the garrison abandoned the fortress. Four days later Ft. Mercer was evacuated when an overwhelming force advanced against it, and on November 21 most of the American vessels were set on fire by their crews. Communication with New York was thus opened and Howe prepared to settle down in Philadelphia for the winter.
Valley Forge.—In marked contrast to the comfort of the British camp was the condition of the American army. Washington had chosen Valley Forge for his winter quarters and there a fortified camp was constructed and rude cabins erected to house the men. The camp soon became a charnel house, for Congress failed to supply the necessary food and clothing, and sickness inevitably resulted. For days the men were without meat and existed on dough baked in the embers. "Fire-cake" and water became the ration for breakfast, dinner, and supper. Blankets were lacking and the men were soon barefooted and in tatters. On Christmas day the winter broke with great severity and soon the hospitals, which were mere hovels unsupplied with beds, were crowded with the dying.
The Conway Cabal.—The anguish of Washington was intensified by an intrigue which threatened to deprive him of his command. This centered about Gates and an Irish soldier of fortune named Conway who had been sent over from France by Silas Deane. In November, 1777, Congress had vested the management of military affairs in a Board of War. Gates was made president of the board and Conway was appointed inspector general of the army. They were supported by the New England delegates in Congress and by those who opposed the Fabian policy of Washington. Fortunately the intrigues of Conway and Gates to displace Washington became known to the public and so great was the popularity of the commander-in-chief that Congress dared not remove him.
READINGS
Charming, Edward, History of the United States, III, 210-273; Fisher, S. G., The Struggle for American Independence, I, 490-574, II, 1-174; Fiske, John, The American Revolution, I, 198-344, II, 25-81, 110-115; Greene, F. V., The Revolutionary War, 28-131; Hildreth, Richard, History of the United States of America, III, 140-162, 186-237; Lecky, W.E.H., History of England in the Eighteenth Century, IV, 1-41, 55-98; Smith, J.H., Our Struggle for the Fourteenth Colony, I, 193-606, II; Trevelyan, G.O., The American Revolution, II, 172-349, III, 1-147, IV, 111-319; Van Tyne, C.H., The American Revolution, 102-135, 157-174, 227-247; Winsor, Justin, Narrative and Critical History, VI, 275-447; Adams, C.F., Studies Military and Diplomatic, 1775-1865, pp. 22-173.
CHAPTER XXVI
THE WAR AS AN INTERNATIONAL CONTEST
THE FRENCH ALLIANCE
The French motives.—On February 6, 1778, France entered into an alliance with the United States. That event changed the war from a struggle between England and her former colonies to an international contest in which Spain and Holland were soon engaged. The motives of France in entering the contest have been variously ascribed to revenge for the loss of her possessions and the desire to regain them, to the intellectual movement in France, to the desire to build up French commerce at the expense of England, and to the fear that Great Britain would adjust the difficulties with the colonies and unite with them in an attack upon the French West Indies. Professor Corwin, who has recently examined the question, concludes that these explanations are not adequate. He contends that the basic principle of French diplomacy was the maintenance of leadership in Europe, and that in return for this commanding position, France was willing to forego the extension of her dominion. In the Seven Years' War French prestige had been destroyed; to rebuild it was the object of her statesmen.
The policy of Vergennes.—In 1774 Louis XVI became king. No better intentioned ruler ever mounted a throne but his weak will and vacillating course led to his undoing. For two years Turgot was the reigning influence at the council board. He installed a system of economy and reform, which, had it been adhered to, would probably have saved France from the throes of her great revolution. Turgot's plans ran counter to the policy of Vergennes, the foreign minister, who desired to see his country take its place in the sun as the dictator of European politics. The attainment of Vergennes's policy was based upon three main ideas: the preservation of peace on the continent by a close alliance with Austria; a renewal of the Family Compact with Spain; and the humbling of England. The last was to be accomplished by the building up of the French navy, by secretly aiding the colonies, and when the time seemed auspicious, by entering into an alliance with them, an alliance in which Vergennes hoped that Spain would join. To win over the latter power and to overcome the aversion of Louis XVI to aiding rebellious subjects were the immediate problems of Vergennes.
Vergennes wins over the king.—A secret agent, Bonvouloir, was sent to America to ascertain the condition of the colonies. His first report, which reached Paris in March, 1776, gave a favorable statement of the military situation. Vergennes immediately attempted to convince the king that secret aid should be given the colonies. He argued that the prolongation of the struggle would be advantageous to France and Spain as it would weaken both contestants, and he pointed out that England would probably attack the French West Indies as soon as the present war was over. Aided by Beaumarchais, the author of Le Mariage de Figaro, Vergennes countered the advice of Turgot and won over the king to his plan.
Deane and Beaumarchais.—The secret committee on foreign correspondence of the Continental Congress in March, 1776, sent Silas Deane to Paris. His presence became known to Lord Stormont, the British ambassador, who demanded his deportation, but France refused and continually aided him in securing supplies. The French government also loaned the colonies a million livres and obtained a similar amount for them from Spain. When news of the Declaration of Independence reached Paris, Vergennes urged that France and Spain enter the war, but Washington's defeats around New York held back both countries. France continued to aid the colonies, the business being transacted by Beaumarchais through the fictitious house of Hortalez et Cie. Beaumarchais also drew heavily upon his private fortune to assist the colonies.
Franklin.—The delay of France in making an open alliance caused Congress to appoint a commission composed of Silas Deane, Arthur Lee, and Benjamin Franklin Of all colonials Franklin was the best known in Europe. As a scientist, philosopher, wit, and statesman, his name was familiar to all classes in the French capital. His unpretentious dress, unaffected manners, and simplicity of life made him seem to Parisians the impersonation of the natural man of Rousseau's philosophy. On the street, at the theater, in the salon, Franklin was the center of interest. Artists made busts of him and jewelers exhibited his countenance on medallions, watches, and snuff-boxes. Franklin soon discovered that he could not hurry matters; he quietly bided his time, never losing an opportunity to win supporters to the American cause. Even the court became enthusiastic, and Marie Antoinette, with little understanding or prophetic vision, applauded the republicans of America.
The American proposals.—In January, 1777, the commissioners presented their views to Vergennes. They proposed that France and Spain furnish the United States eight ships of the line, twenty or thirty thousand stand of arms, and a large quantity of cannon and ammunition. Congress in return offered the two nations a commercial treaty and a guarantee of their possessions in the West Indies. Vergennes was unable to comply but he advanced two hundred and fifty thousand livres as the first instalment of a secret loan of two millions. In February the commissioners suggested that, if France and Spain became involved in war because of a treaty with the United States, the states would not conclude a separate peace. In March they proposed a triple alliance between France, Spain, and the United States. The bait for Spain was the conquest of Portugal, and the war was to continue until England was expelled from North America and the West Indies.
The attitude of Spain.—The American proposals included both France and Spain, and in the latter country the commissioners met with a stumbling block. Spain at first showed a friendly attitude. Through the firm of Josef Gardoqui and Sons supplies were secretly furnished to the United States, but when Arthur Lee attempted to go to Madrid, he was turned back by the Spanish authorities, who preferred to work in secret. In February, 1777, the Count de Florida Blanca became minister of foreign affairs. To Florida Blanca Spain's interests must take precedence over those of France in determining Spanish policy. Difficulties with Portugal had been adjusted, and Florida Blanca could see no advantage in an immediate war with Great Britain. He was willing to keep the contest in America going until both parties were exhausted. Then Spain and France might enter the war, Spain to get the Floridas and France to obtain Canada. But as to the recognition of American independence, king and minister were unalterably opposed.
Lafayette.—Of no little importance in bringing France and the United States together was the coming of the young nobleman Lafayette to America. Fired by the Declaration of Independence, he determined to enlist in the American cause. In April, 1777, Lafayette with the Baron de Kalb and several other officers sailed for America. They reached Philadelphia on July 27 but Congress gave them a chilly reception. Nothing daunted, Lafayette proudly announced that he asked nothing but the opportunity of serving as a volunteer. Congress was deeply impressed by his unselfish attitude and promptly made him a Major-General. Washington received him gladly, took him into his military family and through the long war, with the exception of a period when he was promoting American interests in France, he served as a trusted officer of the commander-in-chief.
The French alliance.—During the summer of 1777 the American question was held in abeyance at Paris but Burgoyne's surrender stirred Vergennes to action. He appears to have feared that Great Britain was about to effect a reconciliation with the United States. To prevent it he believed that France must openly espouse the American cause. One more effort was made to draw Spain into the alliance, but the reply proved unfavorable. On January 7, 1778, at a French royal council meeting the final decision was made and on February 6 treaties of commerce and alliance were signed. The latter agreement was described as a defensive alliance to maintain effectually the liberty, sovereignty, and independence of the United States, as well in matters of government as in commerce.
Lord North attempts conciliation.—When news of Burgoyne's surrender reached London, hope of subduing the rebellion by force was temporarily abandoned and Lord North was empowered to try his hand at conciliation. On February 17, 1778, the Prime Minister presented his plan to the Commons. He proposed (1) the repeal of the tea duty, (2) the passage of an act removing apprehension regarding parliamentary taxation of the colonies, (3) opening the port of Boston, (4) restoration of the Massachusetts charter, (5) opening the fisheries, (6) restoration of commerce, and (7) full pardon to those engaged in rebellion. (8) Prisoners charged with treason were not to be brought over the sea for trial, and (9) no bill for changing a colonial constitution was to be introduced in parliament except at the request of the colony involved. (10) Regulation of colonial courts was to follow colonial opinion, and (11) officials were to be elected by popular vote subject, however, to the approval of the king. (12) The royal treasury was to assist in the withdrawal of colonial currency, and (13) a promise was given that the question of colonial representation in parliament would be considered.
The Carlisle Commission.—A royal commission was to visit America to settle points in dispute. Headed by the Earl of Carlisle, the commission proceeded to Philadelphia but it was soon discovered that nothing could be accomplished. General Howe had been recalled and Clinton, who was placed in command, was under orders to evacuate Philadelphia. The alliance with France was already known in America and nothing short of a recognition of independence would satisfy the Whig leaders.
Change in British plans.—The French alliance brought about a complete change in British plans. Henceforth garrisons were to be kept in New York, Newport, Canada, and the Floridas, and hostilities on the mainland were to be devoted to the destruction of coastwise trade and coast towns, and to the harassing of the frontiers by Indian raids. Attacks in force were to be made on the French possessions in the West Indies.
Evacuation of Philadelphia and the battle of Monmouth.—In pursuance of this plan in May, '78, the British prepared to evacuate Philadelphia. General Howe returned to England and Clinton took command. Most of the stores, some of the troops, and about three thousand Loyalists were placed on transports, and the main army on June 18 started on its march across New Jersey. Washington succeeded in getting in touch with the British army ten days later at Monmouth. Clinton's forces were stretched out to such an extent that it was difficult to bring them into action. Washington sent Lee to attack, but after a slight demonstration, the poltroon ordered a retreat. Lee's cowardice gave the British time to form and a bloody battle followed which ended only with nightfall. In the darkness the British army broke camp and when morning dawned it was beyond the reach of Washington.
The coming of D'Estaing.—On April 15 Admiral D'Estaing sailed from Toulon in command of twelve ships of the line and five frigates which carried four thousand infantry. The voyage was pursued in a leisurely fashion which gave Lord Howe time to get his transports out of the Delaware and concentrate the fleet at New York. It also made it possible for a reinforcement under Commodore Byron to arrive in American waters. Not until July 8 was D'Estaing's fleet within the Delaware capes. After landing Gérard, the French minister, the admiral proceeded to New York. Though the French fleet was superior to the British, D'Estaing failed to attack.
The failure at Newport.—Instead he entered into a plan with Washington to take Newport which was garrisoned by five or six thousand British troops. Sullivan, with about a thousand continental soldiers and several thousand militia, was to coöperate with the French fleet. The opening was auspicious. The war vessels ran by the batteries and anchored in the inner waters. The British commander to prevent capture destroyed several frigates and small craft. On August 9 Sullivan moved nine thousand troops to the island. The same day Howe's fleet appeared at the entrance of Narragansett Bay and D'Estaing, carrying his infantry with him, sailed out to meet the enemy. Before the fleets could engage a terrific storm arose which scattered the vessels. Howe finally regained New York and D'Estaing sailed to Boston for repairs, leaving Sullivan unsupported and in a precarious position. When word came that Clinton was sending large reinforcements, Sullivan abandoned the siege.
D'Estaing in the West Indies.—D'Estaing lingered at Boston ten weeks and then sailed for the West Indies. Before his arrival a French force from Martinique had captured Dominica. The English retaliated by capturing St. Lucia, and when D'Estaing attempted to relieve it, he was replused. On June 18, 1779, the French occupied St. Vincent and on July 2 Grenada. On July 6 Byron attacked the French fleet off Grenada, but D'Estaing had the better of the fighting although he failed to follow up his victory. After attempting the relief of Savannah, the French commander despatched part of his fleet to the West Indies and then sailed for Europe.
Stony Point and the evacuation of Newport.—After the Newport failure Washington drew a cordon about New York and strengthened the line of the Hudson. On May 31, 1779, Clinton seized the fortifications at Stony Point and Verplanck's Point, but on July 16 General Wayne carried the works at Stony Point. Clinton also sent raiding parties to the Chesapeake and along the Connecticut coast, but in October he ordered the evacuation of Newport and concentrated his forces at New York.
The second French expedition.—Washington still hoped for effective help from the French fleet in the West Indies, but his hopes were blasted early in 1780 by the arrival in the islands of British naval reinforcements under Admiral Rodney, who during April and May fought three indecisive actions with the French fleet. Largely through the influence of Lafayette France was induced to send a large force to America in 1780. In July a fleet of seven vessels convoying six thousand men commanded by Rochambeau arrived at Newport. The second division, however, was blockaded at Brest and was unable to sail. Washington's hopes mounted high but they were soon dashed again, for Clinton, who had just returned to New York after the capture of Charleston, was able to send a considerable armament to blockade the French at Newport, and there they remained for months to come.
Arnold's treason.—During the long contest Washington had often been disappointed by the incompetence of his subordinates, but Nathanael Greene and Benedict Arnold had seldom been found wanting. The former was soon to win fame as the conqueror of the South; the other chose a path which made his name despised. Arnold had not been justly treated by Congress, although he had the absolute confidence of Washington. Brooding over his wrongs and convinced that the country would welcome the reëstablishment of the king's authority, he determined to play the part of a General Monk. While in command of Philadelphia, he entered into a treasonable correspondence with Clinton. He then asked for the command of the great fortress at West Point. This was readily given to him and there he perfected his plans to deliver this key position of the Hudson to the British. Clinton sent Major André to communicate with Arnold, but upon his return on September 23, 1780, André was captured and on his person were found papers which disclosed the plot. André was condemned and hung as a spy, but Arnold made good his escape to the British lines.
THE WAR IN THE WEST
Competition for the support of the Indians.—The westward movement across the mountains was almost simultaneous with the outbreak of the Revolution, and the western settlements were soon drawn into the current. The frontiersmen held back the Indian allies of the British, and by settlement and conquest secured large areas of the back country. At the opening of the war both British and Americans made great efforts to secure the support of the Indians, but in the main the tribes favored the British who did not encroach upon their lands and whose posts on the frontiers were centers for the distribution of presents and for the work of the traders. During the war British agents were kept at work among the tribes, distributing presents and weapons, and often leading the Indian raids.
The Cherokee War.—In the summer of 1776 the Cherokee went on the warpath. From their villages in the southern Alleghanies they were in a position to raid the frontier settlements of Georgia, the Carolinas, Virginia, and Tennessee. The Cherokee towns were in three groups. The upper towns inhabited by the Overhill Cherokee were along the mountain streams that ran into the Tennessee. The lower towns were in the foothills of the back country of Georgia and South Carolina. In the mountainous region between were the middle towns. During June and July Cherokee war parties, at times assisted by Creeks and Tories, fell upon the Georgia and Carolina frontiers and upon the Watauga settlements. The Georgia invaders were met by Colonel Samuel Jack at the head of two hundred rangers who drove them back and destroyed one or two of the lower towns. In North Carolina the Indians came down the Catawba and drove the settlers into the blockhouses. General Griffith Rutherford raised the frontier levies and chased the Indians back to their villages. In South Carolina the Cherokees from the lower and middle towns, aided by Tories and led by the British agent, Cameron, descended upon the settlements. Colonel Andrew Williamson collected eleven hundred militia, defeated the invaders, and by the middle of August destroyed the lower towns. In July seven hundred Overhill Cherokee raided the Watauga settlements. One party under Chief Dragging Canoe attacked the settlers about Eaton's Station, but the frontiersmen sallied forth and defeated the Indians at Island Flats. For three weeks Fort Watauga was invested by another band, but so stubborn was the defence conducted by Robertson and Sevier that the Indians abandoned the siege. The Carolinians and Virginians determined to carry the war into the enemy's country. In September Rutherford and Williamson completely destroyed the valley towns of the Cherokee; and in October Colonel William Christian led the Virginia troops into the Overhill country, destroyed the principal village, and brought the warriors to terms.
Indian raids in the Northwest, 1776-1778.—In the Northwest the memory of the Battle of the Kanawha kept the Indians quiet for a time while the diplomats struggled for mastery. Colonel George Morgan was made congressional agent at Fort Pitt, while Hamilton at Detroit was the most active British agent on that frontier. In the fall of 1776 Hamilton sent raiding parties along the border. During 1777 the frontiers of Pennsylvania, Virginia, and Kentucky were kept in a state of terror. Colonel Morgan urged an expedition against Detroit, and when his advice was rejected, he resigned. Governor Patrick Henry sent Virginia militia to relieve Kentucky and Congress sent General Hand to defend the upper Ohio. Hand and his successor, McIntosh, had little success, for the raids continued and by the end of 1778 Kentucky was nearly depopulated.
Willing's raids.—In 1777 James Willing, a former resident of Natchez, obtained permission from Congress to make an expedition down the Mississippi to secure the neutrality of the Tories in the Southwest. Descending the Ohio from Pittsburg, his expedition became a raid on the Loyalist plantations along the Mississippi. Far from having the desired effect, the raid drove the inhabitants into active resistance. In May Willing led a second expedition down the Mississippi but he failed to win over the inhabitants. The Chickasaw and Choctaw went over to the British side. The Southwest had thus definitely taken its stand against the United States.
Clark conquers the Northwest.—To Virginia fell the task of conquering the Northwest. The chief actor in the enterprise was George Rogers Clark, who, though only twenty-six, had already played a prominent part in Kentucky. With one hundred and seventy-five frontiersmen, mainly Virginians, in June, 1778, Clark descended the Ohio to Fort Massac, crossed Illinois, and in July took Kaskaskia, Prairie du Rocher, St. Philippe, and Cahokia, and French sympathizers secured the submission of Vincennes. Hamilton at once organized a force at Detroit to retake the lost posts. In December he occupied Vincennes without difficulty, but was unable to proceed farther. In February, 1779, after a difficult march over flooded prairies, Clark captured Hamilton and his force. In December, 1778 the Virginia legislature erected the territory north of the Ohio into the county of Illinois, John Todd being made civil and Clark military head. Clark planned the capture of Detroit, but was unable to get the necessary aid. Instead, in 1780 he founded Fort Jefferson on the Mississippi near the mouth of the Ohio and it soon became the center of a settled area.
Depredations of the Iroquois and Tories.—On the New York frontier Burgoyne's invasion had aroused the Iroquois and even after his defeat the Six Nations, except the Tuscaroras, Oneidas, and part of the Mohawks, adhered to the British. Many Tory refugees settled among the Indians and incited them to go on the warpath. In July, 1778, a force of Tories and Iroquois, mainly Senecas, descended into the Wyoming Valley and laid it waste, killing and capturing many of the inhabitants. Continental troops presently reoccupied the valley and in October the Indian town of Unadilla. The Indians and Tories retaliated by a descent on Cherry Valley. The depredations continued in 1779. Troops sent out from Ft. Stanwix destroyed the Onondaga villages. The Indians then assailed the Schoharie Valley and the western settlements in Ulster County, and spread destruction about Pittsburg.
Expeditions sent into the Iroquois country.—So extensive were the depredations that Congress decided to send an overwhelming force into the Iroquois country. Three brigades from Washington's army were assembled at Wyoming under Sullivan. While he was waiting for a New York brigade to join him, Chief Brant and his warriors burned Minisink and ambushed the militia who went in pursuit. Sullivan at the head of five thousand men passed up the Chemung branch of the Susquehanna, defeated a strong force of Indians and Tories on the site of modern Elmira, and then burned eighteen Indian villages and destroyed the crops. Sullivan, however, failed to attack Niagara which was a British stronghold. Another expedition from Pittsburg ascended the Alleghany and destroyed the Indian villages along the river. These operations scattered the Indians and Tories but did not destroy them, and frequent depredations occurred on the New York and Pennsylvania frontiers during the remainder of the war.
SPAIN IN THE WAR
Spain enters the war.—When Spain became a factor in the war in 1779, a new element entered the contest in the West. During 1778 Vergennes did not relax his efforts to induce Spain to become a belligerent. But Carlos III and Florida Blanca had no intention of risking a war with Great Britain unless they were well paid for their assistance. Not until they were certain that France would assist in the recovery of Gibraltar and the Floridas did they consent to make war. On another point the king was insistent; he refused to recognize the independence of the United States. The secret convention of Aranjuez between France and Spain was signed on April 12, 1779, and in June Spain definitely entered the war.
Gálvez on the lower Mississippi.—Orders were given at once to seize the British posts on the Mississippi. With a hastily built fleet, Bernardo de Gálvez, the Governor of Louisiana, ascended the Mississippi at the head of fifteen hundred men. On September 7 he took Fort Bute at Manchac, and then proceeded to Baton Rouge which he captured, the capitulation including Fort Panmure at Natchez. Meanwhile Grandpré had taken two small British outposts and a fleet had captured eight British vessels on Lake Pontchartrain.
[1] See map on page 400.
British attack on St. Louis.—As soon as war was declared, the British planned to capture New Orleans. An expedition from the north was to descend the Mississippi, attack St. Louis, reconquer the Illinois country, and meet General Campbell at Natchez with a force from Pensacola. The campaign against St. Louis was directed by Sinclair, commander at Mackinac. Emmanuel Hesse, a trader, was sent to assemble a force of Indians at the Fox-Wisconsin portage. In March, 1780, seven hundred and fifty men left Mackinac and joined Hesse at Prairie du Chien. To coöperate Charles Langlade was sent with Indians via Chicago, while Captain Bird, despatched from Detroit, was to raid Kentucky. None of the plans succeeded. Leyba, the commander at St. Louis, was forewarned and was aided by George Rogers Clark. On May 26 the British attacked St. Louis but were repulsed and forced to withdraw. Bird's expedition also miscarried, and Campbell's movement was frustrated by Gálvez.
The Spanish expedition against St. Joseph.—Sinclair at once planned a second expedition for the spring of 1781. Learning of the project, Cruzat, the new commander at St. Louis, prepared a counter stroke. He despatched parties up the Mississippi and to Peoria, and sent sixty-five men under Purée to destroy the stores at St. Joseph. On February 12 the post was taken in a surprise attack and the stores destroyed.
Capture of Mobile and Pensacola.—Meanwhile more important events had been taking place on the Gulf of Mexico. In February, 1780, Gálvez sailed from New Orleans with two thousand men to capture Fort Charlotte at Mobile, and on March 14 the place capitulated. Going to Cuba for reinforcements, after losing one fleet in a hurricane, in February, 1781, he sailed with fourteen hundred men to attack Pensacola. After a siege of nearly two months, General Campbell with more than eight hundred men surrendered. A simultaneous French and Spanish attack on Jamaica was next planned, and Gálvez sailed for Santo Domingo to command the Spanish forces, but the campaign was made unnecessary by the ending of the war. Spain had played an important part. She had defeated the British attempt to gain control of the Mississippi, had enabled Clark to maintain his hold on the Northwest, and had recovered Mobile and Pensacola.
THE WAR ON THE SEA AND THE DUTCH ALLIANCE
Washington's fleets.—From the beginning of the war American vessels were an important factor. They captured supply ships and transports, harassed commerce, captured many small war vessels, and protected trading vessels. At the opening of hostilities Washington turned to New England to supply him with vessels, and during the siege of Boston he sent out ten armed craft which made several important captures of arms and supplies. When operations were transferred to New York, he also engaged several vessels which rendered good service.
Congress provides a navy.—Largely through the influence of the Rhode Island delegates, Congress was convinced that a navy should be provided, and by January, 1776, ten vessels had been purchased and the building of thirteen others authorized. Before the end of the war over forty vessels were added to the high seas fleet in addition to minor craft on Lake Champlain.
First cruise of the fleet.—In February, 1776, Esek Hopkins, who had been appointed commander-in-chief of the navy, put to sea with a fleet of eight vessels. He cruised to the West Indies, captured New Providence, and sailed away with eighty-eight cannon, fifteen mortars, and a large quantity of stores. The fleet sailed to Long Island and off the eastern end it captured two small vessels, but on April 6 it allowed the Glasgow to escape.
Nature of the operations during 1776-1777.—By the end of 1776 the navy had been increased to twenty-five vessels. During the year it was constantly engaged in commerce destroying, and in capturing transports and small war craft. The operations were confined mainly to American and West Indian waters, although before the end of the year the Reprisal, which carried Franklin to France, had captured several vessels in European waters. During 1777 the congressional vessels, privateers, and state cruisers captured four hundred and sixty-seven vessels, many being taken near the British Isles. The depredations caused great alarm in England and the West Indies; merchants were often deterred from shipping goods, insurance rates and prices rose, and the demands for escorts became insistent.
Privateers.—The swift sailing craft of the Yankee skippers made ideal blockade runners and commerce destroyers, and hundreds of them put to sea. During the war Massachusetts commissioned nine hundred and ninety-eight. While the greater number of these vessels put out from New England, other states gave many commissions, Maryland alone commissioning two hundred and fifty. It is estimated that during the war the privateers captured or destroyed six hundred vessels with cargoes valued at $18,000,000, besides making several important captures of troops and supplies.
State navies.—With the exception of New Jersey and Delaware, the states had navies, the largest being those of Massachusetts, Connecticut, Pennsylvania, Maryland, Virginia, and South Carolina. At times these operated independently, sometimes in conjunction with privateers, and at other times as adjuncts of the regular navy. They were used chiefly to protect the trade in home waters and for coast defence.
The Penobscot expedition.—The most pretentious operation undertaken by a state navy was the attempt to capture Penobscot in 1779. The British had established a naval base near the mouth of the Penobscot River and Massachusetts determined to break it up. Fifteen hundred men were loaded on privateers and transports, and were convoyed by the Warren, the Diligent, and the Providence. The expedition arrived off the Penobscot late in July, but before it could take the fort, a larger British fleet appeared (August 13). The privateers and transports scattered, but the three war vessels were forced to run up the river where their crews destroyed them.
The navy during 1778-1779.—During 1778 the British navy succeeded in greatly decreasing the depredations of American vessels. By the close of the year the national navy was reduced to fourteen. But in 1779 the fleet was somewhat rehabilitated by the securing of several French vessels.
The Bonhomme Richard and the Serapis.—In 1779 the most famous sea-fight of the Revolution occurred. John Paul Jones was given command of an old French East Indiaman which was refitted with forty-two guns and renamed the Bonhomme Richard. In August the French frigate Alliance and three small vessels accompanied the Bonhomme Richard on a cruise along the west coast of Ireland, northern Scotland, and the eastern coast of England, several prizes being taken. On September 23 off Flamborough Head Jones sighted a large merchant fleet convoyed by the forty-four gun frigate Serapis and the smaller Countess of Scarborough. The Bonhomme Richard engaged the Serapis in one of the most thrilling of naval battles. For three and a half hours the frigates fought at close range, much of the time being lashed together. Although Jones's vessel was in a sinking condition, he refused to surrender. When the English captain had lost more than a third of his crew, he pulled down his flag. The Pallas captured the Countess of Scarborough. Jones placed his crew on board the Serapis, and the squadron soon after arrived at the Dutch port of Texel.
Decline of the navy.—When Charleston surrendered in 1780, four ships fell into British hands and only six vessels were left in the American navy. At the same time parliament voted to increase the naval service. The American coast was closely blockaded, and though cruisers occasionally got through, the navy ceased to be an important factor in the war.
The league of armed neutrals.—As the war progressed England's exercise of the right of search on the high seas provoked the neutral powers. At that time international law recognized a belligerent's right to seize enemy's goods, but not the vessel in which they were being carried. England acted within the law, but her seizures worked great hardship upon neutrals. Largely through the influence of Frederick the Great, who had not forgiven England for abandoning him in the Seven Years' War, Catherine II of Russia was induced to champion the cause of the neutral states. On February 26, 1780, she addressed a message to the neutral courts which asserted, (1) that neutral vessels should be allowed to navigate freely even upon the coasts of powers at war; (2) that, with the exception of contraband, goods belonging to the subjects of belligerents should be free in neutral ships; (3) that naval stores and provisions of neutrals should not be considered contraband; (4) that a port must be effectively guarded to constitute a blockade; and (5) that the above principles should be considered as rules in determining the legality of prizes. Denmark and Sweden promptly entered into an agreement with Russia mutually to protect their commerce, by force if necessary, the arrangement being known as the League of Armed Neutrality. The principles proclaimed by the Czarina were approved by France and Spain. The Netherlands joined the league in November, 1780; Prussia came in in May, 1781, and the Empire in October. Even Portugal, the ancient ally of England, and Turkey became parties to the league.
Attitude of the Netherlands.—At the opening of the American Revolution there were two parties in The Netherlands; the English party headed by the stadtholder, William V, and the Anti-Orange party which had strong French leanings. The strength of the Anti-Orange party lay chiefly in Holland and in the large cities, especially in Amsterdam where the great merchants were powerful. The Dutch people watched the contest between the United States and Great Britain with a filial interest, looking upon it as a counterpart of their own struggle for independence, but policy forced the government to remain neutral.
St Eustatius.—The Dutch merchants saw an opportunity for immense profits in supplying the United States with war materials. The Dutch island of St. Eustatius in the West Indies became the center for a vast trade in contraband goods. The island became a veritable storehouse for the goods of all nations and here the American skippers brought tobacco and indigo, or gave promissory notes or continental currency in exchange for munitions of war. Great Britain complained of the trade and succeeded in getting the States General to prohibit the export of arms and munitions except by special permission from the Dutch admiralty, but nevertheless the traffic went merrily on. When British war vessels began to patrol the waters about the island and search vessels for contraband, it aroused the ire of the Dutch merchants.
The Scotch brigade and the Jones incident.—Two incidents added greatly to the ill-feeling which was growing rapidly between the two countries. The British government asked for the loan of the Scotch brigade, a body of troops which had been in Dutch service for many years. The government gave a suave answer. It was willing to loan the soldiers, but not for service outside of Europe. As George III wanted the troops for American service, the answer was practically a refusal. Another incident which increased the irritation was the sojourn of John Paul Jones at Texel. For over two months he remained on Dutch soil, while the government quibbled over its rights to order his departure.
British seizures.—During 1778 British seizures of Dutch vessels increased and the demands of the merchants for convoys became more and more insistent. France took advantage of the situation to bring The Netherlands to her side. Special commercial privileges in France had been granted to several of the Dutch cities. France now decided to force the Dutch government to take a more decided stand toward England by cutting off the special privileges to all the Dutch cities except Amsterdam. This led to a demand for an immediate adjustment with France and for convoys to protect Dutch vessels against British seizures. A climax was reached on December 31, 1779, when an encounter occurred between the convoys of a Dutch fleet and British war vessels. The result was soon evident, for The Netherlands began to build a large fleet.
The secret agreement.—The United States maintained secret agents in The Netherlands throughout the war. For several years they made unsuccessful attempts to obtain a loan, but the authorities of Amsterdam finally communicated to C.W.F. Dumas, the United States representative, that they desired to conclude a treaty provided Congress would not enter into engagements with Great Britain which might prove harmful to Dutch interests. Jean de Neufville, a prominent Amsterdam merchant, at the suggestion of Van Berckel, the pensionary of Amsterdam, visited Aix-la-Chapelle in 1778, where he met William Lee, an American representative to Germany and Austria; together they formulated the draft of a treaty which, however, was not to be considered until after the recognition of American independence by Great Britain. The agreement had no legal force, for Amsterdam could not enter into a treaty without the consent of the other provinces.
The declaration of war.—In 1780 Henry Laurens sailed for The Hague for the purpose of negotiating a loan and making a treaty with The Netherlands. On September 3 he was captured off Newfoundland. Among his papers was a copy of the secret compact drawn by Neufville and Lee. The British government demanded from the States General a disavowal of the action of Amsterdam and the punishment of Van Berckel. The States General finally disavowed the act but declared its incompetence to punish Van Berckel. On November 20, in the midst of the controversy, the States General decided to join the league of armed neutrals. When this became known at London, the British minister was ordered home, and on December 20 George III issued a manifesto which was a virtual declaration of war.
READINGS
THE FRENCH AND SPANISH ALLIANCES
Corwin, E.S., French Policy and the American Alliance of 1778, pp. 1-216; Hale, E.E., Franklin in France; Lecky, W.E.H., History of England in the Eighteenth Century, IV, 42-54, 99-129, 166-185; Perkins, J.B., France in the American Revolution; Phillips, P.C., The West in the Diplomacy of the American Revolution; Trescot, W.H., Diplomacy of the American Revolution; Trevelyan, G.O., The American Revolution, Part II, 387-476; Van Tyne, C.H., The American Revolution, 203-226; Wharton, F., The Revolutionary Diplomatic Correspondence of the United States, I.
THE WEST IN THE REVOLUTION
Alvord, C.W., "Virginia and the West," in Mississippi Valley Historical Review, III, 19-38; Alvord, C.W., ed., Kaskaskia Records, 1778-1700, Introduction; Gayarré, C, History of Louisiana, the Spanish Domination, ch. 3; Hamilton, P.J., Colonial Mobile, ch. 31; Hamilton, P.J., The Colonization of the South, ch. 23; James, J.A.,.ed., George Rogers Clark Papers, 1771-1781, Introduction; Roosevelt, Theodore, The Winning of the West, I, 272-327, II, 1-213; Teggart, F.J., "The Capture of St. Joseph, Michigan, by the Spaniards in 1781," in Missouri Historical Review, V, 214-228; Thwaites, R.G., and Kellogg, L.P., editors, Frontier Defense on the Upper Ohio, 1778, Introduction and maps; The Revolution on the Upper Ohio, 1775-1777, Introduction and maps; Van Tyne, C.H., The American Revolution, 269-288; Winsor, Justin, The Westward Movement, 101-187; Esarey, L., A History of Indiana, I, 47-91; McElroy, R.M., Kentucky in the Nation's History, 62-113.
THE NAVY, ARMED NEUTRALITY, AND DUTCH INTERVENTION
Clowes, W.L., The Royal Navy, L.H., 353-538; Edler, F., The Dutch Republic and the American Revolution (Johns Hopkins University, Studies in History and Political Science, XXIX, 187-424); Jameson, J.F., "St. Eustatius in the American Revolution," in The American Historical Review, VIII, 683-708; Maclay, E.S., A History of American Privateers, 43-222; A History of the United States Navy, I, 34-151; Paullin, C.O., The Navy of the American Revolution; Trevelyan, G.O., George the Third and Charles Fox, II, 36-72; Van Loon, H.W., The Fall of the Dutch Republic, 174-287; Van Tyne, C.H., The American Revolution, 309-319.
CHAPTER XXVII
THE CLOSING YEARS OF THE REVOLUTION (1778-1781)
THE WAR IN THE SOUTH
Conquest of Georgia.—When France became the ally of the United States, British statesmen realized that the conquest of New England and the middle states was impossible, but they still hoped to conquer the South. From East Florida the British forces could strike at Georgia, and in November, 1778, the operations began. Thirty-five hundred men were sent south from New York, and General Prévost with two thousand soldiers advanced from Florida. On December 29 British forces captured Savannah and shortly afterward occupied Augusta. Within six weeks Georgia was under British control.
Reconquest fails.—General Lincoln, who had been placed in command in the South, determined to reconquer Georgia. He sent Ashe with fifteen hundred men to recapture Augusta, but the force was surprised and defeated. When Lincoln moved against Augusta, Prévost advanced against Charleston. The manœuvre succeeded and Lincoln was forced to hasten back to assist in the defence of the city. Prévost, his purpose accomplished, slowly retired to Savannah. Numerous letters were sent to the French admiral asking him to coöperate against the British. In September, 1779, D'Estaing sailed for Savannah; Lincoln advanced to assist him, and the city was besieged. On October 9 an attempt was made to carry the works by assault, but the allies were repulsed with a loss of over eight hundred men. Lincoln wished to continue the siege but D'Estaing refused. Despatching a portion of his fleet to the West Indies, with the rest he sailed for France, and Lincoln withdrew to Charleston.
Capture of Charleston.—With Georgia secure, Clinton determined to make another attempt to capture Charleston. He sailed from New York with over eight thousand men, and twelve hundred were brought from Savannah. On February 11, 1780, the troops from New York were landed thirty miles south of Charleston and they soon advanced to the Ashley River. Lincoln should have abandoned the city but instead he foolishly determined to defend it. Gradually Clinton drew his lines about the city. On April 13 Tarleton defeated the American cavalry which had kept the lines of communication open, and when British reinforcements arrived from New York the investment was completed. Soon the garrison and inhabitants were almost starving. On May 6 Tarleton dispersed the mounted militia at the crossing of the Santee River; on the following day Fort Moultrie surrendered, and the situation became hopeless. On May 12 Lincoln signed articles of capitulation; over five thousand men, nearly four hundred pieces of artillery, and vast quantities of military stores fell into British hands.
Completion of the conquest of South Carolina.—After the fall of Charleston, Clinton sent out three expeditions; one northward under Tarleton against Buford's regiment which was advancing from Virginia, another toward Augusta, and a third toward Camden. Buford started to retreat but Tarleton overtook him at the Waxhaws and almost annihilated his force. The other expeditions met with little resistance and Clinton, believing that the conquest of South Carolina was complete, sailed for New York with a portion of the army, leaving Cornwallis in command of about eight thousand men.
Gathering of a new army.—Several weeks before the fall of Charleston, Washington had sent DeKalb southward with Maryland and Delaware regiments and these were reinforced by militia as they advanced. South of the Virginia line they passed through a barren country, shortage of supplies and poor roads making their progress very slow. At the Deep River they encamped and there they were joined by Gates who had been appointed by Congress to the command of the southern department. Gates pressed on toward Camden, receiving local reinforcements as he advanced.
Camden.—A British force had collected at Camden and Cornwallis hastened from Charleston to take command. Gates decided to attempt a surprise attack on the British force at Camden, thirteen miles away. Cornwallis contemplated a similar movement against Gates and the two armies left their encampments about the same hour on the night of August 15. At daybreak they met, but the militia proved to be no match for the British soldiers and fled almost without firing a shot. The regulars stood firm for a time, but when DeKalb fell mortally wounded and Tarleton's cavalry swept along their flank and rear, the line gave way and the retreat turned into a rout. Gates fled from the field and such was his haste that three days later he was at Hillsborough, nearly two hundred miles away. Shortly afterward Tarleton surprised and dispersed Sumter's band, and resistance seemed completely broken.
The War in the South (1778-1781) (Based on E.G. Foster, Illustrative Historical Chart).
Partisan warfare.—British arms had defeated the American armies, but the people of South Carolina were not conquered. The merciless raids of Tarleton's cavalry and Ferguson's Loyalists kept the spirit of resistance alive. Marion, Sumter, and Shelby gathered bands of patriots, who from swamp and forest pounced down on isolated detachments, captured the escorts of supply trains, intercepted messengers, and broke up companies of Loyalists. Between July and December, 1780, twenty-seven battles or skirmishes were fought on Carolina soil.
King's Mountain.—Next to Tarleton, Major Ferguson was probably the most hated and most feared of Cornwallis's officers. His camp at Ninety-Six became a center of Loyalist recruiting, and his band of partisans grew to a thousand strong. They lived on the country, and the property of no man was safe. Ferguson boasted that if the frontiersmen from over the Alleghanies troubled him, he would cross the mountains, lay waste their valleys, and hang their leaders. On September 20, 1780, the borderers under the leadership of Colonel William Campbell, Sevier, and Shelby gathered at Sycamore Shoals on the Watauga River and started across the mountains. Ferguson heard of their coming and decided to teach the frontiersmen a lesson. He pitched his camp on the crest of King's Mountain, a position which would have been impregnable had his opponents been drilled in the tactics of European battlefields. But the Watauga men had been schooled in Indian warfare. Three times they charged up the steep mountain sides. After an hour of hot fighting the resistance began to weaken, and when Ferguson was killed, his troops threw down their arms and asked for quarter. The victory of the mountaineers is justly looked upon as the turning point in the war in the South, for it gave new fife to the waning cause in the Carolinas.
Greene in command.—The difficult task of reconquering the South was assigned to General Nathanael Greene. On December 2 he arrived at Charlotte where Gates handed over to him a poorly disciplined and half-starved force of about two thousand men. With this insignificant army and aided by local militia and the partisan bands, Greene was confronted with the task of reconquering a province which was occupied by a skillful general whose veteran army outnumbered him four to one. His plan of campaign was matured with rare judgment. He proposed to use a mobile force of about two thousand men to keep Cornwallis busy, while Marion and Sumter harassed the enemy, prevented foraging, and broke up convoys.
The Cowpens.—Early in January, 1781, the main British army was at Winnsborough. Hoping to divide it, Greene sent Morgan with about a thousand men to threaten Augusta and Ninety-Six. The rest of the American army was stationed at Cheraw, sixty miles east of Winnsborough. When Cornwallis heard of Morgan's raid, he sent Tarleton in pursuit with eleven hundred men. Tarleton came in touch with Morgan at The Cowpens. The battle at first was stoutly contested, but Colonel Washington's cavalry turned the scale and Tarleton's force was almost annihilated.
Greene's retreat.—Morgan had accomplished his purpose and immediately started to rejoin the main army. When Greene heard of the victory, he realized that Cornwallis would retaliate, and a pitched battle with the larger British army meant disaster. Furthermore reinforcements were on their way from Virginia and Maryland. Greene's decision was a vital one. He determined to fall back to make a juncture with Morgan and to draw Cornwallis away from his base into a hostile and difficult country. Turning over the command of the main army to Huger with orders to march northward with all speed, Greene rode nearly a hundred and fifty miles in a pouring rain and joined Morgan in his bivouac on the Catawba. He had judged Cornwallis rightly. The British general divested his army of all unnecessary baggage and pressed forward, but in spite of his efforts, the American army escaped him. From river to river Greene retreated while Huger fell back rapidly, the two lines gradually converging until on February 8 they united at Guilford. From there the retreat was continued across the Dan into Virginia. The Fabian policy had succeeded, for Cornwallis had been drawn over two hundred miles from his base and had gotten in such a position that, even if he won a battle, a victory would be barren.
Guilford.—Cornwallis was running short of supplies and he could not with safety continue the pursuit. He decided to fall back to Hillsborough. Greene, whose army had been considerably reinforced, decided to follow the retiring British. When Cornwallis learned that the American army was advancing, he determined to risk a battle. On March 15 the armies met at Guilford. Greene posted his force of about forty-five hundred men in three lines, while the British army was stretched out in one long row without supporting reserves, a disposition made necessary by the fact that it numbered only twenty-two hundred and fifty men. When the British charged, the Carolina militia-men who occupied the front fine gave way and fled from the field. The Virginia militia who held the second line stood their ground more firmly, but when their right flank was enveloped, they too retreated. The hard fighting came when the British met the continental troops of the third line. Twice the British regulars were repulsed, and had Greene followed up the success, he might have won a victory. But he had no intention of risking the destruction of his army. When the British advanced for a final assault, Greene decided to fall back. Covering his retreat with the first Virginia regiment, he retired from the field. He had lost the battle, but the result was as valuable as a victory.
Cornwallis retreats to Wilmington.—Cornwallis had lost nearly thirty per cent, of his fighting force; he was almost without supplies, and his foragers were being picked off by the Carolina guerrillas. His hospital service was deplorable. Leaving seventy of his most sorely wounded men to the tender mercies of General Greene, Cornwallis loaded the rest of his wounded on carts, and started on the long journey to Wilmington, the nearest base of supplies.
The reconquest of South Carolina and Georgia.—Greene followed Cornwallis only as far as the Deep River and then turned to reconquer South Carolina. In this work he was ably assisted by Marion, Sumter, Pickens, and Lee, who during April, May, and June captured several of the outlying British posts, the most important being Augusta, which evacuated on June 5. On April 25 Greene encountered Lord Rawdon's force near Camden. The British won the battle, but again they possessed a barren field, for so heavy were their losses that they retreated to Charleston. Greene next invested Ninety-Six. When he heard that Rawdon was marching to its relief, he attempted to carry it by storm. The assault failed and Greene gave up the siege. Lord Rawdon was unable to maintain his army away from his base. He accordingly ordered the evacuation of Ninety-Six and returned to Charleston. Soon afterward he sailed for England, leaving Stewart in command. The last important engagement occurred on September 8 at Eutaw Springs. The American army was again defeated, but Greene as usual gathered the fruits of victory, for Stewart, who had lost forty per cent of his effectives, moved back to Charleston. In a campaign of eleven months Greene had lost every pitched battle, but the interior of the Carolinas and Georgia had been cleared of the enemy, who retained only Savannah, Charleston, and Wilmington.
THE YORKTOWN CAMPAIGN
Arnold and Cornwallis in Virginia.—When Benedict Arnold joined the British, he was rewarded with a brigadier-general's commission and sent to Virginia to cut off Greene's retreat if Cornwallis succeeded in driving that astute commander out of the Carolinas. Arnold marched up the James River and burned Richmond, but when the Virginia militia gathered in large numbers, he retreated to Portsmouth, where Lafayette, who had been sent to command in Virginia, held him in check. In the spring of 1781 Cornwallis transferred his forces to Petersburg, and Arnold was sent to Connecticut to conduct a campaign of rapine. Reinforcements were sent from New York and with an army of over seven thousand men Cornwallis began the conquest of Virginia, but he received no Loyalist support and he failed to crush the forces of Lafayette. After several weeks of ineffectual campaigning, he retired to Yorktown where he established himself behind strong fortifications.
Rodney and De Grasse in the West Indies.—The safety of Cornwallis's army depended upon the control of the sea. Since the beginning of the war the British had kept the sea lanes open. Time and again the fleet had enabled them to win victories or to extricate themselves from dangerous positions. Washington realized this and the burden of his letters to Franklin was the necessity of naval superiority. Vergennes made every effort to equip an overwhelming fleet and in March, 1781, a great armament under De Grasse sailed for the West Indies. And none too soon did they arrive, for Rodney was carrying all before him. In January he had been reinforced by eight ships of the line under Hood and on February 3 the British fleet captured St. Eustatius. This was followed by the seizure of St. Martin and Saba. On April 28 De Grasse arrived at Martinique and on the following day he fought an indecisive action with Hood. An attempt on St. Lucia failed but soon afterward he captured Tobago. He then repaired to Martinique where he received despatches from Washington which determined him to sail for the Chesapeake.
Washington's plans.—When the news reached Washington that De Grasse had left France, he conferred with Rochambeau. Together they drew up a despatch to the French admiral in which they gave him his choice of coöperating with the land forces against New York or of sailing to the Chesapeake. When De Grasse received the despatch, he determined to strike at Cornwallis. On August 14 Washington received his reply and he immediately formulated a masterly plan of action. He decided to move Rochambeau's force and a portion of the continental army to Virginia, leaving General Heath with several New England regiments at West Point. Letters were written with the express intention that they should be intercepted by the British. These and the sudden activity of American engineers in constructing extensive works near Sandy Hook convinced Clinton that he had better sit tight behind his defences.
De Grasse and Graves.—On August 30 De Grasse arrived in the Chesapeake and on September 5 a fleet of nineteen British vessels under Admiral Graves appeared off Cape Henry. The fleets engaged and Graves's fleet was so badly crippled that it was forced to return to New York. Unmolested, a fleet of transports from Rhode Island carrying supplies and siege guns, and convoyed by eight war vessels, sailed into the Chesapeake. At the crucial moment the British had lost control of the seas.
The assembling of the army.—On August 20 the allied army began the passage of the Hudson, but not until they were near Philadelphia were the officers informed of their destination. At the Head of Elk Washington learned that De Grasse had arrived and that he had brought three thousand French infantry from the West Indies. After the allied army reached Williamsburg, it was reinforced by the troops under Lafayette, by the West Indian contingent, and by thirty-five hundred Virginia militia. With an army of sixteen thousand men and the greatest fleet that had ever assembled in American waters, Washington was in a position to win an overwhelming victory.
Yorktown.—The siege of Yorktown began on September 28. Earthworks were thrown up within six hundred yards of the British lines and on October 9 a terrific bombardment began. Five days later two outlying works were carried by storm and at short range the allied artillery did fearful execution. On the sixteenth a British counter-attack failed and on the following day an attempt to escape across the river was frustrated. When this failed the British commander knew that his fate was sealed. On October 19 Cornwallis surrendered and seven thousand soldiers became prisoners of war.
The last struggle in the West Indies.—Yorktown was the last important event on the mainland, but the fighting continued in the West Indies. On January 11, 1782, De Grasse captured St. Christopher and on the twentieth took Nevis. After receiving reinforcements, he planned the conquest of Jamaica, but the arrival of twelve ships from England so strengthened the British fleet that the project was not carried out. On April 12 Rodney defeated De Grasse in a final engagement off Dominica, an event which profoundly influenced the peace negotiations.
THE TREATY OF PEACE
Western Questions.—The conquests of George Rogers Clark, the entrance of Spain into the war, and the operations of Gálvez turned the attention of congressional leaders to peace terms. Would Spain be willing to grant the United States free navigation of the Mississippi? How much territory in the Southwest would Spain demand? Would France support Spanish pretensions? Such were the questions which disturbed American statesmen. To advance the interests of the United States, on October 4, 1779, Congress appointed John Adams peace commissioner and John Jay representative at Madrid.
Adams and Vergennes.—Adams arrived at Paris in February, 1780. He surprised Vergennes by disclosing powers to conclude treaties of peace and commerce with Great Britain. The protests and arguments of the French minister finally convinced Adams that he had better wait until he received new instructions from Congress, but he offended Vergennes by charging that France was purposely not exerting herself to the utmost. Vergennes distrusted Adams, for he thought that he represented the New England viewpoint which, Vergennes had been led to believe, was friendly to Great Britain. He informed Adams that in the future he would deal with Franklin.
Congressional instructions of June 15, 1781.—La Luzerne, the French representative at Philadelphia, made great efforts to have Adams curbed and to prevent a premature negotiation with Great Britain. In this he was assisted by the low state of affairs in the fall and winter of 1780. Congress finally decided to place the negotiations in the hands of a commission composed of Franklin, Jefferson, Jay, Adams, and Henry Laurens. Jefferson did not leave the United States and Laurens, who was captured by the British, did not arrive at Paris in time to take an important part in the negotiations. The instructions of the commissioners gave them considerable liberty of action, but they were to undertake nothing without the knowledge of the French ministers and were ultimately to be governed by their advice and opinion.
Jay in Spain.—In the meantime Jay had been having a difficult time in Spain. He was not officially received, and though granted occasional interviews by Florida Blanca, he was unable to make any progress toward the formulation of a treaty. When he was called to Paris in the summer of 1782 to take part in the peace negotiations, he had no illusions concerning the objects of Spain, objects which he seems to have believed were seconded by France.
The changed situation in 1782.—The commissioners were in a far stronger position than their instructions of 1781 implied. Yorktown had proved that American independence was assured, and Rodney's recent victory had weakened France at a time when her apparent support of Spain was liable to become troublesome. The situation in England had also changed. Lord North had fallen from power and at the head of the new ministry was Rockingham. Shelburne held the portfolio for the home and colonial departments and Fox was secretary of state for foreign affairs. This ministry held together from March until July, 1782, when Rockingham died. Fox, who had been unable to agree with Shelburne regarding the handling of American affairs, resigned, and Shelburne became Prime Minister.
Opening of negotiations with Great Britain.—On July 9, when Adams was at The Hague and before Jay had arrived, Franklin opened the negotiation with Oswald, the British agent, by presenting the basis of a treaty by which Great Britain was asked to acknowledge the independence of the United States, to settle boundaries and confine Canada within the bounds which maintained before the passage of the Quebec Act, and to acknowledge the right of Americans to fish on the Newfoundland banks and elsewhere.
Jay's suspicions of Vergennes.—The first hitch in the negotiations occurred when it was found that Oswald was instructed to conclude a peace or truce with the "colonies or plantations." On August 10 Jay and Franklin conferred with Vergennes about Oswald's commission. Jay contended that independence should be acknowledged by Great Britain before a treaty was negotiated, but Vergennes thought that this was of little consequence. When the question of conflicting Spanish and American claims was brought up, Vergennes became reticent, but his principal secretary, Rayneval, said that he thought the United States claimed too much. On September 7 Rayneval presented a memorial which proposed that the lands west of the mountains be divided into three Indian territories; lands north of the Ohio to be under the protection of Great Britain; south of the river the territory to be divided so that Spain would control the southwestern portion and the United States the northeastern part. On September 9 Jay learned that Rayneval had left secretly for England. Jay became thoroughly alarmed, for he believed that if the United States would not yield territory to Spain, Vergennes was ready to force his views by negotiating with England. Whether or not Jay was right in his suspicions has been a much argued question. No matter what the ultimate answer may be, the views of Jay became the determining factor in the course pursued by the American commissioners. Without consulting Franklin, Jay prevailed upon Benjamin Vaughan to visit Shelburne with the object of counteracting Rayneval's supposed mission and to let Shelburne know that the American commissioners were not to be bound by French views. A satisfactory commission was immediately issued to Oswald and negotiations proceeded with seriousness.
Proposal of October 8, 1782.—In October the American commissioners submitted proposals to Oswald. This preliminary draught provided that the independence of the United States be recognized by Great Britain and that the boundaries were to be as follows: "The said States are bounded north by a line drawn from the northwest angle of Nova Scotia, along the highlands which divide those rivers which empty themselves into the river St. Lawrence, from those which fall into the Atlantic Ocean, to the northernmost head of Connecticut River; thence down along the middle of that river to the 45th degree of north latitude, and thence due west in the latitude 45 degrees north from the equator, to the northwesternmost side of the river St. Lawrence...; thence straight to the south end of the Lake Nipissing, and thence straight to the source of the river Mississippi; west by a line to be drawn along the middle of the river Mississippi, from its source to where the said line shall intersect the 31st degree of north latitude; south by a line to be drawn due east from the termination of the line last mentioned, in the latitude of 31 degrees north of the equator, to the middle of the river Apalachicola or Catahouchi; thence along the middle thereof to its junction with the Flint River; thence straight to the head of St. Mary's River; thence down along the middle of St. Mary's River to the Atlantic Ocean, and east by a line to be drawn along the middle of St. John's River from its source to its mouth in the bay of Fundy...." The subjects of Great Britain and the United States were to enjoy the use of the fisheries, common commercial privileges, and the free navigation of the Mississippi. No provision was made for compensation to Loyalists, or for the collection by English merchants of debts in America.
Proposals of November 5.—The preliminary proposal was unsatisfactory to Shelburne. He accordingly sent Henry Strachey, an under official, to assist Oswald in making other arrangements. About this time Adams also arrived from The Hague. The negotiations proceeded without serious complications and in November a second draught was ready. In several important particulars it differed from the previous document. The Maine boundary on the east was to be a line drawn through the middle of the St. Croix River to its source, and thence directly north to the highlands which divide the rivers of the Atlantic from those which empty into the St. Lawrence; the line was to follow those highlands to the northwesternmost head of the Connecticut River, thence down that river to the forty-fifth parallel, and then straight west until it struck the Mississippi. British creditors were to "meet with no lawful impediment to recovering the full value or sterling amount of such bona fide debts as were contracted before the year 1775," but compensation to Loyalists was studiously omitted. A secret article was added to the effect, that if at the end of the war Great Britain should be, or should be put, in possession of West Florida, the boundary separating that province from the United States should be "a line drawn from the mouth of the river Yazoo,... due east to the river Apalachicola, and thence along the middle of that river to its junction with the Flint River, etc."
British proposal of November 25.—The failure to provide for the Loyalists caused the English government to submit other propositions which differed in two important particulars from the previous proposals. The northern boundary was changed west of the point where the Connecticut River crossed the forty-fifth parallel. From that point it was to follow the present international boundary to the Lake of the Woods, and from the northwestern point of that lake was to run due west to the Mississippi. The southern boundary was to leave the Mississippi at "the northernmost part of the 31st degree of north latitude," then "to be drawn due east ... in the latitude of 31 degrees north of the equator to the middle of the river Apalachicola," and from there it was to follow the line of the proposal of October 8. Articles were also inserted which provided that restitution should be made of all estates, rights, and properties in America which had been confiscated during the war, that no one was to suffer in life or person, or be deprived of property on account of the part which he had taken in the war, that imprisoned Loyalists were to be set at liberty and pending prosecutions dropped. The right of Americans in the use of the fisheries were somewhat abridged.
Provisional articles of November 30.—The British proposals were satisfactory to the American commissioners except those regarding the Loyalists and the fisheries. After considerable discussion an agreement was reached and provisional articles were signed. The people of the United States were given unrestricted fishing privileges "on the Grand Bank and on all the other banks of Newfoundland," in the Gulf of St. Lawrence, and elsewhere, and the right of curing fish along the unsettled bays, harbors, and creeks of Nova Scotia, and on the shores of the Magdalen Islands and Labrador. The idea of indemnity for Loyalists was not incorporated, the articles merely pledging that Congress would make recommendations to the state legislatures that there should be no more confiscations or prosecutions, and that claimants of confiscated lands be allowed to use legal means of recovering them and might go at liberty for one year without personal risk. The articles also provided that the treaty should not be concluded until terms of peace had been agreed upon between France and Great Britain. The action of the American commissioners in arriving at an agreement without consulting the French ministers was not pleasing to Vergennes, but Franklin adroitly pacified him. It is probable that Vergennes did not have a deep feeling of resentment, for he soon obtained a loan of six million livres for the United States.
Preliminary agreements between England, France, and Spain.—Preliminary articles between England, France, and Spain were drawn in January, 1783. Spain failed to obtain Gibraltar, but received Minorca and the Floridas. France received no territory on the mainland of North America. French fishermen were granted important rights in the Newfoundland fisheries, and Great Britain gave to France Dunkirk, St. Lucia and Tobago, Senegal, and Gorée, and certain recent conquests, and guarantees of commercial privileges in India. France restored to Great Britain Grenada, the Grenadines, St. Vincent, Dominica, St. Christopher, Nevis, and Montserrat, and territory on the Gambia River.
Final agreements.—On September 3, 1783, all the definitive treaties were signed, the treaty between the United States and Great Britain being the same as the provisional articles of November 30. In the treaty the boundaries of the United States were apparently defined with exactness, but the statement of the Maine and northwestern boundaries proved to be ambiguous and became the subject of future disputes with Great Britain; the southern boundary agreement led to future difficulties with Spain, as did the question of the navigation of the Mississippi. The treaty was, however, a great triumph for American diplomacy. The United States had emerged from the contest as an independent power, with a vast domain stretching from the Mississippi to the Atlantic, and from the Great Lakes to the Floridas.
The dispersion of the Loyalists.—During the war many Loyalists had fled to England, to Canada, to the West Indies, or to Florida. A still larger number had taken refuge behind the British lines, or had joined the British Army. After the treaty, as persecutions continued, the British government arranged for the transportation of all who wished to leave the United States, offered them homes in the other British colonies, granted half pay to the officers after their regiments were reduced, and appointed a commission to provide compensation for losses. Many thousands of Loyalists left the country. Of these the more influential went to England. About two hundred families went to the West Indies. The larger number migrated to Canada, where, as "United Empire Loyalists," they laid the foundation of British Canada.
READINGS
THE WAR IN THE SOUTH AND THE YORKTOWN CAMPAIGN
Fisher, S.G., The Struggle for American Independence, II, 228-535; Greene, F.V., The Revolutionary War, 180-281; Lecky, W.E.H., History of England in the Eighteenth Century, IV, 130-165, 199-220; McCrady, Edward, History of South Carolina in the Revolution, 1780-1783; Trevelyan, G.O., George the Third and Charles Fox, II, 94-172.
THE TREATY OF PEACE
Channing, Edward, History of the United States, LII, 346-373; Corwin, E.S., French Policy and the American Alliance, 217-377; Fiske, John, The Critical Period, 1-49; Lecky, W.E.H., History of England in the Eighteenth Century, IV, 255-322; McLaughlin. A.C., The Confederation and the Constitution, 3-34; Wharton, Francis, The Revolutionary Diplomatic Correspondence of the United States, V-VI; Winsor, Justin, The Westward Movement, 203-224.
CHAPTER XXVIII
GOVERNMENTAL DEVELOPMENT DURING THE REVOLUTION
The Association a step toward sovereignty.—The First Continental Congress was called to deliberate and determine upon measures to recover rights and liberties of which the colonies had been deprived and to restore harmony with Great Britain. Although the Congress was consultative in nature, it completed the revolutionary organization and made unity of action possible. The adoption of the Association was a fundamental step toward sovereignty. It could only be interpreted to mean that the colonies intended to enforce their will upon the mother country. Furthermore, Congress provided means to enforce the Association within colonies. While the petitions and addresses which were sent forth were couched in respectful terms, the tone of the declaration and resolves was distinctly revolutionary, and when considered in connection with the Association, it becomes evident that the iron hand of a sovereign power was even then visible through the mists of revolution.
THE SECOND CONTINENTAL CONGRESS
Nature of Congress.—The Second Continental Congress which convened at Philadelphia on May 10, 1775, was a purely revolutionary body, a "creature of emergency." In its inception it was in no sense a sovereign body, but was rather a great central committee, representing the revolutionary elements in the various colonies, which assumed the supreme directing power until 1781. The colonies had displayed no regularity in the method of selecting the delegates. The two New Hampshire delegates were chosen by a convention of deputies who had been appointed by various towns. The five delegates of Massachusetts were chosen by the provincial congress. The Rhode Island assembly chose two delegates, and the Connecticut house of representatives five. In New York twelve delegates were selected by a provincial convention. The five delegates from New Jersey were chosen by the assembly, as were the nine from Pennsylvania and the three from Delaware. In Maryland a meeting of deputies chose seven delegates, three or more of whom might represent the colony. In Virginia a convention of delegates selected seven. In North Carolina a convention chose three delegates who were approved by the assembly, and in South Carolina the assembly appointed five. Georgia at first was represented by a delegate from a single parish.
Original powers of the delegates.—The delegates were not empowered to perform sovereign acts, but were considered as a central revolutionary committee, which was to take such measures as would be best calculated to recover and establish American rights and liberties, restore harmony between Great Britain and her colonies, and advance the best interests of the colonies. As the revolutionary movement spread and acts of violence occurred, necessity forced Congress to perform many acts which were not contemplated in the original instructions of the delegates; but from first to last it was lacking in sovereign powers and was always the creature of the states.
Causes of the weakness of Congress.—The fundamental cause of the weakness of Congress was its lack of legal powers. When executive acts were necessary, the delegates were never certain that their joint action would be upheld by the states. Congress had no power to enforce its will, or to coerce an unruly state. Another source of weakness was the constantly changing personnel of Congress, the numbers varying from twenty-four to a hundred. Many of the strongest members were sent on foreign missions, leaving important work to be done by men who had had little experience in public affairs. Sectional jealousy frequently interfered with concerted action; the small states feared the larger ones; states holding no western lands were suspicious of those with such possessions; and theological differences made it difficult for New Englanders to work with delegates from the middle and southern states. In 1777 when Vermont was asking to be admitted as a state, New England and New York found their interests to be conflicting, as both claimed jurisdiction over the Green Mountain country. Some of the members stooped to petty acts for self-aggrandizement, breeding suspicion in the minds of many. Congress was housed at Philadelphia in the state house, which was poorly arranged for a body whose business was mainly conducted by committees. Military necessity twice forced Congress to hasten from the city, the first time in December, 1776, when it fled to Baltimore, the second time after the battle of the Brandywine, when it became an exile, first at Lancaster and later at York.
Nature of the business of Congress.—Dr. Albion W. Small has classified the business of Congress under the following heads: (1) To dispose of sundry applications in behalf of individuals; (2) to consider requests for advice and aid to individual colonies; (3) to act as the mouthpiece of the patriotic party; (4) to serve as an organ of communication between the collective colonies and other communities or individuals; (5) to devise peace plans and measures for the general good; (6) to devise offensive and defensive measures to be urged upon the individual colonies; (7) to raise, organize, and regulate a continental army, and assume general direction of military affairs.
Organization of Congress and conduct of business.—When Peyton Randolph found it necessary to leave Congress, the delegates chose John Hancock president and Charles Thomson secretary, the latter serving until 1781. Most of the work was carried on by committees. When a vote was taken in Congress, the members did not cast their ballots as individuals, but each state delegation cast a solid affirmative or negative vote. Usually committees met in the morning from 7 to 10, Congress from 10 A.M. to 4 or 5 P.M., and committees from 6 to 10 P.M. The president's duties were manifold, for in addition to acting as presiding officer, he carried on correspondence with the commander-in-chief, with state governors, and with, local committees.
Early acts of Congress.—In spite of the conservatives who at first were in the majority and who desired to hold in check the revolutionary forces, circumstances forced Congress to exercise executive authority long before the Declaration of Independence. In June, 1775, Congress ordered the raising and organizing of an army, authorized a loan for the purchase of gunpowder, and issued $2,000,000 in bills of credit. In September provision was made for the fitting out of a navy, and steps were taken to open relations with foreign powers, to supervise the frontiers, and to establish a post-office. In the chaos which resulted from the overthrow of the chartered governments, several of the state revolutionary bodies appealed to Congress for advice. In answer to the Massachusetts appeal, Congress advised that, as no obedience was due to parliament and as the crown officials were absent, the provincial congress was to summon the representatives to an assembly which was to choose a council, and together the two bodies were to govern until difficulties were adjusted with the crown. Similar advice was given to New Hampshire, South Carolina, and Virginia. The various colonies were also advised to erect prize courts. In March, 1776, it advised the colonies to disarm the Loyalists, and soon afterward authorized the fitting out of privateers and opened the ports to all countries not subject to Great Britain. In May it urged all colonies which had not yet formed state governments to do so and declared that British authority should be suppressed. On July 4, 1776, it adopted the Declaration of Independence.
Judicial functions.—With the increase of privateering, prize courts became necessary, and in November, 1775, Congress advised the colonies to erect courts in which cases of capture might be tried by jury and appeals made to Congress. During 1776 the custom was followed of appointing a congressional committee to hear each appeal, but in January, 1777, a standing committee of five was appointed to hear all appeals. The increasing business and the need of legally trained men made it apparent that the committee system could not long handle the prize cases, and in January, 1780, a permanent court of appeals was established, which may be looked upon as a forerunner of the supreme court.
Military affairs.—When hostilities began, Congress acted on the theory that the colonies were loyal to the king, but were opposing Gage's ministerial army. Events soon forced it to take measures of defence, committees being appointed in May, 1775, to consider how military stores might be procured. On June 15 Washington was chosen commander-in-chief and on the following day a committee was appointed to draw up his commission and instructions. Congress also selected four major-generals, eight brigadier-generals, a quartermaster-general and commissary-general. Later a clothier-general was appointed.
At first military affairs were handled by congressional committees, but in January, 1776, a committee was appointed to consider the establishment of a war office. Five months later Congress adopted the committee's plan which provided for a Board of War and Ordnance to consist of five members of Congress and a secretary. In 1777 this congressional board was done away with and a new board, consisting of persons who were not members of Congress, was created, Gates being placed at its head. Congress also appointed an inspector-general, Thomas Conway being the first incumbent, being followed by Steuben. The system of supplying the army was found to be deficient and to rectify matters the commissary department was reorganized in 1777 and again in 1778. Congress continued to keep in touch with the army by sending special committees to examine actual conditions.
Naval affairs.—To handle maritime affairs a naval committee was appointed whose "active life lasted from October, 1775, until January, 1776, during which time it laid the foundation of the navy." On December 14, 1775, a marine committee, composed of one member from each colony, was chosen to take charge of the building and fitting out of vessels, and this committee soon assumed direction of naval affairs. Agents to superintend the work of construction were employed, and on the recommendation of the committee, Congress appointed prize agents. In November, 1776, a board of three naval experts was created to execute business under the direction of the maritime committee and a similar board was appointed in April, 1777, to handle affairs in New England alone. The marine committee continued until October, 1779. By that time it became evident that a more efficient system was needed and Congress appointed a Board of Admiralty consisting of three commissioners and two members of Congress. The board remained in charge of naval affairs until the governmental reorganization of 1781.
Foreign affairs.—To direct diplomacy was one of the difficult functions of a Congress whose members were but little versed in the intricacies of foreign courts. In the fall of 1775 a "secret committee on foreign correspondence" was chosen. In March, 1776, Silas Deane was sent to France, and in September of the same year a commission to handle American interests in Europe, composed of Franklin, Jefferson, and Deane, was appointed. Jefferson, however, remained in America and Arthur Lee was substituted. To obtain financial aid had been the chief object up to the Declaration of Independence, but after that Congress and its agents directed their energies not only to the securing of funds, but to obtain recognition by France and Spain, and to make military and commercial alliances. In 1777 the secret committee was changed to the "committee on foreign affairs," an organization which conducted the foreign policy up to 1781.
FINANCIAL AFFAIRS
Fiscal machinery.—The most difficult problem which Congress had to solve was the raising of sufficient funds to carry on the Revolution. To handle the public moneys and devise means for raising revenue, fiscal machinery gradually came into existence. In 1775 two treasurers were appointed to receive and disburse public funds. Soon a committee of claims of thirteen members was appointed, and in February, 1776, a standing committee of five known as the Treasury Board, which supervised financial officials and attended to the emission of instruments of credit. This board, under which was an auditor-general at the head of the office of accounts, was the germ of the later treasury. In 1778 the book-keeping system was remodeled and a comptroller, auditor, treasurer, and two chambers of accounts were provided. In 1779 the old treasury board was set aside and in its place a commission of five was appointed, of which three were not congressional delegates.
Bills of credit.—Congress had three principal means of raising money: by issuance of bills of credit, by requisitions upon the states, and by domestic and foreign loans. In addition there was a considerable income from prizes and captures. The need of raising money drove Congress to the doubtful expedient of issuing large quantities of paper money unbacked by bullion or specie but based upon the credit of the states. Between June, 1775, and November, 1779, Congress authorized the issuance of $241,552,780 in denominations varying from one-sixth of a dollar to sixty-five dollars. In addition the states issued over $200,000,000 in paper money. Such large amounts of unbacked paper could lead to but one result, a steadily increasing depreciation. At first the people took the continental money with little protest, but as issue followed issue in rapid succession, depreciation set in, and by January, 1779, the ratio of currency to specie was eight to one, by June twenty to one, and by the end of that year forty to one. In May, 1781, it ceased to pass as currency. Financiers have found it difficult to estimate the specie value of the various issues, but a careful economist has calculated that it was worth between $37,000,000 and $41,000,000.
Requisitions upon the states.—As military demands became more and more insistent, Congress found it necessary to make requisitions upon the states. The demands were met in a niggardly manner; between November, 1777, and February, 1781, the moneys received, figured in specie value, amounted to only $2,737,000. In 1780 Congress was driven to demanding specific supplies, such as corn, meat, and hay.
Domestic loans.—With the exception of a small loan for the purchase of gunpowder, Congress did not authorize a domestic loan until October, 1776, when it voted to borrow $5,000,000 at four per cent, and to establish state loan offices. Subsequent loans were at six per cent. After money from foreign loans began to come in in September, 1777, interest on the domestic debt was paid, enabling Congress to borrow more freely than before. From October, 1776, to September, 1777, only $3,787,000 was obtained from the states, and during the rest of the war $63,289,000 in paper was subscribed.
Foreign loans.—Most of the foreign financial aid came from France. In the years before France formally recognized the independence of the American states, large sums were loaned to Congress. In May, 1776, Vergennes secured a loan of a million livres from the French treasury and also obtained a small loan from Spain. Through the fictitious company of "Hortalez et Cie" in Paris organized by Beaumarchais, and the Spanish firm of Josef Gardoqui and Sons, large quantities of clothing, military stores, and considerable sums of money were placed at the disposal of the revolutionary agents. During 1777-1780 Congress borrowed from France $1,633,500.
STATE GOVERNMENTS DURING THE REVOLUTION
Organization of state governments.—As resistance to British authority intensified during 1775, the colonies took steps to organize for resistance. The colonial governors were forced to leave and the committees of safety assumed temporary executive functions. In most of the colonies revolutionary conventions were called which took over the legislative power until it became apparent that the difficulties with Great Britain could not be settled. As it grew more and more evident that the war was to be fought for independence, the conventions took steps to organize state governments. Several of them asked advice concerning such action from the Continental Congress, and that body finally advised all the colonies to proceed on the assumption that they no longer owed allegiance to the crown. The constitutional convention introduced a new principle in the theory of the state. Up to this time governmental authority had rested in England. Henceforth the powers of sovereignty were to emanate from the will of the people, the constitutional convention being the embodiment of the sovereign will.
Type of state governments.—In the formation of governments the states were guided by experience in colonial statecraft. The new constitutions disclosed the influence of the struggle with Great Britain, the framers seeking to protect the commonwealths from the possibility of encroachment of the executive at the expense of the legislative departments. The influence of the political philosophy which insisted that the separation of the departments of government was the safeguard of popular rights was also apparent in the new constitutions. Although they displayed a marked divergence on minor points, in general a common type of government prevailed. In most of the states the legislative department was in two parts, a lower and an upper house; the lower, usually elected for a year, represented the people at large, and the upper, serving for longer periods, represented the wealthier classes. In all but one state a property qualification was required for voters and representatives, and in most cases the property qualification was higher for members of the upper chamber. There was no uniformity in designation, the lower chamber being variously called the house of representatives, house of commons, or assembly; the upper house was usually called the legislative council, but in Virginia it was known as the senate, a designation afterward commonly adopted. The executive was usually weak, being vested either in a governor with limited power or in a small group. So well adapted to the needs of a state were the colonial charters of Connecticut and Rhode Island, that they continued to use their charters as constitutions for many years, merely substituting the authority of the people for that of the king.
Variations from type.—Several of the state constitutions contained unusual features. In Pennsylvania the radical convention in 1776 framed a constitution which provided for a legislature of one chamber and an executive council which could not veto an act of the assembly. Every seven years a council of censors was to be chosen by the voters to see that the constitution had not been violated. By a two-thirds vote the censors could summon a convention to amend the constitution. Georgia also set up a unicameral legislature. The Virginia constitution of 1776 contained a declaration of independence. It also provided that all bills must originate in the lower house and that money bills could not be amended by the senate. A privy council of eight members was chosen by a joint ballot of both houses. This body and the two houses selected the governor. The South Carolina constitution of 1778 provided for the election of the upper house by the people and the governor was deprived of the veto power. By the New York constitution of 1778, the governor was elected by the people, but he had neither appointive nor veto power, those functions being exercised respectively by a council of appointments chosen from the senate by the assembly, and by a council of revision composed of the governor, chancellor, and two or more judges of the supreme court. Objections raised by the council of revision could be defeated by a two-thirds vote of both houses. The first constitution of Massachusetts provided for a legislature of two houses, the upper chamber acting as a multiple executive. In 1780 a new constitution was accepted by the people. This provided that the governor be given military powers and the appointment of judges. He was to be advised by a council of nine elected from the senate by both houses.
Selection of the judiciary.—Divergences appeared in the methods of selecting judges. In Connecticut and Rhode Island they were appointed annually by the assemblies. In Georgia the chief justice was appointed by the assembly, but the people elected the county judges annually; in New Jersey, Delaware, and Pennsylvania the assemblies chose the judges for seven years; in Massachusetts, New York, and Maryland the governor and council appointed the judges who held office during good behavior; in other states the legislatures appointed them for varying terms.
The courts.—The states established superior tribunals which were authorized to review and correct decisions of inferior courts. In Georgia the county courts, when presided over by the chief-justice, acted as a final court of appeal. In New Jersey the governor and council constituted the highest appellate tribunal. In Virginia the constitution provided for a court of appeals which passed upon the constitutionality of laws and heard appeals. In Maryland and South Carolina the appellate courts were composed of the presiding officers of the district courts. In the other colonies the supreme court fulfilled the same function. The colonial system of county courts to try the smaller civil cases, and courts of session, composed of justices of the peace, for trial of petty criminal cases were retained.
English law the basis of American jurisprudence.—The English common-law forms of writs and legal process were continued with all their technicalities, a usage which has been one of the stumbling blocks in the attempts to simplify legal methods in the United States. "Either by the constitutions or by legislative enactments, English common law, and all those English statutes hitherto recognized and acted upon in the colonies respectively, were made the basis of state jurisprudence. The force of law was also continued to all existing colonial statutes until repealed or altered, except in South Carolina, where a particular enumeration and reënactment was made of the colonial statutes intended to be recognized."
The revolutionary state of Vermont.—In the Green Mountain region a new state was in the making. There New York claimed jurisdiction but her authority had never been established and in April, 1775, the inhabitants of the mountain country held a convention, eventually drew up a constitution, and asked Congress to recognize Vermont as a state. New York succeeded in defeating the movement in Congress, but the Vermonters, nothing daunted, proceeded to organize their government. The new revolutionary state soon became embroiled in disputes with New Hampshire and Massachusetts. These and the continued opposition of New York caused Congress to delay recognition, and Vermont was not formally admitted to the union until 1791, but to all intents and purposes it was a sovereign state from 1775.
Attempts at Western State-Making.—In the course of the Revolution, likewise, the settlements beyond the Alleghanies were trying experiments in state-making. The Watauga Association in eastern Tennessee, the Transylvania government in Kentucky, and the Nashborough, Association are all examples. These western communities reverted to the compact theory of government, and their experiences illustrate the democratic tendencies of the frontier. As yet, however, the communities were too weak to succeed in the midst of conflicting elements and each reverted for a time to the subordinate position of a county of the older state.
THE ARTICLES OF CONFEDERATION
The confederation movement.—When danger from without threatened, a union of the colonies as a device of safety had often been suggested, but separatist tendencies had always proved too strong for the federationists. Franklin had been a friend of the idea of union, in 1754 having penned the Albany plan. In July, 1775, when it became apparent that the colonies were facing a great war, he proposed a league of friendship whose affairs should be conducted by a general congress in which each colony should have representation according to its population. Franklin's plan was not adopted, but it focused attention upon the growing need of a confederation. The Continental Congress was a revolutionary body which had no power save the sufferance of states which were themselves revolutionary. Whether or not those states were to retain sovereign powers depended entirely on the outcome of the struggle. To insure a successful issue, it was believed that a more perfect organ than the Continental Congress should be devised to conduct the Revolution.
Work of the confederation committee.—When Lee's independence resolution was introduced in the Continental Congress on June 7, 1776, it was accompanied by a motion to appoint a committee to draw up articles of confederation. On June 12 a committee composed of one delegate from each colony was chosen, among the members being John Dickinson, Samuel Adams, Roger Sherman, and Edward Rutledge. On July 12 the committee reported a plan of confederation, drawn mainly by Dickinson, which provided that each state should have a single vote in a central congress, and that an affirmative vote of nine states should be necessary to pass any measure.
Adoption of the articles.—Stress of business, military events which forced the hasty departure of Congress from Philadelphia on several occasions, and divergence of views prevented speedy action. On two ideas only was there agreement. The delegates were convinced that the English imperial system was wrong in its theory of taxation; whatever the form of the central government might be, it must not take from the states the power of taxation. They were also agreed that the executive power of the central government must be weak. The debates turned upon three main questions, taxation, representation, and congressional power to settle boundary disputes. Dickinson's plan proposed that taxation should be apportioned among the states according to population; this aroused the opposition of the Southerners, who objected to the slaves being counted as population. Franklin objected to Dickinson's proposal of one vote per state on the ground that it was an inequitable arrangement. In reply it was argued that the confederation was a league of friendship to be formed for a specific purpose and in consequence each state ought to have equal power. In regard to congressional power to settle boundary disputes, a difference arose between those states which possessed western lands and those which did not. Not until November, 1777, did Congress give the articles a favorable vote and on June 26, 1778, a form of ratification was adopted. Delegates from the New England states, New York, Pennsylvania, Virginia, and South Carolina signed the articles on July 9, North Carolina on July 21, Georgia on July 24, and New Jersey on November 26, 1778; Delaware on May 5, 1779, and Maryland not until March 1, 1781. In consequence of the tardy action of Maryland, the Continental Congress continued to conduct the war almost to its conclusion.
The more important provisions of the articles.—The preamble stated that the delegates had agreed "to certain articles of Confederation and perpetual union." Article I named the confederacy "The United States of America." Article II said, "Each State retains its sovereignty, freedom and independence, and every power, jurisdiction and right, which is not by this confederation expressly delegated to the United States, in Congress assembled." Article III stated the purpose of the entrance of the states into a league of friendship as follows: "for their common defence, the security of their liberties, and their mutual and general welfare." Article IV declared that the free inhabitants of each state should be "entitled to all privileges and immunities of free citizens in the several States" and provided for the extradition of criminals. It also stated that, "Full faith and credit shall be given in each of these States to the records, acts and judicial proceedings of the courts and magistrates of every other State."
Article V provided that delegates should "be annually appointed in such manner as the legislature of each State shall direct," and that Congress should convene annually on the first Monday in November. No state was to be represented in Congress by less than two nor more than seven members, and in determining questions, each state should have one vote.
Article VI dealt mainly with prohibitions upon the states. Without the consent of Congress, no state was to enter into treaties, confederation, or alliance with foreign courts, nor was any state to lay imposts or duties which might interfere with any stipulations in treaties entered into between the United States and foreign powers. Such naval and military forces were to be maintained by the states in time of peace as Congress might deem necessary, and no state was to engage in war without the consent of Congress unless actually invaded or in danger of Indian attack.
Article VIII provided that expenses incurred for common defence or for the general welfare, when allowed by Congress, should be defrayed out of a common treasury, to "be supplied by the several states, in proportion to the value of all land within each state, granted to or surveyed for any person, as such land and the buildings and improvements thereon shall be estimated according to such mode as the United States in Congress assembled, shall from time to time direct and appoint."
Article IX dealt with the congressional powers. Congress was given the exclusive power (1) of determining peace or war except in the cases mentioned in Article VI, (2) of sending and receiving ambassadors, (3) of entering into treaties and alliances, provided such agreements did not interfere with the rights of the states to lay such imposts and duties on foreign goods as they were subjected to by foreigners, or prohibit exportation or importation, (4) of establishing rules for deciding prize cases, (5) of granting letters of marque and reprisal in time of peace, (6) of establishing admiralty courts, and (7) of settling disputes between two or more states, an elaborate procedure in such cases being prescribed.
Congress was also given the exclusive power (8) of regulating the alloy and value of coin struck by its authority or by that of a state, (9) of fixing the standard of weights and measures, (10) of regulating affairs with Indians not members of states provided state rights were not infringed, (11) of establishing and regulating post offices and postage, (12) of appointing military officers except regimental officers, (13) of appointing naval officers, and (14) of making rules and regulations for the army and navy.
Other powers of Congress were (15) "to appoint a committee, to sit in the recess of Congress, to be denominated 'a Committee of the States,' and to consist of one delegate from each State; and to appoint such other committees and civil officers as may be necessary for managing the general affairs of the United States under direction..., (16) to ascertain the necessary sums of money to be raised for the service of the United States, and to appropriate and apply the same for defraying the public expenses, (17) to borrow money or emit bills on the credit of the United States, (18) to build and equip a navy, and (19) "to agree upon the number of land forces, and to make requisition from each state for its quota, in proportion to the number of white inhabitants in each state." With the exception of a vote upon adjournment, all measures required the assent of nine states. No period of adjournment was to be longer than six months.
Article X provided that the committee of the states should be authorized to execute the delegated powers of Congress during recesses. Article XII stated that bills of credit, loans, and debts should be considered as a charge against the United States and for whose payment the United States and the public faith were pledged. Article XIII provided that every state should abide by the acts of Congress, that the union should be perpetual, and that no alteration should be made in the articles by Congress unless afterwards confirmed by the legislatures of every state.
Fundamental weaknesses of the articles.—Admirable as this document was in many respects, it contained weaknesses which were certain to make the union temporary rather than perpetual. It failed to give the central government sufficient power. The articles were distinctly the instrument of a confederation of sovereign states, and not the constitution of a federal state. Congress was not given the power to raise money or to regulate commerce. It could not compel the states to pay the national debts, to live up to treaties, or to raise armies. The articles provided for no distinct executive department, but this was remedied in part by congressional acts. With the exception of the fourth, fifth, and seventh provisions of Article IX, judicial matters were left to the states. The required vote of nine state to pass measures necessarily hindered the passage of needed regulations. The requirement that every state legislature must give its consent before an amendment could be passed made it well-nigh impossible to change the instrument.
GOVERNMENTAL REORGANIZATION
Organization of executive departments.—The failure of the congressional committee system to perform executive functions had grown more apparent as the war progressed, and in the closing days of the Second Continental Congress measures were taken to concentrate the executive departmental work under individual heads. During January and February, 1781, the Continental Congress created four new offices: superintendent of finance, secretary at war, secretary of marine, and secretary of foreign affairs, a foreshadowing of the later cabinet. The policy thus inaugurated was continued under the new Congress which held its first sitting on March 2, 1781.
The work of Robert Morris.—The failure of the bills of credit, the insufficiency of state support, and the weakness of foreign credit had made it evident that the financial system must be reorganized; accordingly the treasury commission was abolished and finances were placed in the hands of Robert Morris, a successful merchant of Philadelphia who had rendered valuable assistance as a member of the Pennsylvania assembly and of Congress. Morris realized that retrenchment and economy must be his watchwords. In the words of Dewey, he endeavored "to collect the requisitions from the States, to create a national revenue and impost, and place the revenue on a specie basis...." He also sought to establish foreign credit and to found a United States bank. At every turn he was handicapped by local prejudice, petty bickerings over taxation, and the lack of power of the central government.
Foreign loans and requisitions upon states.—The adoption of the Articles of Confederation immediately strengthened foreign credit, for during 1781-1783 loans of $4,719,000 were obtained from France, $174,017 from Spain, and $1,304,000 from the bankers of Holland. The loans from Spain and Holland, however, probably would not have been obtained had it not been for the entry of those powers into the war. Requisitions upon states during the same period yielded $3,058,000 in specie value, but the proposals of Morris to institute a land tax, poll tax, excise, and tariff came to naught.
The Bank of North America.—In 1780 Congress had tried to establish a financial institution called the Bank of Pennsylvania, but it had been of little service. Morris planned a sounder institution to be known as the Bank of North America with a capitalization of not over $10,000,000. Only $70,000 was raised by private subscription and the government set aside $200,000 in specie which had recently arrived from France. From this bank during 1782-1783 the government borrowed on short term loans $1,272,842. As Congress repaid the bank before other creditors, a small working balance was maintained on which the government could draw for immediate needs.
War and navy departments.—Owing to factional quarrels, it was not until January, 1782, that General Benjamin Lincoln was made secretary at war. No one was appointed for the department of marine, and the work was turned over to the already overburdened superintendent of finance. The office of agent of marine was created, and this Morris held from September, 1781, until November, 1784.
Department of foreign affairs.—The first secretary of foreign affairs was Robert R. Livingston of New York, a former member of the committee which formulated the Declaration of Independence and famous later as minister to France at the time of the Louisiana purchase. He held office from August, 1781, to June, 1783, being succeeded in 1784 by John Jay. The department as conducted under Livingston consisted of the secretary, two assistant secretaries, and a clerk.
Conclusion.—Thus during the stress of war national and state governments had come into existence. Necessity had forced the people to act and though the leaders at times groped blindly and took many a false step, the political capacity of the American people had asserted itself and triumphed. They profited by their experiences and showed themselves ready to cast aside useless institutions and try new ones which gave fair promise of success. A government of the people, for the people, and by the people had come into existence which challenged the doctrine that the sovereign ruled by right divine.
READINGS
Bolles, A.S., Financial History of the United States, 1774-1780; Bullock, C.J., Finances of the United States from 1775 to 1789; Channing, Edward, History of the United States, III, 431-462; Dewey, D.R., Financial History of the United States, 33-56; Foster, J.W., A Century of American Diplomacy, 1-40; Guggenheim, J.C., "The Development of the Executive Departments, 1775-1789," in J. Franklin Jameson, Essays in the Constitutional History of the United States in the Formative Period, 1775-1789; Hatch, L.C., Administration of the American Revolutionary Army; Hildreth, Richard, The History of the United States of America, III, 374-410; Learned, H.B., The President's Cabinet, 47-63; McLaughlin, A.C., The Confederation and the Constitution, 35-70; Paullin, C.O., The Navy of the American Revolution, 31-251; Small, A.W., "The Beginnings of American Nationality," in Johns Hopkins University, Studies in History and Political Science, 8th Series, Parts I and II; Sumner, W.G., The Financier and Finances of the American Revolution; Van Tyne, C.H., The American Revolution, 175-202; Hunt, G., The Department of State, 1-37.
Abenaki Indians, [257], [266];
war of, [313].
Abercromby, General James, in French and Indian War, [376], [377], [378].
Acadia, colonization, [85]-[86];
captured by England, restored to France, [86], [87];
during War of Spanish Succession, English expeditions against, [271];
conquest of, [272];
attacked by French during War of Austrian Succession, [364], [365];
French policy in, [366];
during French and Indian War, [374].
Acapulco, Mexico, commercial port, [86].
Acatic, Nueva Galicia, in the Mixton War, [40].
Accau, explorer in Minnesota with Father Hennepin, [100].
Ácoma, New Mexico pueblo, [46], [72], [73].
Adams, John, defence of British soldiers, [443];
in First Continental Congress, [452];
argues for Declaration of Independence, [479];
member of committee for drafting the Declaration, [479];
diplomacy in France and Holland, [532]-[533];
peace negotiations, [533]-[538].
Adams, Samuel, circular letter, [440]-[441];
trouble with Governor Bernard, [443];
the man of the town meeting, [445]-[446];
in First Continental Congress, [451];
on committee to draft Articles of Confederation, [550].
Adelantados, [54]-[55].
Administration of Justice Act, [450].
Admiralty, English, [182]-[183];
courts, [349].
Africa, early ideas concerning, [1]-[2];
Ptolemy's conception of, [1]-[2];
trade with desired, [5];
exploration of west coast, [5];
Prester, John, [5];
Sénégal and Gorée captured by English, [380];
Sénégal given to British by Peace of Paris, [382].
African Company, formed to break Dutch monopoly, [196].
Agriculture, in Spanish colonies, [21], [75];
in French Canada, [92], [93];
in French West Indies, [94]-[95];
in New England, [216]-[217], [330]-[331];
in the Middle English colonies, [120], [122], [124], [128], [332];
in the South, [333]-[335],
in the British West Indies, [339]-[341];
in Bermudas, [130];
in Dutch colonies, [169], [170], [171], [173].
Aguas Calientes, [58], [59];
mines of, [58].
Aguayo, Marquis of, expedition to Texas, [296]-[297].
Aguilar, Marcos de, governor in Mexico, [48].
Aijado Indians, [243].
Ailly, Pierre d', author of Imago Mundi, [2], [7].
Aix-la-Chapelle, Peace of, [366].
Alabama Indians, [251], [270].
Alabama River, [62].
Alamance, battle of the, [415].
Alarcón, Hernando de, explores Colorado River, [45].
Alarcón, Martin de, governor of Texas, and of Coahuila, [294]-[295].
Albany, [332].
Albany Congress, [371], [411].
Albemarle, Duke of. See Monk.
Albermarle district, settlement, [207];
population, [211];
Culpeper rebellion, [211].
Alberoni, [279], [359].
Albórnoz, royal contador of New Spain, [48].
Albuquerque, New Mexico, founding of, [290].
Alburquerque, Portuguese viceroy in India, 24.
Alcalá, University of, [76].
Alcaldes, [14], [34], [55].
Alcaldía Mayor, administrative district, [59].
Aleutian Islands, Russian fur trade, [388].
Alexander, Pillars of, [1].
Alexander VI, Pope, assignation of discoveries between Spain and
Portugal, [11].
Alexander, Sir William, grant on Long Island, [150].
Algonquin Indians, friendly to French, [257];
a barrier to English expansion, [414].
Alibamon, judicial department of Louisiana, [279].
Alleghany Mountains, Spanish explorations in, 1566-1568, [64];
Spanish trade in, [211];
French and English traders cross, [101]-[102];
English traders cross, [211], [258], [367]. [369];
in the French and Indian War, [372]-[374], [378];
Proclamation of 1763, [404], [411];
settlers cross, [413];
a barrier to settlement, [414];
in the American Revolution, [512].
Allen, Ethan, [462].
Allouez, Jesuit missionary in New France, [96], [97], [101].
Alva, Duke of, [52].
Alvarado, Pedro de, lieutenant of Cortés, [33], [36];
alcalde mayor of City of Mexico, [34];
conquest of Guatemala and San Salvador, [37]-[38];
claim to Cíbola, [44];
explorations in Peru and the South Sea, [46]-[47];
governor and captain-general of Guatemala, [49];
death, [47], [49].
Amadas, Philip, takes possession of Roanoke Island, [110].
Amazon Island, Cortés seeks, [37].
Amazons, kingdom of, sought by Raleigh, [110].
Amherst, Jeffrey, English general, [377], [378], [379], [381], [409];
plan of defence of British New World possessions, [403]-[404];
governor-general of Canada, [419].
Amichel, province of, [26], [37];
map showing, [43].
André, Major John, hanged as a spy, [512].
Andros, Edmund, governor of New York, [197], [262], [263];
governor-general of the Dominion of New England, [194];
overthrow, [194]-[195].
Anglican Church, in the eighteenth century, [337]-[338].
Anguilla, Island, government, [206].
Anian, Strait of, [24], [25], [67]-[68], [72]. See the Strait of Anian.
Annapolis Royal, [272].
Anne of Austria, regent of France, [80].
Anne, Queen of England, colonial policy, [350]-[352].
Anson, Commodore George, attacks Spanish possessions, [363];
admiral in French and Indian War, [377].
Anticosti Island, [82], [420].
Antigua, settled by English, [133], [252];
incorporated with Leeward Islands, [206];
population, [340].
Anza, Juan Bautista, opens route from Arizona to California, [391];
leads colony from Sonora to San Francisco, [391];
governor of New Mexico, explores in Colorado, [292].
Apache Indians, [45]:
enslavement of, [23];
hostility, [285];
wars with, [298], [305], [401];
missions for, [299].
Apalachee (Apalachen), Indian settlement, [41], [42], [98];
missions, [247], [253], [254], [270];
revolt of, [270].
Apalachicola Indians, [269].
Appeals, [351]-[352].
Appointments, [352].
Arabs, theories of concerning geography, [1]-[2].
Aragon, kingdom of, [13]-[14].
Argall, Captain Samuel, expedition against French settlements, [86], [136].
Aricara Indians, [283].
Arika Indians, alliance with English, [270].
Arispe, capital of Provincias Internas, [387].
Aristotle, his conception of the world, [1].
Arizona, [72], [236];
Kino's explorations in, [302];
mining excitement at Arizonac, [304];
Keller and Sedelmayr in, [304];
land route to California, [391].
See Pimería Alta, Sonora.
Arkansas region, De Soto and Moscoso in, [42];
Oñate in, [73];
judicial department of Louisiana, [280];
French traders in, [283]-[286];
English traders in, [102], [400];
Tonty's fort in, [100], [102];
under Spanish rule, [400].
See La Harpe, Du Tisné, Tonty.
Arkansas Post (Fort Carlos III), [398].
Arkansas River (Napestle River), [42], [73], [100], [102], [283]-[285];
Spanish expeditions to, [291].
Arlington, Earl of, proprietary grant in Virginia, [185];
interest in Hudson's Bay Company, [213].
Armada, "the Invincible," defeat of, [52]-[53], [105].
Arnold, Benedict, operations at Ticonderoga and Crown Point, [462];
invasion of Canada, [471];
at Valcour Island, [487]-[488];
in campaign against Burgoyne, [495]-[499];
treason, [511]-[512];
in the British army, [530].
Arriola, Andrés de, founds Pensacola, [275].
Arroyo Hondo, boundary between Texas and Louisiana, [300].
Arteaga, expedition up Pacific coast, [395].
Arthur, Gabriel, on Tennessee River, 1673, [211].
Articles of Confederation, confederation movement, [549];
work of the confederation committee, [550];
adoption of the articles, [550]-[551];
provisions, [551]-[555];
weaknesses, [553].
Aruba Island, settled by the Dutch, [167].
Asia, classical ideas regarding, [1];
early contact with America, [2];
visits of Polo, [3];
trade route to, [5];
search for northwest passage to, [106], [108], [164], [213];
Portuguese trading settlements in China and Japan, [24];
China a market for Russian trade, [388].
Asiento of 1713, The, [273], [289].
Asinai (Hasinai, Tejas, Texas), Indians, [251].
Assemblies, control of the elections and purse, [352];
increasing power, [357], [426]-[427].
Association, the, adopted by the First Continental Congress, [455];
enforcement, [458], [466]-[467];
an act of sovereignty, [539].
Association for the Defense of the Protestant Religion, [189].
Atondo y Antillón, Admiral, attempt to colonize Baja California,
241-[242].
Atzcapotzalco, Aztec center, Mexico, [28].
Aubry, in command in Louisiana after cession to Spain, [396]-[397].
Audiencia, of Santo Domingo, [20];
of the Confines of Panamá and Nicaragua, [50];
of Guatemala, [50];
of Havana, [398];
of Mexico (New Spain),
creation of, [38], [48];
friction with Cortés, [42];
powers, [48];
composition, [48];
replacement of, [49];
Second Audiencia, [49];
of Manila, [68];
of Nueva Galicia (Guadalajara), [55];
expeditions sent out by, [55]-[56], [387];
of Panamá, [49], [50];
of Nicaragua, [50].
Augusta, Georgia, founded, [316];
fur traders of, [369];
evacuated by British, [529].
Austin, Ann, [189].
Austria, [359]-[360].
Avalon, [125].
Avalos, lieutenant of Cortés, [36], [37].
Ávila, Alonso de, envoy for Cortés to Audiencia of Santo Domingo,
and to the court of Charles V, [34].
Aviño, mine of, [56].
Axacan (Virginia), [117].
Ayllón, colony in Carolina, [26].
Ays, Florida, settlement at, [64].
Ayscue, Sir George, expedition to West Indies and Virginia, [153].
Azcué, Fernando de, expedition across Rio Grande, [248].
Azilia, project for colonizing Georgia, [315].
Aztecs, arrival in Valley of Mexico, [27]-[28];
development of power, [28];
discontent of subject peoples, [33];
revolt against, [33];
overthrown by Cortés, [33];
limits of Aztec conquest, [39].
Bacon, Roger, his conception of geography, [2].
Bacon's Rebellion, [185]-[187].
Baffin, William, discovers Baffin Bay, [213].
Bahama Channel, route of Spanish treasure ships, [62], [64].
Bahama Islands, [10];
enslavement of Indians on, [23];
settlement, [152], [206].
Bahía (Brazil), captured by Dutch West India Company, [252].
Baja California. See California, Lower.
Balboa, Vasco Nuñez de, [28], [29], [42];
discovery of the Pacific, [25];
executed by Pedrarias, [29].
Balearic Isles, [13].
Baltimore, Lord. See Calvert.
Bank, of England, [351];
of North America, [554];
of Pennsylvania, [554].
Baptists, in Rhode Island, [220];
in West New Jersey, [226];
in South Carolina, [231].
Barbados, occupied by the English, [132], [252];
attached to the Windward Islands government, [206];
unrest, [207];
migrations, [207];
furnishes settlers for South Carolina, [208], [210];
trade with South Carolina, [210];
influence upon South Carolina, [230], [231];
social and economic conditions in the eighteenth century, [340].
Barbuda, Island, [206], [252].
Barcelona, [10];
county of, [13].
Barker, English freebooter, [66].
Barlowe, Arthur, expedition of 1585, [110].
Barroto, seeks La Salle's colony, [249].
Barrowists, [135].
Bartram, botanist and traveler, cited, [408].
Bastidas, Spanish explorer, [24].
Baton Rouge, captured by Gálvez, [515].
Bay of the Bidayes (Galveston Bay), visited by La Harpe, [283].
Bay of Chaleurs, [82].
Bay of Espíritu Santo (Matagorda Bay), [249], [297].
Bay of Juan Ponce, [64].
Bay of St. Bernard, [283].
Beaumarchais, Pierre Augustin Caron de, assists United States
during Revolution, [506].
Behaim's globe, [7].
Bellefeuille, explores Tennessee River, [102].
Beltrán, Fray Bernaldino, expedition to New Mexico, [72]. See Espejo.
Bemis Heights, first battle of, [497];
second battle of, [498].
Benavides, Fray Alonso de, Franciscan Missionary, [243];
report on New Mexico in 1630, [243].
Benbow, John, English vice-admiral, victories in West Indies, [268].
Bennington, Battle of, [495]-[496].
Bergen, New Jersey, [198].
Bering, Vitus, [388];
explores American coast, [388].
Berkeley, John, Lord Berkeley, receives West New Jersey, [198];
sells territory to the Quakers, [200];
Carolina proprietor, [208].
Berkeley, Sir William, governor of Virginia, [159];
struggle with the Commonwealth, [160];
begins second administration, [183];
abuses in administration, [184];
Bacon's rebellion, [185]-[187];
expedition to the West, [211];
Carolina proprietor, [208].
Bermuda Islands, visited by English, [118];
charters of 1612 and 1614, [120];
settlement, [130], [251];
population, [130];
economic importance, [130];
government, [130];
during Puritan Revolution, [152];
Somers Island Company dissolved, [206];
a crown colony, [206];
migration of settlers, [206];
Scotch migration, [324].
Bernard, Francis, Governor of Massachusetts, [440], [441], [442]-[443].
Béthencourt, de, Norman voyager to the Canaries, [4].
Biencourt, French official in Acadia, [85]-[86].
Bienville, Governor of Louisiana: first administration, [276];
under the Compagnie d'Occident, [279]-[280], [284];
royal governor, [280]-[281].
Bigot, intendant in Canada, [368], [375].
Bill Williams Fork (River in Arizona), Farfán on, [73];
Sedelmayr on, [304].
Bills of credit, [544]-[545].
Biloxi, Mississippi, founded by French, [267], [276]:
settlement moved to Mobile Bay, [276];
judicial department of Louisiana, [279].
Bimini, De León seeks, [40].
Black Code of Louisiana, The, [280], [398].
Blair, William, [229].
Blathwayt, William, secretary of Lords of Trade, [182].
Block, Adrian, Dutch trader, [165].
Blommaert, Samuel, Patroon, [170];
in Sweden, [175].
Board of Admiralty, created, [543].
Board of Trade, [346]-[347], [348], [354].
Board of War and Ordnance, [543].
Bobadilla, rule in West Indies, [17].
Bodega y Quadra, expeditions up Pacific coast, [395];
discovers Bodega Bay, [395].
Boisbriant, French commander in Illinois, [284].
Bonhomme Richard, sea-fight with the Serapis, [518]-[519].
Book of the Tartars, [3].
Boone, Daniel, on Watauga River,413;
effort to colonize Kentucky, [416];
opens "Wilderness Road," [417].
Boonesborough, Kentucky, founded, [417].
Boscawen, English admiral, [377], [380].
Bosque, Fernando del, expedition across Rio Grande, [248].
Boston, settled, [142];
population, [331];
resolutions against sending troops, [442];
Massacre, [443];
committee of correspondence, [446];
Tea Party, [447]-[448];
Port Act, [449];
siege, [461], [471].
Bourgmont, on Missouri and Kansas rivers, 1724, [284].
Boyano, Spanish explorer in North Carolina, 1567, [64].
Braddock, Major General Edward, campaign and defeat, [371]-[372].
Bradford, New Jersey, [199].
Bradford, Governor William, at Scrooby, [137];
History of Plymouth Plantation, [137];
elected governor of Plymouth, [139].
Bradstreet, English lieutenant-colonel, expedition against Fort
Frontenac, [378].
Brandenburgers, in the West Indies, [253].
Brandywine, Battle of, [499]-[500].
Brant, Iroquois chief, [515].
Brazil, Portugal's claims to, [11], [24];
French attempts to colonize, [84], [251];
Dutch colonization in, [166];
Brazos River, Texas, Coronado on, 1541, [45];
De Mézières on, [401].
Bréboeuf, French Jesuit, work among the Hurons, [88].
Breed's Hill, [461].
Brewster, William, at Scrooby, [137].
British East India Company, [70].
Brooke, Lord, interest in the Caribbean, [133];
holdings in Connecticut Valley, [149];
obtains lands in New Hampshire, [157].
Brooklyn, captured by the British, [484].
Brownists, [135].
Bruselas (Costa Rica), founding of, [31].
Bucarely, Viceroy of New Spain, 1771-1779;
sends explorers to Northern Pacific, [395].
Buddhist priest, supposed visit to America, [499] A.D., [2].
Buen Aire Island, settled by Dutch, [167].
Buffalo Plains, Spanish expeditions to, [72], [73].
Bunker Hill, Battle of, [461]-[462].
Burgoyne, General John, at Boston, [441];
New York campaign, [493]-[499].
Burke, Edmund, on conciliation, [456].
Burlington, New Jersey, body of laws, [201];
description of, [225]-[226].
Burma, Portuguese in, [24].
Bustamente y Tagle, expedition down Arkansas River against
Comanches, [291].
Bute Ministry, policy of, [429]-[430].
Button, Sir Thomas, explores Hudson Bay, [213].
Buzzard's Bay, settled by Pilgrims, [139].
Byllynge, Edward, proprietor West Jersey, [201], [202].
Bylot, explores Baffin Bay, [213].
Byng, English admiral, defeats Spanish fleet, [359].
Byron, Commodore John, in American Revolution, [510].
Cabildo, Spanish town council, [20];
membership and functions, [20].
Cabinet, development in the reign of Anne, [350]-[351];
system, [353].
Cabo del Engaño, discovered by Ulloa, [44].
Cabot, John, explorations of, [26], [105]-[106].
Cabral, Portuguese explorer, [24].
Cabrillo, Juan Rodríguez, explores Pacific coast, [47].
Cacaxtle Indians, in Texas, expedition against, [248].
Cadereyta, Nuevo León, founded, [247].
Cadillac, Lama the, founder of Detroit and of Louisiana, governor
of Louisiana, [277]-[278], [282].
Cadodacho Indians, La Harpe visits, [283].
Cahokia, captured by Clark, [514].
Cakchiquels, Indians of Guatemala, conquest of, [38].
Calderón, Bishop of Cuba, visits Florida in 1674, [254].
Cale, province sought by De Soto, [41].
Calender Stone, Aztec, [27].
Calicut, voyage to, [5].
California (Lower and Upper): expedition of Cabrillo and Ferrelo, [47];
on route of Manila trade, [68];
raids of Drake and Cavendish, [70];
new explorations, Cermeño and Vizcaíno, [70]-[71];
Oñates expedition by land, [73];
insular theory of California geography, [73], [241].
California, Lower: Cortés's colony in, [42];
Ulloa's voyage round the Peninsula, [44];
seventeenth century efforts to occupy, [240]-[242];
pearl fisheries, [240];
Iturbi's voyage, [240];
later attempts, [240]-[241];
Kino and Atondo, [242];
Jesuit occupation, [306]-[308];
Salvatierra and companions, [306];
expulsion of the Jesuits, [307], [386];
Franciscans in, [386];
Gálvez in, [386];
Dominicans in, [391].
California, Upper: threatened by Russia, [388];
derision of Spain to occupy, [388];
the Portolá expedition, [389];
Junípero Serra, [389];
San Diego and Monterey founded, [389];
plans for expansion, [389];
map, [390];
a land route from Arizona, [391];
San Francisco founded, [391];
communication with New Mexico attempted, [391];
explorations of Garcés, Escalante, and Domínguez, [392];
Neve governor, [392];
founding of pueblos San José and Los Angeles, [392];
the halfway post at Yuma and the Yuma massacre, [393]-[394];
Santa Bárbara and San Buenaventura founded, [394];
northern explorations by sea, [394]-[395].
Calvert, Cecilius, second Lord Baltimore, [126];
receives proprietary grant of Maryland, [126];
his powers and rights, [127], [128].
Calvert, Charles, proprietor of Maryland, [188]-[189].
Calvert, George, stockholder in Virginia Company, [125];
early history, [125];
becomes Baron of Baltimore, [125];
application for Virginia grant, [125]-[126];
death, [126].
Calvert, Leonard, governor of Maryland, [129].
Calvinism, in France, [78];
in New York, [222].
Cambridge Agreement, [142].
Cambridge, settled, [145].
Camden, fighting at, [525]-[526].
Campbell Colonel William, at King's Mountain, [527].
Canada, search for Northwest passage, Frobisher, Davis, Gilbert,
60, [108]-[109];
early French voyages, [81]-[82];
Acadia settled, [85]-[86];
St. Lawrence Valley exploration, settlements, fur trade,
seigniories, [86]-[93];
Newfoundland fisheries, [106];
Hudson's Bay Company, [212]-[214], [423];
struggle for fur country, [257]-[261];
in Wars of English and Spanish Successions, [262]-[267], [271]-[273];
Vérendrye in the West, [287]-[288];
in War of Austrian Succession, [364]-[366];
in French and Indian War, [374]-[383];
under British rule, [403]-[406], [419]-[424];
the Montreal traders, [421]-[424];
during American Revolution, [450], [462], [467], [470];
Loyalists, [421], [472]-[476]; [493], [538].
See Acadia, Colonial administration, English colonies, French
colonies, French and Indian War, fur trade, Hudson's Bay Company,
Jesuits, Loyalists, Montreal, Northwest Company, Quebec, the
intercolonial wars.
Canada Company, [141].
Canadian River, Oñate expedition to, [73].
Canary Islands, discovery of, [3];
other visits to, [4];
acquired by Spain, [8];
factor in trans-Atlantic navigation, [8];
natives of as colonists in Florida and Texas, [255], [298].
Cancer, Fray Luis, expedition to Florida, [61].
Cano, Francisco del, explorer in Coahuila, [59].
Cape Ann, settlement, [140].
Cape Blanco, California, [5], [71].
Cape Bojador, [2].
Cape Breton Island, [273], [365]-[383];
siege and defence of Louisbourg, [364]-[365].
Cape Fear, [26].
Cape Fear River, Ayllón at, [41].
Cape Finisterre, battles off, [365].
Cape Gaspé, [82], [87].
Cape of Good Hope, discovery of, [5];
trade route to Far East, [5].
Cape Horn, discovery of, [165].
Cape Mendocino, California on route of Manila galleon, [70].
Cape Nun, early voyages to, [3]-[4].
Cape St. Vincent, [4].
Cape Verde, reached by Portuguese, [5].
Cape Verde Islands, discovery of, [5].
Capuchins, in Louisiana, [280].
Carabajal, Luis de, governor of Kingdom of New León, [60];
expeditions and colonies, [60]-[61];
arrest and condemnation, [61].
Caria, Island of, [25].
Caribs, enslaved, [23];
De León's war against, [40].
Cárdenas, discovers Grand Canyon, [45].
Cardona, Thomas, monopoly of pearl fishing, [240].
Caribbean Sea. See West Indies, Lesser Antilles, and
individual islands.
Carleton, General Sir Guy, [487], [488].
Carlisle Commission, [509].
Carlisle, Lord, receives grant in the Caribbean, [132].
Carlos III, attitude toward American Revolution, [515].
Carmelites, in Louisiana, [280].
Carolinas, Gordillo and Quexos in Chicora, [26];
Ayllón's colony of San Miguel in, [40]-[41];
De Soto in North Carolina Piedmont, [42];
attempt of De Luna and Villafañe at Santa Elena (Port Royal), [61]-[62];
Ribaut's Huguenot colony at Port Royal, [62], [84];
Spanish post at Santa Elena, [64];
exploration of Pardo and Boyano, [64];
missions at Santa Elena and Orista, [64]-[65];
Menéndez's expeditions up coast, [65];
traders in, [102];
Carolina traders cross the Alleghanies, [102];
grant to Sir Robert Heath, [207];
settlement of Albemarle district, [207];
charters of 1663 and 1665, [207]-[208];
the proprietors, [208];
Locke's constitution, [208];
settlements, [208], [254];
effect on Spanish frontier policy, [254];
development of the colony, [210];
unrest at Charleston, [210]-[211];
the Albemarle region, [211];
Culpeper's rebellion, [211];
under William III, [346];
separation, [313];
Yamassee War, [314];
overthrow of proprietors, [314]-[315].
See also Albemarle District, North Carolina, South Carolina.
Carpenters' Hall, [452].
Carpini, John de Plano, author of Book of the Tartars, [3].
Carrero, Alonso, explorer in Central America, [32].
Cartagena, despoiled in War of English Succession, [262];
bombarded and besieged in War of Jenkins' Ear, [361], [363].
Carteret, Sir George, grant in the Jerseys, [198];
obtains East New Jersey, [198]-[199];
Carolina proprietor, [208];
interest in Hudson's Bay Company, [213].
Carteret, Philip, governor of East New Jersey, [198]-[199].
Cartier, Jacques, in the St. Lawrence, [81]-[82];
map showing explorations, [83].
Carver, Governor John, goes to Leyden, [137];
removal to Plymouth, [137];
confirmed as governor, [138];
death, [139].
Casa de Contratación, [19];
duties and organization, [19];
subordinate to Council of Indies, [20].
Casas Grandes (Nueva Vizcaya), [56], [242].
Casco Bay settlement, [140];
submits to Massachusetts, [158];
attacks on, [262], [263].
Castañeda, explores coast of Central America, [29].
Castile, kingdom of, [13]-[14];
ownership of Spanish America, [19].
Castilla del Oro, province of, settlement, organization, and
jurisdiction of, [28]-[29].
Catalonia, [13].
Catawba Indians, hostile to French of Louisiana, [270], [369].
Catherine de Medici, [78].
Catherine II, of Russia, the League of Armed Neutrals, [519].
Catholic Church, [13]-[14];
Charles V protector of, [16];
its agencies against the Reformation, [52];
leaders, [78], [79];
in Maryland, [128], [229];
in New York, [223];
in Canada under British rule, [420].
See California, Canada, Louisiana, Florida, New Mexico,
Texas, Missions.
Catholic League, The, [79].
Cattle industry, in Spanish colonies, [19], [21], [58], [75], [240];
in the English colonies, [310], [334].
Cavendish, Thomas, English freebooter, [70];
circumnavigation of the globe, [108].
Cavelier, Abbé Jean, brother of La Salle, urges colonization of
Louisiana, [275].
Cavelier, Robert, sieur de la Salle. See La Salle.
Caymán Islands, granted to Providence Island Company, [133].
Cebú, Philippines, settled by Spaniards, [68].
Cedros (Cerros) Islands, [71], [307].
Celaya, Mexico, founded, [59].
Cempoalla, Cortés at, [33].
Central America, exploration of eastern coasts, [23]-[26];
Maya and Nahua civilizations, [26]-[28];
Castilla del Oro, [28]-[29];
Balboa and Pedrarias, [29];
Panamá founded, [29];
discovery of the Pacific and South Sea exploration, [29]-[31];
map, [30];
conquest of Costa Rica and Nicaragua, [31];
of Guatemala, San Salvador and Honduras, [31], [37], [38], [39];
of Yucatán, [38];
exploration of the San Juan River, [31]-[32];
the dukedom of Veragua, [32];
continued struggle, [32].
Cermeño, Sebastián Rodríguez, explores California coast, [71].
Cerro de la Plata, Texas, [248].
Ceuta, Moorish stronghold, [4].
Ceylon, visited by the Polos, [3];
acquired by Portugal, [24].
Ceynos, oidor of New Spain, [49].
Chagres, Central America, captured by England, [361].
Chalchuites, mine of, [56].
Challons, Henry, voyage of 1606, [116].
Champlain, Samuel de, explorations, [85], [87];
associated with Sieur de Monts, [86];
sends expedition in search of Northwest Passage, [88];
last days, [88].
Chamuscado, Francisco Sánchez, expedition to New Mexico, [72].
Chancellor, Richard, expedition to Russia, [106].
Chapuis, Jean, expedition to New Mexico, [286].
Chapultepec, Mexico, [28].
Charcas (San Luis Potosí), Mexico, founded, [59].
Charles I, of England, policy of, [112]-[114];
the tobacco business, [124]-[125];
end of personal rule, [152].
Charles II, of England, grant to the Duke of York, [178];
restoration, [179];
general policy, [179];
navigation acts, [180]-[181];
policy of imperial defense, [181];
fiscal system, [181];
orders return of Governor Berkeley, [187];
attitude toward Massachusetts, [189]-[190];
grants charters to Connecticut and Rhode Island, [190];
royal commissioners, [190]-[191];
sends Edward Randolph, [192]-[193];
annulment of Massachusetts charter, [193];
royal commission to the colonies, [197];
issues charter to Hudson's Bay Company, [213]-[214].
Charles III, of Spain, reforms of, [384]-[385].
See Carlos II.
Charles V, emperor, [14], [16];
his inheritance, [16];
elected Holy Roman Emperor, [16];
his European contests, [16];
expansion of New Spain during his reign, [16];
emigration policy, [21];
sale of Spain's claim to the Moluccas, [46];
abdication, [52].
Charleston, South Carolina,
founded, [210], [254];
social conditions, [231];
Spanish expedition against, [270];
commerce, [335];
defense against British, [471];
captured by Clinton, [524]-[525].
Charlestown, Massachusetts, settled, [142].
Charles Town, South Carolina, [208].
Charlotiana, proposed colony of, [411].
Charlotte Bay, Menéndez at, [64].
Chauvin, French fur trader, associated with de Monts, [85].
Charnisay, struggle with LaTour in Acadia, [86].
Cherokee Indians, unite against France, [270];
French influence, [314];
Cuming's Mission, [315];
attack English during French and Indian War, [369], [378]-[379];
cede lands, [412], [417];
retard expansion, [414];
war during the Revolution, [512]-[513].
Cherry Valley, [514].
Chesapeake Bay, Menéndez's plans for, [64];
Jesuit mission at, [65].
Chester, Governor of West Florida, [407].
Chiametla, Mexico, Ibarra at, [56].
Chiaha, Georgia, Boyano at, [64].
Chiapas, Mexico, population in 1574, [75].
Chichén Itza, Maya ruins, [27].
Chickasaw Indians, French alliance with, [276];
French war with, [281];
hostile to English, [403], [407], [414];
on the British side during Revolution, [514].
Chickasaw Trail,
[211]-[212], [369].
Chico, conquistador in Jalisco, [36], [37].
Chicora, region in Carolina, attempt to colonize, [26], [40]-[41].
Chihuahua, Mexico, [41], [56];
industrial development, [58];
advance of settlement in, [242];
Missions established, [242];
discovery of the mines, [289];
advance down the Conchos Valley, [290];
capital of the Interior Provinces, [387].
Chile, trade with, [66].
China, early contact with America, [2];
travelers' tales of, [3];
Portuguese trading settlements in, [24];
search for northwest passage to, [82], [88], [100];
market for Russian traders, [388].
Chipewyan Indians, trade with Hudson's Bay Company, [214].
Chirinos, veedor of New Spain, [48].
Choctaw Indians, hostile to French, [280], [281];
French smuggling among, [406];
at war with Chickasaws, [407];
retard English expansion, [414];
on the British side during Revolution, [514].
Cholula, Mexico, Cortés at, [33].
Chozas, Father Pedro, Franciscan Missionary in Georgia, [65].
Christian, Col. William, [513].
Christiansen, Dutch navigator, [165].
Church, Benjamin, expedition against Acadia, [271].
Cíbola (New Mexico), search for, [42]-[46].
Cipango. See Japan.
Claiborne, William, trouble with Maryland, [128].
Clarendon, Earl of (Edward Hyde), Carolina proprietor, [208].
Clark, Daniel, speculator at Natchez, [408].
Clark, George Rogers, conquers Northwest, [514];
assists Spanish commander at St. Louis, [516].
Clamorgan, fur trader at St. Louis, explores Missouri River, [402].
Clifford, English freebooter, [66].
Clinton, Gen. Sir. H., at siege of Boston, [461];
at Charleston, [471];
captures forts on the Hudson, [498];
in command of British forces in America, [509];
evacuation of Philadelphia, [509];
Monmouth, [509]-[510];
reinforces Newport, [510];
seizes points on the Hudson, [511];
orders raids, [511];
orders evacuation of Newport, [511];
concentration at New York, [511];
blockades Newport, [511];
correspondence with Arnold, [511];
captures Charleston, [524]-[525].
Coahuila, province of, Vaca crosses, [41];
Tlascaltecan Indians used as colonists in, [60];
founding of, [248];
development, [248]-[249], [292],387;
map, [250].
Coça, Alabama, Spanish colony at, [61], [62].
See Coosa.
Coddington, William, Rhode Island
magistrate, [148];
governor, [159].
Codrington, English general, attacks Guadeloupe, 1703, [268].
Codrington College, [339].
Coíba, Island of, Balboa granted, [29].
Colbert, controller general of finances of France, [81];
policy with regard to New France, [81], [94].
Coligny, Admiral, Huguenot leader, [52], [78]-[79].
Colima, founded, [37].
College of New Jersey, [339].
Colleton, James, governor of Carolinas, [211].
Colleton, Sir John, interest in Carolinas, [207]-[208].
Colonial administration: Spanish, beginnings in the West Indies,
8, [19]-[23];
establishment of the viceroyalty of New Spain, [47]-[50];
under Philip II, [52]-[55];
the merchant fleets, [66];
administrative subdivisions, [75]-[76];
frontier administration in the [17]th century, [234]-[237];
Jesuit control in Lower California, [306]-[307];
reorganization of New Spain after 1763;
the reforms of Charles III and Gálvez, [384]-[388];
in Louisiana, [397]-[398];
French, Colbert's policy, [81];
in Canada, [85], [87], [90];
reorganization, [91];
Talon, [92];
seignorial grants, [92];
in West Indies, [93]-[96];
in Louisiana, [276];
the Company of the Indies, [278]-[280];
the royal governors, [280]-[281];
English, policy of the Early Stuarts, [113]-[114];
regulation of tobacco industry, [122]-[125];
during the Commonwealth and the Protectorate, [153];
under the Later Stuarts, [179]-[183];
William III's reorganizations, [343]-[350];
under Anne, [350]-[352];
under the Whigs, [353]-[357];
organization of new possessions after French and Indian War,
403-[423];
on the Eve of the American Revolution, [425]-[426];
Dutch, in New Netherlands, [166], [167]-[168];
patroon system, [169]-[170];
struggle for popular rights, [172]-[173].
Colonial Currency Act, [431].
Colorado River, exploration of, [45];
Grand Canyon discovered, [45];
Kino, Keller, Sedelmayr, and Consag at, [302], [304].
Colorado, State; Spanish explorers in, [291]-[292].
Columbia River, discovered by Heçeta, [395].
Columbus, Bartholomew, in England, [7].
Columbus, Christopher, early life, [7];
sojourn in Spain, [7];
commission, [8];
discovery of America, [8]-[10];
map showing voyages, [9];
sojourn in West Indies, and return to Europe, [10];
rule in West Indies, [16]-[19];
second and third voyages, [16]-[17];
charges against, [17];
fourth voyage, [24];
attempted colony on Veragua coast, [28].
Columbus, Diego, rule and work of in West Indies, [17], [20].
Comanche Indians, barrier to French expansion, [285];
treaty with, [286];
French advance through country of, [286].
Commerce and Trade, with Africa, [5];
with Asia, [5];
Portuguese in the East, [24];
slave trade, [5], [23], [107], [196], [197], [253], [385];
of Spanish Colonies, [8], [16]-[19], [29], [46], [47], [75], [118], [164], [166],
234, [251]-[252], [268], [269], [273], [292], [307], [359], [384], [398], [400];
Casa de Contratación, [19]-[20];
trading voyages, [23]-[24];
San Juan River route, [31]-[32];
route of fleets, [62], [64];
Spanish monopoly, [65]-[66];
freebooters, [62], [66]-[67], [70];
Puerto Bello, [32], [360], [361];
Vera Cruz port, [66];
the Manila galleon, [66]-[70], [307];
Acapulco port, [86];
pearl fisheries, [68], [71], [240], [243]-[244];
the Pichilingues, [240];
reforms of Chas. III, [385];
Louisiana trade, [398];
Spanish horse trade, [400];
French West India Company, [91]-[92], [94], [96];
Company of St. Christopher, [93], [94];
Company of Hundred Associates, [87], [90];
Company of New France, [91];
Company of Isles of America, [94];
Compagnie du Nord, [273];
Crozat's grant, [276]-[278];
Compagnie d'Occident, [279]-[284];
Dutch commercial expansion, [164]-[166];
in Java, [164];
in Guiana, [166]-[167], [251]-[252];
Dutch East India Company, [164]-[165];
Dutch West India Company, [166], [252];
in New Netherlands, [173]-[174];
Danes in West Indies, [253];
Russian trade in China, [388];
Early English trade expansion, [105]-[107];
East India Company, [70], [108], [447];
Muscovy Company, [106];
Eastland Company, [108];
Venetian Company, [107];
Newfoundland fisheries, [106];
Northeast Passage, [106], [108], [164], [213];
Hawkins in Brazil, [107];
Company of Cathay, [109];
Guiana, [130]-[132];
Canada Company, [141];
Council of Trade, [114], [182];
Committee on Trade and Plantations, [153], [344];
Navigation Acts, [153], [180]-[181], [348]-[349], [351], [354]-[355];
Mercantilist System, [179];
Admiralty Courts, [182]-[183], [349];
Customs Officials, [183], [439];
Council for Trade and Plantations, [182];
Board of Trade, [346]-[348], [543];
African Company, [196], [199];
Hudson's Bay Company, [212]-[214];
Asiento of 1713, [273], [289];
Trade of New England, [217], [331];
Rhode Island, [216];
Massachusetts, [217];
New York, [221]-[222], [331]-[332];
Pennsylvania and New Jersey, [225]-[226];
Delaware, [332]-[333];
Virginia and Maryland, [188], [228]-[229], [333]-[334];
South Carolina, [102], [230]-[231];
English Florida, [407]-[408];
Detroit, [422];
of Bermudas, [130];
of Barbados, [210], [340];
of West Indies, [339]-[341], [356], [398];
St. Eustatius Island, [341], [428];
Leeward Islands, [340];
smuggling, [359]-[360], [361], [385], [398], [406], [428];
Grenville's policy, [429]-[437];
Townshend Acts, [438]-[439];
North's policy, [449]-[451];
policy of First Continental Congress, [454]-[455];
Board of Admiralty, [543].
Commission for Foreign Plantations, trouble with Massachusetts,
[145]-[146].
Committees of Correspondence, [436], [445]-[447].
Committee on Foreign Correspondence, [543].
Committee on Trade and Plantations, [153], [344].
Committee for Foreign Plantations, [153].
Committee of Trade, Plantations, and Foreign Affairs, [153].
Compagnie d'Occident, rule in Louisiana, [278]-[280];
trade in the trans-Mississippi West, [282].
Compagnie du Nord, competition with Hudson's Bay Company, [273].
Company of Cathay, [109].
Company of Hundred Associates, [87], [90].
Company of the Indies. See Compagnie d'Occident.
Company of Isles of America, organization, [93];
activities and settlements, [94].
Company of New France, surrender of rights, [91].
Company of Royal Adventurers trading to Africa, [196].
Company of St. Christopher, [93], [94].
Compostela, capital of Nueva Galicia, [39], [45], [55].
Conant, Roger, [141].
Conchos Indians, [242].
Conchos River, [72];
Spanish advance down valley of, [290].
Congregational Church, in New England, [220];
in New York, [223];
in East New Jersey, [224];
in South Carolina, [231].
Connecticut, early claimants, [149];
migration of 1635-1636, [149];
Pequot War, [149]-[150];
"Fundamental Orders," [150];
code of 1650, [155];
member of New England Confederation, [156];
incorporation of new towns, [158];
charter of 1662, [190];
attitude toward royal commissioners, [191];
King Philip's War, [191]-[192];
Dominion of New England, [194]-[195];
charter restored, [195];
population, [216];
religion, [220];
education, [220];
restoration of charter, [334];
protest against Grenville's policy, [432];
navy, [518].
Consag, Father Fernando, explores Gulf of California, [304], [307].
Conspiracy of Pontiac, impedes English occupation of Ohio Valley,
[409], [417].
Continental Army, [464].
Continental Congress. See First Continental Congress,
Second Continental Congress.
Convention of Aranjuez, [515].
Conway Cabal, [503]-[504].
Cook, Captain James, voyage to Nootka Sound, [395].
Cooper, Anthony Ashley. Lord Ashley, Carolina proprietor, [207]-[208];
interest in Hudson's Say Company, [213].
Copala, Mexico, Ibarra seeks, [56].
Coppermine River, discovered by Hearne, [424].
Corazones, Sonora, settlement at, [45].
Córdova, Francisco Hernández de, conquests in Central America,
explores Yucatán, [25], [31], [32].
Cornwallis, Edward, Governor of Acadia, [366].
Cornwallis, Gen. Lord, captures Ft. Lee, [489];
New Jersey campaign, [489]-[493];
at Brandywine, [500];
in command in South, [525];
Camden, [525]-[526];
operations in the Carolinas, [527]-[529];
in Virginia, [530];
Yorktown, [532].
Coronado, Francisco Vásquez, governor of Nueva Galicia, [40];
expedition to Cibola and Quivira (New Mexico and Kansas), [44]-[46];
conquest of Pueblo Indians, [45].
Corregidores, [14], [49].
Corregimientos, [55], [76].
Cortés, Hernando, [25], [31];
conquests, [32]-[38];
revolt of and departure from Cuba, [32];
founds Vera Cruz, [33];
at Mexico City, [33];
contest for royal favor, [34];
governor and captain-general, [34];
spread of his conquests, [36]-[39];
expelled from Vera Cruz, [36];
march to Honduras, [38];
return to Spain, [38];
explorations on South Sea and in California, [42]-[44], [46];
contest for leadership, [44];
administrator, [47]-[48];
residencia, [48];
honored in Spain, [49].
Cortés, Martin, second Marquis of the Valley, [53]-[54].
Cortes, governing bodies in Castile and Aragon, [14].
Costa Rica, conquest of, [31].
Cotton, John, pastor of Boston church, [146];
the Hutchinsonian Controversy, [148].
Council for Foreign Plantations, [181].
Council for New England, [136]-[137];
grants patent to Plymouth, [319];
land grants, [140];
resigns charter, [146].
Council for Trade and Plantations, [182].
Council of Blood, [52].
Council of the Indies, organization, duties, and authority, [19]-[20];
promulgates New Laws, [50].
Council of the Inquisition, [14];
expulsion of Jews and Moors, [14].
Council of State, English, [152], [153].
Council of Trade of 1622, [114];
of 1625, [114];
of 1660, [182].
Council of Trent, [52].
Council of Virginia, [113].
Coureurs de bois, [90], [100], [102], [257], [422].
Courten, William, proprietor in Barbados and Carolina, [132],
[133].
Court of High Commission, [135].
Couture, Jean, on Tennessee River, [102].
"Cowpens," established on the English frontier.
Cowpens, battle at, [528].
Coxe, Daniel, New Jersey proprietor, [202].
Craven, William, Lord Craven, Carolina proprietor, [208].
Cree Indians, trade of Hudson's Bay Company with, [214].
Creek Indians, Spanish missions among, [255];
French influence, [314];
English diplomacy and trade among, [316], [407], [412];
retard English expansion, [414].
Criminals, [336].
Croghan, surveys in Ohio Valley, [413].
Croix, Teodoro de, first commandant-general of the Interior
Provinces, [387], [304];
plans war on Apaches, [401].
Cromwell, Oliver, heads military party, [152];
member of Committee of Trade, Plantations, and Foreign Affairs, [153];
Lord Protector, [154];
conquers Jamaica, [253].
Crown Colonies, British, established in 1763, [404].
Crown Point, [313], [462], [487].
Crozat, Antoine, trade monopoly in Louisiana, [276]-[277];
government, [277];
attempts at trade expansion, [278];
surrender of patent, [278].
Crusades, effect on travel and geographical knowledge, [3].
Crúzate, Governor, attempts to reconquer New Mexico, [246].
Cuartelejo, El, Colorado, Urribarri's expedition to, [291];
Villazur's, [296].
Cuauhtemoc, Aztec ruler, executed by Cortés, [33], [38].
Cuba, explored by Columbus and Ocampo, [10], [17], [25];
Cortés in, [32];
decline of, [67];
English attempt to conquer, [363].
Cubero, governor of New Mexico, subdues Pueblos, [247];
founds Albuquerque, [290];
sends expedition to El Cuartelejo, [291].
Cuernavaca, Mexico, estates of Cortés at, [53].
Culiacán, founded, [39];
visited by Vaca, [41]; point of departure for Friar Marcos, [44];
for Coronado, [45];
for Ibarra, [56];
population, [58].
Culpeper, Thomas, Lord, proprietary grant in Virginia, [185];
governor of Virginia, [187].
Cumberland settlement, Tennessee, [419].
Cuming, Sir Alexander, mission to the Cherokees, [315].
Curaçao, settled by the Dutch, [167], [252];
trade, [428].
Cusihuiriáchic, Chihuahua, settled, [242].
Customs officials, [183], [439].
Dale, Sir Thomas, deputy-governor of Virginia, [119];
policy, [121].
Danes, in the West Indies, [253].
Daniel, Robert, English colonel, [269].
Davenport, Reverend John, a founder of New Haven, [156].
Davidson County, North Carolina, [419].
Davila, Gil González. See González.
Davis, John, seeks northwest passage, [66], [109].
Dawes, William, [460].
Deane, Silas, mission to France, [506].
De Chastes, in fur trading company, [85].
De Caylus, French admiral, [365].
Declaration of Independence, [476]-[481].
Declaratory Act, [438].
Deerfield, Massachusetts, massacre at, [271].
Delaware province, economic and social conditions in the eighteenth
century, [332]-[333];
separation from Pennsylvania, [350].
Delaware Indians, [416].
Delaware, Lord, governor of Virginia, [118]-[119].
Delaware River, Washington's retreat across, [489]-[492];
opened by the British, [502].
De León, Alonso, governor of Coahuila, [248];
founds Texas, [249], [251].
De León, Juan Ponce, explores coast, [17], [25], [26];
war against the Caribs, [40];
attempts to colonize Florida, [40].
De León, Luís Ponce, governor in Mexico, holds residencia of
Cortéz, [48].
DeLepe, explorer, [24].
Delgado, Marcos, explores western Florida, [249].
DeLignery, [287], campaign in Wisconsin, 1715, [287].
De Louvigny, victory over Foxes in Wisconsin, 1716, [275], [287].
De Luna, Tristán, expedition to Florida, [61]-[62].
De Medici, Catherine, [78].
De Medici, Mary, [79], [80].
De Mézières, Athanase, rule in Red River Valley, [398], [401].
Denmark, joins League of Armed Neutrals, [520].
Denonville, Governor, campaign against Iroquois, [258]-[259].
Department of foreign affairs (United States), [555].
De Soto, Hernando, in Central America, [31];
governor of Florida, [41];
expedition of, [41]-[42], [44];
death, [42].
D'Estaing, Comte, in command of French fleet, [510];
failure at Newport, [510];
in West Indies, [510]-[511];
fails to relieve Savannah, [511], [524].
Destruction of the Indies, The, work by Las Casas, [50].
De Tracy, lieutenant-colonel of New France, [94].
Detroit, founding of, [101];
occupied by French, [267], [368];
fur trading post, [422]:
during American Revolution, [513], [514].
De Troyes, captures Hudson Bay posts, [261].
Díaz, Bartholomew, explores African coast, [5].
Díaz, Melchior, explores Colorado River, [45].
Dickinson, John, member of the Stamp Act Congress, [436];
author of the Farmer's Letters, [439]:
member of First Continental Congress, [452];
attitude toward Declaration of Independence, [478];
on committee to draw up Articles of Confederation, [550].
Dieskau, Baron, [374].
Dinwiddie, lieutenant-governor of Virginia, [369].
Disallowance, [351]-[352].
Dollard, resistance to Iroquois, [91].
Dolores y Viana, Father, missionary in Texas, [299].
Dominica Island, captured by French, [510];
battle between Rodney and De Grasse, [532].
Dominicans, in New Spain, [61];
field of work, [236].
Domínguez, Father Francisco, explores Utah Basis, [392].
Donelson, pioneer in Kentucky, [419].
Dongan, Thomas, governor of New York, [197]-[198];
policy toward Indians, [258].
Dorchester, settled, [142].
Dorchester Heights, [471].
Douro River, Portugal, [4], [13].
Dover, New Hampshire, [140];
Puritan settlers, [157];
claimed by Massachusetts, [157].
Drake, Francis, freebooter in West Indies, [66];
raid on Pacific coast, [70];
accompanies Hawkins, [107];
attack on Nombre de Dios, [107];
on Chagres River, [107];
circumnavigates globe, [108];
rescues Roanoke Island colonists, [110].
Drake's Bay, California, [70].
Ducasse, French naval commander, in intercolonial wars, [262], [268], [269].
Duchesneau, intendant of New France, [97];
recalled, [98].
Ducour, French commander, surrenders Louisbourg, [377].
Dudley, Thomas, deputy governor, [142];
governor, [146].
Duke's Laws, [197].
Duluth, fur trader in Minnesota and Wisconsin, [100].
Dunmore, Lord, governor of Virginia, [413];
war with Indians of Ohio Valley, [417];
difficulties in 1775, [462]-[463].
Duquesne, Marquis, governor-general of Canada, [368];
plans to occupy Ohio country, [368].
Durango, Mexico, founding of, [56];
industrial development, [58];
capital of Nueva Vizcaya, [242].
Durham, Massacre at, [266].
Du Rivage, French explorer on Red River, 1719, [283].
Dutch, destroy English settlement on Schuylkill River, [155];
in American Revolution, [520]-[522];
revolt of the Netherlands, [52];
Dutch freebooters in the Caribbean, [66];
commercial expansion of the Netherlands, [164];
East Indian trade, [164];
Henry Hudson, [165];
Cape Horn route discovered, [165];
the West India Company, [166];
the Dutch in Brazil, Guiana, and the Antilles, [166], [251]-[252];
New Netherlands, [167]-[174];
the government, [167];
Peter Minuit, [167]-[168];
the patroon system, [169]-[170];
frontier rivals, [170];
Van Twiller and Kieft, [170]-[171];
Indian wars, [172];
Stuyvesant, [172];
struggle for popular government, [172]-[173];
industries, [173]-[174];
conquest of New Sweden, [175]-[177];
New Netherlands absorbed by the English, [177]-[178], [196]-[197];
Dutch pirates on the Pacific, [240].
Dutch East India Company, [164]-[165].
Dutch Reformed Church, [223].
Dutch West India Company, [166], [252].
Du Tisné, explores Osage and Arkansas country, [283].
Dyer, Mary, [189].
East India Company, English, formed, [70], [105];
tea concessions, [447].
East Indies, commerce of, [70].
Eastland Company, [106].
East New Jersey, population, [221];
social conditions, [223]-[224];
religion, [224];
education, [224].
See New Jersey.
Eaton, Theophilus, a founder of New Haven, [150].
Eaton's Station, [513].
Echagaray, ordered to explore Bay of Espíritu Santo, [249].
Ecija, expedition from Florida to Virginia, 1609, [118]-[119].
Edict of Nantes, [79].
Edisto Island, ravaged by Spaniards, 1686, [255].
Education, in New Spain, [50], [53];
colleges and universities, [76];
in New England, [220]-[221];
in New York, [222]-[223];
in East New Jersey, [224];
in Chesapeake Bay region, [229];
in South Carolina, [231];
in English colonies in the eighteenth century, [338]-[339].
Edwards, Jonathan, [338].
Elcano, completes Magellan's voyage round the world, [25].
Eleutheria Island, settled, [152].
Eliot, John, missionary to Indians, [156].
Elizabethtown, New Jersey, [199].
Elizabeth, Queen of England, policy, [105];
English expansion during reign, [107]-[111].
El Paso district, beginnings of, [245];
attached to New Mexico, [245].
Emigration. See Immigration and Population.
Encomiendas, origin of, [22];
granting of in conquests, [31], [34], [40], [55];
upheld by Cortés, [47]-[48]; New Laws concerning, [50];
cessation of, in West Indies, [67];
in New Spain, [55], [75].
Endicott, John, founds Salem, [141].
England, the Tudor Period, [104]-[105];
under the early Stuarts, [112]-[113];
the Puritan movement, [135]-[136];
the Restoration, [179];
the mercantilist system, [179];
the Triple Alliance, [359];
in the War of Jenkins's Ear, [361]-[364];
in the War of the Austrian Succession, [364]-[366];
in the Seven Years' War, [369]-[383];
new possessions after 1763, [403]-[424];
controversy with American colonies, [425]-[555].
English colonies in North America, general history:
beginning of English expansion, 1485-1603, [104]-[110];
the Tudor period, [104]-[105];
commercial expansion, [105]-[107];
the Cabots, [105];
Newfoundland fisheries, [106];
Muscovy and Levant companies, [106];
Elizabethan sea-dogs, [107]-[108];
search for a Northwest passage, [108]-[109];
attempts to colonize Virginia and Guiana, [109]-[110];
the colonies under the early Stuarts, [112]-[113];
colonial administration, [113];
the founding of Virginia, [114]-[125];
the founding of Maryland, [125]-[129];
the Bermudas, [129];
Guiana, [130];
the Lesser Antilles, [132];
Providence Island Company, [133];
the beginnings of New England, [135]-[150];
the Puritan movement, [135]-[136];
Plymouth colony, [136]-[141];
attempts on New England coast, [141]-[142];
Massachusetts Bay Colony, [142]-[146];
Rhode Island and Connecticut, [146]-[151];
the English colonies during the revolutionary period, [152]-[163];
the old colonies under the later Stuarts, [179]-[195];
colonial policy and administration, [179]-[181];
machinery of government, [181]-[183];
expansion under the later Stuarts, [196]-[214];
New York, [196]-[198];
the Jerseys, [198]-[202];
Pennsylvania, [202]-[206];
expansion in the islands, [206]-[207];
the Carolinas, [207]-[211];
Western trade and exploration, [211];
Hudson's Bay Company, [212]-[214];
English Mainland colonies at end of [17]th century described—
society, industry, education, religion, population, [216]-[232];
the struggle with the French for the fur country, [257]-[261];
the War of the English Succession, [261]-[267];
the War of the Spanish Succession, [267]-[273];
the English in the Piedmont, [309]-[328];
the Westward Movement, [309]-[311];
defense of the northern frontier, [311]-[312];
reorganization of the Carolinas, [312]-[315];
Georgia, the buffer colony, [315]-[316];
the German and Swiss migration, [316]-[322];
the Scotch-Irish, [322]-[326];
significance of settlement of the Piedmont, [326]-[328];
the English colonies in the middle [18]th century, population,
industry, labor systems, society, religion, education, [329]-[339];
Barbados, Leeward Isles, and Jamaica, [339]-[341];
the English colonial system, [343]-[357];
reorganizations by William III, [343]-[350];
development during the reign of Anne, [350]-[352];
under the Whigs, [353]-[357];
a quarter century of conflict with France and Spain, [359]-[383];
Spain and the powers, [359]-[361];
War of Jenkins' Ear, [361]-[364];
War of the Austrian Succession, [364]-[366];
the conflict in the Ohio Valley, [366]-[369];
the French and Indian War, [369]-[382];
the Peace of Paris, [382];
the new British possessions, 1763-1783, [403]-[424];
general provisions for defense, government, and fur trade, [403]-[406];
occupation of the Floridas, [406]-[409];
military occupation of the Illinois country, [409]-[410];
western land schemes, [411]-[413];
the westward movement into Tennessee, Kentucky, and the Upper
Ohio country, [413]-[419];
the province of Quebec, [410]-[421];
the northern, fur traders, [421]-[424];
the causes of the American Revolution, [425]-[456];
the background of the conflict, [425]-[429];
the policy of the Grenvile Ministry, [429]-[437];
the repeal of the Stamp Act, [431]-[432];
the Townshend Acts, [438]-[443];
organized resistance, [443]-[447];
the Tea Controversy, [447]-[449];
Lord North's Coercive Policy, [440]-[451];
the First Continental Congress, [451]-[456];
the opening of hostilities, [458]-[463];
the Second Continental Congress, [463]-[470];
the Loyalists, [472]-[476];
the Declaration of Independence, [476]-[480];
the struggle for the middle states, [482]-[504];
the war as an international contest, [505]-[522];
the French Alliance, [505]-[512];
the war in the West, [512]-[515];
Spain in the war, [521]-[522];
the dose of the war, [524]-[532];
the treaty of peace, [532]-[538];
governmental development during the Revolution, [539]-[555].
Episcopal Church, in New England, [220];
in New York, [222];
in Pennsylvania, [226];
in Virginia, [229];
in Maryland, [229];
in South Carolina, [231].
Eric the Red, colonization of Greenland,
[2].
Escalante, Father Silvestre de, explores Utah Basin, [392].
Escandón, Colonel José de, colonizes Gulf Coast, [299]-[300], [385].
Escobar, Cristóbal, Jesuit provincial, urges colonization of Colorado
River, [304], [307].
Española (Haiti), [10];
spread of settlements in, [17];
gold mining, [19];
other industries, [19];
emigration to, encouraged, migration from to mainland forbidden, [21];
decline of, [67].
See also West Indies.
Espejo, Antonio de, expedition to New Mexico, [72].
Espinosa, Gaspar de, explores Central America, [29]-[30], [42].
Espinosa, Fray Isidro Felix, Franciscan missionary and historian in
Texas, [292], [293].
Espíritu Santo, settlement in Texas, [36];
Bay of, [249], [297].
Esquivel, Juan de, colonizes Jamaica, [17].
Estete, explores Nicaragua, [32].
Estrada, royal treasurer of New Spain, [48];
governor in Mexico, [48].
Eutaw Springs, [530].
Executive departments of United States government, [553], [554]-[555].
See Second Continental Congress.
Exeter, New Hampshire, settled, [157].
Fabry de la Bruyère, expedition up Canadian River, [286].
Fages, Pedro, expedition against the Yumas, [394].
Falmouth burned, [470].
Far East, travelers in, and books regarding, [3];
change in trade route to, [5].
Farfán, Marcos, explores Arizona, [73].
Farmar, Major Robert, expedition to the Illinois, [406].
Farmer's Letters, [439]-[440].
Farnese, Elizabeth, [279], [359], [360], [361].
Fenwick, John, [201].
Ferdinand and Isabella, [13]-[14].
See also Isabella, Queen of Spain.
Ferrelo, explores north Pacific coast with Cabrillo, [47].
Feudalism, in Maryland, [125]-[129].
Finlay, James, Montreal fur magnate, [423].
Finley, explorer in Kentucky, [413].
First Continental Congress, call, [451]-[452];
meeting, [452];
Suffolk resolves, [452];
plan of union, [452]-[453];
declaration and resolves, [453]-[454];
commercial agreements, [454]-[455];
Association, [455];
attempts to secure cooperation of other colonies, [455];
beginnings of sovereignty, [539].
Fisher, Mary, [189].
Fishing industry of New England, [217], [331].
Fletcher, Colonel Benjamin, governor of New York, [345].
Florida Blanca, Count of, Spanish Minister of Foreign Affairs, [507]-[508];
policy, [515].
Floyd, John, prospector in Kentucky, [416].
Florida, Indians, [23];
explored, [125], [126];
assigned to Narváez, [37];
Spanish attempts to colonize:
De León, [40];
Ayllón, [40]-[41];
De Soto, [42];
Fray Luis Cancer, [61];
De Luna, [61]-[62];
French attempts to colonize, and expulsion of by Spain, [62]-[63], [83]-[84], [251];
founding of St. Augustine, [62];
map, [63];
new settlements, [64];
Jesuit missions, [64]-[65];
Franciscan missions, [65];
Pareja's work on Indian languages, [65], [253];
missions in Apalachee district, [247];
English encroachment, [253]-[255];
Pensacola founded, [255], [275];
during War of Spanish Succession, [269]-[271];
siege of St. Augustine, [269]-[270];
destruction of the Apalachee missions, [269]-[270];
Spanish expedition against Charleston, [270];
Indian uprising, [270];
the Tuscarora War, [271];
Pensacola captured by French, [295];
ceded to England, [382], [384];
captaincy-general of, [387].
Florida, East, under British rule, [404];
occupation and development, [408]-[409];
refuge for Loyalists, [409].
Florida, West, joined with Louisiana, [398];
extent under British rule, [404];
possession taken by British, [406];
posts in, [406];
boundary and the river forts, [406]-[407];
center of control for Indians and for trade of the Southwest, [407];
politics and government, [407];
development under British rule, [407]-[408];
immigration encouraged, [408];
land speculation, [408];
Loyalist refuge during the Revolution, [408].
Fonseca, Archdeacon, head of Spanish department of Indian affairs,
16, [19], [34];
victory of Cortés over, [34].
Fonseca Bay, discovered, [29].
Font, Father Pedro, Franciscan missionary with Anza, explores in
California, [391].
Forbes, English commander, expedition against Fort Duquesne, [377], [378].
Fort Bute, captured by Gálvez, [515].
Fort Casimir, [177].
Fort Caroline, French fort in Florida, [62], [84].
Fort Christina, [175].
Fort Crêvecœur, Illinois, [98].
Fort Edward, [495].
Fort Elfsborg, [175].
Fort Frederica, [316].
Fort Frontenac, abandoned, [259];
reoccupied, [265].
Fort George, [462].
Fort Good Hope, [170].
Fort Independence, [493]-[494].
Fort Jefferson, [514].
Fort King George, [315].
Fort Lee, captured by the British, [488]-[489].
Fort Mercer, [503].
Fort Miami, LaSalle at, [98].
Fort Mifflin, [503].
Fort Orange (Albany), [167].
Fort Panmure, at Natchez, captured by Gálvez, [515].
Fort Rosalie, at Natchez, [278], [280].
Fort St. Louis, built by La Salle in Texas, [99].
Fort Stanwix, [496].
Fort Tombecbé, Alabama, [281], [406].
Fort Toulouse, on Alabama River, fur depot and Jesuit mission, [278].
Fort Washington, captured by British, [488].
Fox, George, visit to New Jersey, [109];
religious views, [202];
visit to America, [203].
Fox Channel, [213].
Fox Indians, wars with, [284], [285], [287];
massacre, [287].
France, during colonial period, [52]-[53], [78]-[80], [88], [89], [279], [295],
359, [360], [363], [364], [375];
causes of alliance with the United States, [505];
policy of Vergennes, [505]-[506];
Deane and Beaumarchais, [506];
Franklin's influence, [506]-[507];
American proposals, [507];
Lafayette, [508];
the alliance, [508];
operations of D'Estaing, [510]-[511];
Rochambeau, [511];
alliance of 1779 with Spain, [515];
peace treaty, [532]-[538];
loans to the United States, [554].
Franche Comté, [52].
Francis I of France, [16].
Franciscans, in New Spain:
in Nueva-Vizcaya, [58];
Monastery at Saltillo, [59];
in Florida, [65];
field of work, [236];
in Chihuahua, [242];
in New Mexico, [243], [245], [246]-[247], [290];
take over work of the Jesuits in northeastern provinces, [386].
See also Serra, Garcés, Missions.
Franco-Spanish border, [300]-[301];
Texas-Louisiana boundary, [300];
New Mexico border, [300]-[301].
Franklin, Benjamin, influence on education, [339];
plan of union, [371];
interest in the West, [412];
agent for Pennsylvania and Massachusetts, [437];
the intercepted letters, [448];
member of Second Continental Congress, [463];
Post Master General, [465];
member of committee for drafting the Declaration of Independence, [479];
diplomacy in France, [506]-[507];
peace negotiations, [533]-[538];
views regarding the Articles of Confederation, [550].
Franklin, William, Governor of New Jersey, land scheme, [411];
attempts to defeat Independence, [479].
Frederick the Great and League of Armed Neutrals, [519].
Freebooters in New World, [62], [66], [70].
See Privateers.
Freedom of the press, [356]-[357].
Freeman's Farm, [497], [498].
French colonies in North America, France during the colonial period, [78]-[81];
early colonizing efforts, [81]-[84];
first voyages, [81];
Carriers and Roberval, [81]-[82];
Ribaut and Laudonnière, [82]-[84];
Acadia, [85]-[86];
the fur monopoly, [85];
Port Royal, [85];
Charnisay and LaTour, [86];
the English conquest, [86];
the St. Lawrence Valley, [86]-[93];
Quebec founded, [86];
Champlain, [87]-[88];
Company of Hundred Association, [87];
English conquest, [87];
Nicolet, [88];
the Jesuits, [88];
map, [89];
Montreal founded, [90];
the New Company, [90];
Coureurs de bois, [90];
reorganization, [91];
centralist system established, [91];
Laval, [91];
Iroquois War, [91];
the West India Company, [91];
Talon, [92];
Seigneurial grants, [92];
the West Indies, [93]-[96];
the West India Company, [94];
map, [95];
the Upper Lake region and the Mississippi Valley, [96]-[102];
two lines of approach, [96];
Upper Lake posts and missions, [96];
Marquette and Joliet, [96]-[97];
Frontenac, [97];
La Salle's fur trade monopoly, [98];
descends the Mississippi, [98];
his colony in Texas, [98]-[99];
explores in the Southwest, [100];
Duluth, Le Sueur, and Perrot on the upper Mississippi, [100]-[101];
the Illinois country, [101];
on the Tennessee, [101]-[102];
Anglo-French rivalry during Wars of English and Spanish Successions,
[214], [257]-[273];
the founding of Louisiana, [275]-[278];
Iberville, [275];
Spanish resistance, [275].
Biloxi, [270];
alliances with the tribes, [276];
Bienville, [276];
Crozat, [276];
Natchitoches, Fort Toulouse, and Natchez, [278];
Louisiana under the Company of the Indies, [278]-[280];
the Mississippi Bubble, [278];
New Orleans founded, [279];
War with Spain, [279];
government, [279];
the Natchez War, [280];
Louisiana under royal governors, [280]-[286];
Bienville again, [281];
the Chickasaw war, [281];
the Illinois country attached to Louisiana, [281];
the Missouri lead mines, [282];
the French in the trans-Mississippi West, [282]-[286];
La Harpe, DuTisné, Bourgmont, [283]-[284];
advance toward New Mexico, [284]-[286];
the western fur-trade, [284];
Mallet, Fabry, Satren, Chapuis, [286];
the far Northwest, [287]-[288];
the Fox wars, [281];
new Sioux posts, [287];
Vérendrye and the Post of the Western Sea, [287]-[288];
Franco-Spanish border conflicts, [289], [291]-[297], [300]-[301];
the struggle with England, [359]-[383]:
the War of the Austrian Succession, [364]-[366];
the conflict on the Upper Ohio, [366]-[369];
the French and Indian War, [369]-[383];
the fall of Quebec, [379];
the Peace of Paris, [382];
France expelled from America, [363].
French and Indian War:
approach of, [366]-[369];
preparations in Acadia, [366];
activities on the Ohio, [366]-[369];
the Ohio Company, [367];
the French frontier strengthened, [367]-[368];
French occupation of the upper Ohio, [368]-[369];
Washington's mission, [369];
the southern frontier, [369];
Virginia prepares, [369]-[370];
Washington's first campaign, [370];
apathy of colonial legislatures, [370]-[371];
the Albany convention, [371];
preparations for war, [371];
the council of governors, [371]-[372];
Braddock's campaign, [372];
harrying of the frontiers, [372]-[374];
map of the western frontier, 1763, [373];
operations in Acadia, [374];
the Crown Point campaign, [374];
the Niagara campaign, [374]-[375];
diplomatic revolution, [375];
French preparations, [375];
English preparations, [375]-[376];
fall of Oswego, [376];
Pitt becomes the moving spirit, [376];
Louisbourg and Ft. William Henry, [376];
English victories in India, [376], [377];
preparations and plans, 1758, [377];
capture of Louisbourg, [377];
Abercromby's defeat, [377]-[378];
Frontenac and Duquesne, [378];
Kerlérec and the southern Indians, [378];
the Cherokee War, [378]-[379];
operations in the West Indies, [379];
the campaigns of 1759;
Niagara captured, [379];
the fall of Quebec, [379]-[380];
important naval operations, [380];
the French fail to recapture Quebec, [381];
capture of Montreal, [381];
George III becomes king, [381];
operations in the West Indies and the Philippines, [382];
the Peace of Paris, [382].
French West India Company, [91]-[92], [94], [96];
settlements in the West Indies, [252].
Fresnillo, Mexico, mine of, [56].
Frobisher, Benjamin and Joseph, Montreal fur magnates, [423].
Frobisher, Martin, voyages in search of a northwest passage, [66], [108]-[109].
Frontenac, Count, governor and lieutenant-general of New France,
[96], [259], [263];
sends Joliet in search of the Mississippi, [96];
founding of Fort Frontenac, [97];
change in government and resulting friction, [97];
recalled, [98];
reappointed, [259], [263];
conduct of French campaign in War of the English Succession, [263], [264];
his Indian policy, [263];
reopens the fur trade, [265].
Fuenleal, Sebastián Ramirez de, president of Audiencia of New Spain, [49].
Fuerte River Valley, Sinaloa, Jesuit missions in, [239].
Fuller, William, heads rebellion in Maryland, [162].
"Fundamental Orders" of Connecticut, [150].
Fur Trade: early French in Acadia, [85];
of St. Lawrence Valley, [87]-[90], [213]-[214];
coureurs de bois, [90];
of Mississippi Valley, [98]-[102];
rivalry of French and English, [102];
in New England, [155],158, [217];
of the Dutch, [165]-[166], [167], [171], [173]-[174];
of Carolinas, [211];
Hudson's Bay Company, [214]-[215], [260]-[261];
in New York, [222];
in Pennsylvania, [226];
of South Carolina, [231], [255];
struggle for the northern fur country, [257]-[261];
French sphere of influence, [257];
English policy, [257]-[258];
French policy under La Barre and Denonville, [258]-[259];
temporary French ascendency, [261];
the Alabama border, [270];
in English colonies in the [18]th century, [331], [332], [334], [335], [367];
in French Louisiana, [270], [276]-[278];
in trans-Mississippi West, [284]-[285], [300], [396];
in the Saskatchewan Valley, [287]-[288];
Russian, on the Pacific coast, [388];
in Louisiana under Spain, [398], [400]-[402];
in New British possessions after 1763, regulations, [404]-[406], [421]-[422];
in West Florida, [407]; in the Ohio Valley, [409];
in Canada, [421]-[423];
the Northwest Company, [423];
competition with Hudson's Bay Company, [423]-[424].
Fusang, conjecture concerning location, [2].
Gadsden, Christopher, member of the Stamp Act Congress, [436].
Gage, General Thomas, [410], [459], [461].
Gali, Francisco de, ordered to explore Pacific Coast, [70].
Galissonière, Marquis de la, governor of Canada, [368].
Galloway, Joseph, [452]-[453].
Galveston Bay, La Harpe at, [283].
Gálvez, Bernardo de, governor of Louisiana, [398],401;
operations on the lower Mississippi, [515];
captures Mobile and Pensacola, [516].
Gálvez, José, visitador general to New Spain, [385];
Minister of the Indies, [387];
reform of the revenue system, [385];
tobacco monopoly, [385];
in Lower California, [386];
organized expedition to Alta California, [386], [387];
pacification of Sonora, [386];
plans for intendant system, [386]-[387];
creation of new dioceses, [387];
captaincy-general of Havana, [387].
Gama, Vasco da, voyage to Calicut, [5], [24].
Gámara, seeks La Salle's colony, [249].
Garay, governor of Jamaica, explorations, [25]-[26], [37].
Garcés, Father Francisco, Franciscan missionary, explorations from San
Xavier del Bac, [391];
with Anza, opens land route to California, [391];
seeks route from New Mexico, [391], [393];
founds mission-pueblo at Yuma, [393];
massacred, [393].
Gaspee affair, [444]-[445].
Gates, General Horatio, at Crown Point, [487];
intrigues with Congress, [493];
in command against Burgoyne, [496]-[499];
Conway Cabal, [503]-[504];
in the South, [525];
defeated at Camden, [525]-[526].
Gates, Sir Thomas, governor of Virginia, [118].
Geography, growth of knowledge, [1]-[4].
George I, [353];
colonial system under the Whigs, [353]-[357].
George II, colonial system under the Whigs, [353]-[357].
George III, becomes king, [381];
policy, [429];
proclamation of rebellion in America, [460]-[470];
the American Revolution, [425]-[555].
Georgia, De Soto crosses, [42];
Spanish post in Guale (northern Georgia), 1566, [64];
Boyano explores, 1567, [64];
Jesuit missions in Guale and Orista, 1568, [64]-[65];
Franciscan missions on coast, [573]-[597], [65];
destroyed in uprising, 1597, [65];
restored to resist English, [253]-[254];
Yamassee revolt against Spaniards, [255];
English attack on missions, [255];
English traders among Creeks, [255];
Anglo-Spanish border raids during War of Spanish Succession, Spanish
frontier contracted, [270];
early English movement into, [315];
Azilia, [315];
motives of Oglethorpe, [315];
charter, [315];
government, [316];
early English settlements, [316];
defense, [316];
German migration, to, [321];
Scotch-Irish migration to, [326];
economic conditions, [335];
defense against Spaniards during War of Jenkins' Ear, [361]-[362], [363]-[364];
trouble with the governor, [444];
attitude toward the Association [458];
Cherokee War, [512]-[513];
conquest by British, [534];
reconquered by Greene, [529]-[530].
Georgian Bay, explored, [87], [88].
Germaine, Lord George, [470], [493].
German mercenaries, [470], [478].
German migration to America, causes, [316]-[317];
early movement to Pennsylvania, [317]-[318];
migration to New York, [318]-[319];
later migration to New York, [318]-[319];
later migration to Pennsylvania, [319];
to New Jersey, [319];
to Maryland, [319]-[320];
to Virginia, [320];
to North Carolina, [320];
to South Carolina, [321];
to Georgia, [321];
to New England, [321]-[322];
to Nova Scotia, [322].
Germantown, battle of, [502].
Germany, [16].
Geronymite friars, in West Indies, [23].
Gibraltar, Anglo-Spanish conflict over, [359], [360].
Gila River, [45];
plans for exploration, [304];
Garcés on, [391];
Yuma mission on, [393].
Gilbert, Sir Humphrey, voyage of, [66];
attempts to found a colony, [109].
Gillam, Zachariah, voyages to Hudson Bay, [213].
Gist, Christopher, explores Ohio Valley, [367].
Glen, governor of South Carolina, [369].
Goa, India, Portuguese in, [24].
Godyn, Samuel, [170].
Golfo Dulce, Cortés visits, [38].
Gómez, Stephen, explores North Atlantic coast, [26].
Gondomar, Spanish ambassador in England, [132].
González, Dávila, Gil, expeditions in Central America, [29]-[30], [31], [38].
Gordillo, explores Atlantic coast, [26].
Gorges, Lord Edward, land grants, [140], [146].
Gorges, Sir Ferdinando, sends vessels to New England, [136];
land grants, [140], [146], [157];
interest in Canada and Laconia companies, [141];
loss of estates, [157]-[158].
Gorges, Sir Robert, land grant, [140];
attempted settlement at Weymouth, [140].
Gorges family, opposition to Massachusetts Bay Company, [141].
Gourgues, Dominique de, attacks Spaniards in Florida, [64], [84].
Governor's Island, [171].
Granada, Nicaragua, founding of, [31];
population, [75].
Granada, Spain, conquest of kingdom of, [13].
Gran Quivira (Kansas), expedition of Coronado to, [45];
of Humana, [72]-[73];
of Oñate, [73];
of Alonso de Vaca, [243].
Grand Canyon of the Colorado, discovered, [45].
Grant, Colonel, expedition against Cherokees, [379].
Grant, James, first English governor of East Florida, [408]-[409].
Grasse, De, French admiral, in the West Indies, [530]-[531];
defeats Graves, [531];
defeated by Rodney, [532].
Graves, Admiral, [531].
Graydon, John, English vice-admiral, commander of West Indian fleet,
268.
"Great Awakening," [338].
Great Bridge, [471].
Great Khan, visits of Europeans to court of, [3].
Greene, Nathanael, in command of Rhode Island volunteers, [461];
loses Ft. Washington, [488]-[489];
at Trenton, [491];
at Brandywine, [500];
at Germantown, [502];
in command in the South, [527];
retreat, [528];
Guilford, [528]-[529];
reconquest of South Carolina and Georgia, [529]-[530].
"Green Sea of Darkness," Arabian notion of, [2].
Greenbrier Company, [411].
Greenland, discovery and colonization, [2]-[3].
Grenada, acquired by England, [404];
occupied by the French, [510];
restored to Great Britain, [537].
Grenville, Sir Richard, freebooter, [60];
expedition to Roanoke Island, [110].
Grenville Ministry, [430]-[436].
Grijalva, exploring expeditions, [25], [32].
Grimaldi, Spanish minister, [388].
Groseilliers, fur trader in Great Lake region, influence in
establishment of the Hudson's Bay Company, [213].
Guachichile Indians, Coahuila, [59].
Guadalajara, seat of Audiencia, [27], [40], [50], [55], [58], [75], [387];
seat of Province of Santiago de Jalisco, [249].
Guadalajara, New Mexico officer leads pearl hunting expedition in
Texas, [244].
Guadeloupe Island, international contests over, [93], [252], [262], [382].
Guadiana (Durango), diocese of, [242].
Guale (Georgia), Spanish presidio in, [64];
Jesuit mission in, [64]-[65].
Guanajauto, mines, [58];
founding of City of Santa Fé de, [58].
Guanajá Islands, [25].
Guatemala, Maya civilization, [27];
conquest of, [31], [37]-[38], [39];
expedition of Niño to, [42];
Audiencia of, [50];
population, [75].
Guerrero (state), Mexico, Zacatilla founded in, [37].
Guiana, [66], [80];
tales about, [110];
English interests in, [130], [132];
early English expeditions to, [132];
Spanish opposition to English settlement, [132];
Dutch colonization, [166]-[167];
English, Dutch, and French posts, [251]-[252].
Guilford, Connecticut, [150].
Guilford, New Jersey, [199].
Guilford, battle of, [528]-[529].
Guillen, Father, Jesuit missionary in California, [307].
Guise, Francis and Henry, [53], [78], [79].
Gutiérrez, Alonso, governor of Veragua, [32].
Guzmán, Nuño de, governor of Victoria Garayana (Pánuco), [37], [48];
president of Audiencia of Mexico, [38], [48];
conquest of Sinaloa (Nueva Galicia), [39], [40];
claim to Cibola, [44];
enmity to Cortés, [48].
Haiti, Columbus's expedition to, [10];
named Española, [10]. See Española.
Halifax, Lord, [354], [366].
Halifax, Nova Scotia, founding, [366].
Hamilton, English major-general in War of Austrian Succession, [268].
Hamilton, British commander at Detroit, raids of, [513], [514];
captured, [514].
Hampton Court Conference, [136].
Hancock, John, trouble with customs officials, [441]-[442];
distributes arms, [460];
president of Second Continental Congress, [463], [541].
Hapsburgs, French hostility to, [80].
Harcourt, Robert, attempts to colonize Guiana, [132].
Harlem, battle of, [485].
Harper's Ferry, founded, [320].
Harrod, pioneer settler in Kentucky, [413], [416].
Harrodsburg, Kentucky, [416], [417].
Hartford, Dutch fort at, [149]; founding of the town, [149].
Havana, Cuba, founded, [19];
decline of, [67];
captaincy-general and intendancy of, [387];
Louisiana attached to, [398];
Audiencia of, [398].
Harvard College, [220]-[221], [339].
Harvey, Sir John, governor of Virginia, [124]-[125].
Hawkins, John, English freebooter, [66];
slave trade, [107].
Hawkins, William, voyages to Guiana and Brazil, [107].
Hazard, Samuel, plan for western colony, [411].
Hearne, Samuel, explorations, [423]-[424];
reaches Arctic Ocean and discovers Lake Athabasca, [424].
Heath, Sir Robert, grant in the Carolinas, [207].
Heçeta, Bruno de, expedition up North Pacific coast, [395].
Henderson, Judge Richard, land speculator in Kentucky, [413];
founds Transylvania, [417]-[418].
Henley House, Hudson's Bay Company post, [423].
Hennepin, Recollet missionary among the Illinois, [97], [101];
in Minnesota, [98];
meets Duluth, [100].
Henry, Alexander, Montreal fur magnate, [423].
Henry, Patrick, buys Spanish horses in the West, [400];
in the Parson's Cause, [429];
Virginia Resolutions, [435]-[436];
member of First Continental Congress, [452];
heads armed resistance, [462]-[463];
sends militia to Kentucky, [513].
Henry VII, policy, [104];
Cabot, [105]-[106].
Henry the Navigator, prince of Portugal, [4]-[5];
his objects, [5];
explorations, [5];
map showing, [6];
beginning of slave trade, [5].
Henry IV, of France (Henry of Navarre), [53];
Huguenot leader, [78], [79];
reforms of, as king, [79];
assassination, [79].
Henry VII of England, [7].
Herkimer, Colonel Nicholas, [496].
Hermandad, local police, [14];
recognized as state agency by Ferdinand and Isabella, [14].
Hessians, in American Revolution, [489]-[491].
Heyn, Piet, capture of Bahía, [166];
capture of Vera Cruz fleet, [252].
Hidalgo, Father Francisco, missionary in Texas, [249], [292].
Hill, General Sir John, expedition against Quebec, [272].
Hillsboro, North Carolina, [415].
Hillsborough, Earl of, colonial secretary, [406], [413], [419], [441].
Hispaniola, English corruption of Española, which see.
Hoboken, New Jersey, [198].
Holburne, English vice-admiral in French and Indian War, [376].
Holland. See Netherlands, Dutch.
Honduras, conquest and settlement, [24], [31], [38]-[39]
Hooke, Sir Humphrey, leases in Virginia, [185].
Hopkins, Ezek, [464], [517].
Hopkins, John B., [465].
Horses, Spanish trade in with English colonies, [400].
Hortalez et cie, [506].
Howard of Effingham, Lord, governor of Virginia, [187]-[188].
Howe, Admiral Lord, attempt at conciliation, [483];
at Philadelphia, [503];
and D'Estaing, [510].
Howe, General Sir William, at Boston, [461];
New York campaign, [483]-[486], [488]-[489];
failure to coöperate with Burgoyne, [493];
Philadelphia campaign, [499]-[503];
recalled, [509].
Huasteca country (Tamaulipas), conquered by Cortés, [37].
Hubbardtown, [495].
Hudson Bay, exploration of, [212]-[213].
Hudson, Henry, exploration 1609, [165];
discovery of Hudson Bay, [213].
Hudson's Bay Company, established, [213];
trading houses, [214];
methods, [214];
French rivalry, [214], [288];
struggle for fur country, [257]-[261];
posts, [260]-[261];
in Wars of English and Spanish Successions, [273];
activity following Peace of Utrecht, [423];
Hearne's explorations, [423]-[424];
rivalry with Northwest Company, [424].
Huehuetoca, Canal of (Mexico), [53].
Huguenots, in France, [78], [79];
colonizing efforts, [62], [82]-[83];
in New England, [216];
in South Carolina, [230].
Humana, Gutiérrez de, expedition to New Mexico and Quivira, [72]-[73].
Hundred Associates. See Company of the Hundred Associates.
Hurdaide, Captain Diego, commander in Sinaloa, [237], [239].
Huron Indians, wars with Iroquois, [258], [259].
Hurtado, Juan P., expedition against Apaches, [290].
Hutchinson, Anne, doctrines, [148];
controversy in Boston congregation, [148];
banishment, [148];
at Portsmouth and Newport, [148].
Hutchinson, Thomas, [443], [444], [448].
Ibarra, Diego de, Conquistador of Zacatecas, [55];
cattle business, [58].
Ibarra, Francisco de, miner at Zacatecas, [55]-[56];
list of mines opened, [56];
governor of Nueva Vizcaya, [56];
explorations, colonies, mines in northern Mexico, [56], [58];
death, [58].
Iberville, founder of Louisiana, [102], [261], [265], [266], [270], [275], [276].
Iceland, discovery and colonization, [2].
Illinois, La Salle in,
[98];
Sulpicians and Jesuits (Cahokia and Kaskaskia), [101];
Tonty's fur trade, [101];
St. Denis' post at Cairo, [102];
Indians of, [258];
a judicial department of Louisiana, [280], [281];
prosperity under Company of the Indies, [281]-[282];
Fort Chartres, Ste. Genevieve, Vincennes, [281]-[282];
Missouri lead-mines, [282];
English plans to occupy, [409];
conspiracy of Pontiac, [409]-[410];
the Loftus expedition, [410];
establishment of English government, [410];
Quebec Act, [411];
character of population, [420];
conquered by G.R. Clark, [514].
Imago Mundi, possible influence on Columbus, [2], [7].
Immigration and population, Spanish colonies, [21], [75];
Sinaloa and Sonora, [240], [305]-[306];
Chihuahua, [289];
New Mexico, [73], [243], [244], [290];
California, [391]-[393];
French Canada, [93], [94];
Quebec, [419];
Loyalists in Canada, [421], [538];
French West Indies, [93], [94];
Louisiana, [279], [395]-[396];
the Illinois country, [281];
Bermudas, [130];
Lesser Antilles, [133], [340], [341];
Barbados, [216], [340], [341];
English mainland colonies, about 1700, [216];
Virginia, [121], [227];
Maryland, [127], [128], [227];
New England. [138], [143], [216], [217]:
New Jersey, [200]-[201], [221];
New York, [221];
Pennsylvania and Delaware, [206], [224];
the Carolinas, [208], [230];
West Florida, [407]-[408];
Ohio Valley, [413]-[419];
German and Swiss migration, [316]-[322];
Scotch, Irish, [322]-[326];
English colonies in middle [18]th century, [329]-[330];
on the eve of the Revolution, [425]-[426];
dispersion of the Loyalists, [538];
New Netherlands, [167];
New Sweden, [175].
Indé, Mexico, mines of, [56].
Indented servants, [122], [229], [336], [409].
Independents, [135], [137]. See Pilgrims.
India, visited by the Polos, [3];
travelers' tales regarding, [3];
discovery of new route to, [51];
Portuguese empire in, [24];
British administration of, [34];
during the French and Indian War. See French and Indian War;
Events of the War in India.
Indian Ocean, Ptolemy's conception of, [1].
Indiana Company, [418].
Indians, in Spanish colonies, so-named by Columbus, [10];
Spanish policy in West Indies, [22]-[23];
rebellion in 1495, [22];
slavery [23], [31], [37], [56], [60]-[61], [72], [75];
Maya and Nahua civilization, [26]-[28];
native caciques used in conquest, [39];
Mixton War, [40];
Pueblo civilization in New Mexico, [46];
New Laws concerning, [50], [53];
native alcaldes, [55];
Tlascaltecans as colonists, [50]-[60];
decline in West Indies, [67];
rebellion at Ácoma, [73];
schools for, [76];
missions as frontier defense, [236];
Yaqui wars, [239];
Pueblo revolt in New Mexico, [245];
wars on North Mexican frontier, [245]-[246], [248];
in Eastern Texas, [251];
Apalachee revolt, [254];
Yamassee revolt, [255];
Moqui and Zuñi resistance, [290];
Navajo, Yuta, and Comanche depredations in New Mexico, [290]-[291];
captives sold as slaves, [291];
the Jumanos, [243], [244], [285], [291];
destroy Vulazur's parry, [296];
Apache wars in Texas, [298]-[299];
the Tonkawa missions, [299];
Pima revolt in Arizona, [305];
Yuma massacre, [393]-[394];
Spanish policy in Louisiana, [400]-[401];
war on Apaches, [401];
hostilities in New Netherlands, [171]-[172];
in French colonies;
Huron and Iroquois wars, [88], [91], [258]-[259], [265];
Anglo-French rivalry for northern tribes, [257]-[259];
Abenaki wars, [262]-[265];
Frontenac's policy, [263];
competition for southern Indians, [269], [270], [276];
Natchez war on French, [278], [280];
the Chickasaw War, [281];
French among Western tribes (Asinais, Orcoquisas, Cadodachos,
Bidayes, Touacaras, Wichitas, Osages, Missouris, Pawnees, Otos,
Iowas, Kansas, Mandaos), [282]-[284];
Winnebagoes,296;
Apache-Comanche barrier to French advance, [285], [286];
Fox Wars, [287];
Sioux posts, [287];
Vérendrye among Manfan Cheyennes, Crows, Little Foxes, Bows, [288];
in English colonies: early attacks in Virginia, [117]-[119], [122];
relations with Pilgrims, [138]-[139];
land title theory of Roger Williams, [147];
Wilhams and the Narragansetts, [147];
Pequot War, [159]-[160];
English missionary work among, [156];
Opechancanough's War, [185];
the Susquehanna War, [185]-[186];
King Philip's War, [191]-[192];
Iroquois treaty with Dongan, [198];
Penn's treaty, [205];
war in the Carolinas, [210];
policy of Hudson's Bay Company, [214];
the English among the Creeks, [255];
English war on Apalachees, [270];
Indian slavery in Carolina, [270];
the Tuscarora War, [271], [320];
barriers to Westward Movement, [310]-[414];
Yamassee War, [314];
Creeks and Cherokees, [314], [316];
alliances on Georgia frontier, [362];
during French and Indian War, [372];
Kerlérec and southern Indians, [378];
Cherokee War, [378];
English policy after 1763, [404]-[407];
Pontiac's War, [409]-[410];
land cessions in West, [412];
ravages in Kentucky, [416];
Lord Dunmore's War, [417];
policy of Continental Congress, [465]-[466];
in American Revolution, [496], [512]-[515].
See names of individual tribes. Indigo, [535].
Innocent IV, Pope, legate sent to the Great Khan, [3].
Inquisition, The, [52]; Council of the, [14].
Intendancies, in New Spain, [387].
Intolerable Acts, [449]-[451].
Iriarte, seeks La Salle's colony, [249].
Irish, in New England, [216]; in New York, [222].
See Scotch-Irish.
Iroquois Indians (Confederation, The Six Nations), [86], [91];
Dongan's treaty with, [198], [257], [258]-[259], [265], [365], [369];
cession of 1765, [412];
in the Revolution, [514]-[515].
Isabella of Spain, aids Columbus, [7], [8], [16].
Island Flats, [513].
Italy, [13], [16].
Iturbi, Juan de, pearl hunting voyages, [240];
believes California an island, [240].
Jack, Col. Samuel, [512].
Jackson, William, English privateer, [252].
Jalisco, conquest of, [37], [39].
Jamaica, Island, under Spain, [17], [67];
granted to Providence Island Company, [133];
English conquest, [153], [234], [253];
committee for, [153];
conditions in the eighteenth century, [340]-[341].
Jamaica Pass, [484].
James I of England, general policy, [112], [113];
treaty with Spain, [114];
the London Company, [123];
non-conformists, [136].
James, Duke of York, proprietor of New York, [178];
Lord High Admiral, [182];
proprietary grant of New Netherlands, [196]-[197];
attitude toward representative government in New York, [197]-[198];
interest in Hudson's Bay Company, [213].
See James II.
James II, consolidation of colonies, [194];
"Glorious Revolution," [194]-[195];
difficulties with Carolina settlers, [210]-[211].
See James, Duke of York.
Jamestown, founded, [116]-[117];
Spanish resistance, [118], [251].
Janos, Chihuahua, founded, [242].
Japan, early contact with America, [2];
Polo's knowledge of, [3];
Portuguese trading settlements in, [24].
See Cipango.
Java, visited by the Polos, [3];
Dutch in, [164].
Jay, John, member of First Continental Congress, [452];
in Spain, [533];
peace negotiations, [534]-[538];
secretary of foreign affairs, [555].
Jefferson, Thomas, member of Second Continental Congress, [463];
writes Declaration of Independence, [479], [480].
Jeffreys, Herbert, acting governor of Virginia, [187].
Jenkins, Thomas, [361].
See also The War of Jenkins' Ear.
Jérez, Mexico, founded, [59].
Jesuits, in Spanish colonies;
general field, [236];
Nueva Vizcaya, [58];
Florida (Georgia, South Carolina, Virginia),64-[65];
Sinaloa and Sonora (Fuerte, Mayo, Yaqui, Sonora valleys), [237]-[240];
map, [238];
Chihuahua, [242];
in Pimería Alta (Arizona), [301]-[396];
Lower California, [305]-[307];
expulsion, 1767, [386];
in French colonies: Canada, [87]-[88], [90], [91];
on the Maine border, [271];
on lakes Michigan and Syperior, [96];
in the Illinois country, [101], [280], [282];
Father Piquet's mission in New York, [368];
Louisiana (Alabama), [278];
in Maryland, [127]-[128];
expelled, [162].
Jews, in New England, [216];
in New York, [223].
Jiménez, discovers Lower California, [42].
John the Great, ruler of Portugal, [4].
Johnstone, George, governor of West Florida, [407],408.
Joliet, exploration of the Mississippi, [96]-[97].
Jones, John Paul, appointment, [465];
the Bonhomme Richard and Serapis, [518]-[519];
at Texel, [520]-[521].
Jonquiére, Marquis de la, governor-general of Canada, [368].
Johnson, William, Indian agent, [365], [372], [374], [379].
Jordan River, Cape Fear, Ayllón at, [40].
Jumano Indians, Texas, expeditions to, [243], [244], [285].
Kalb, Baron de, [508], [525]-[526].
Kanawha, battle of the, [513].
Kaskaskia, [410];
captured by Clark, [514].
Kaunitz, Austrian Minister of State, [375].
Keller, Father, Jesuit missionary and explorer in Arizona, [304].
Kelsey, Henry, expedition to Winnipeg, [214].
Kent Island, [128].
Kentucky, beginnings of, [416];
Indian ravages, [416];
Lord Dunmore's war, [417];
Henderson and Transylvania, [417]-[418];
Virginia's claim of sovereignty over, [418];
organization as Kentucky. County, Virginia, [418];
in the Revolution, [513].
Kentucky County, Virginia, erected, [418].
Kerlérec, Governor of Louisiana, [285], [301], [378].
Kerr, English commodore, in war of the Spanish Succession, [268].
Kidd, Captain, pirate, [350].
Kieft, William, director-general of New Netherlands, [171];
trouble with Indians, [171]-[172];
the Council of Twelve, [171].
King Philip's War, [191]-[192].
King William's War. See War of the English Succession.
King's College, [339].
"King's posts," fur trade at, in English colonies, [421].
King's Mountain, battle, [527].
Kingston, Jamaica, founded, [262].
Kino, Father Eusebio, Jesuit missionary and explorer, [301]-[304];
in Lower California, [241]-[242];
his map of Pimería Alta, [303];
missions and ranches established in Arizona, [302];
search for land route to California, [302];
his death, [304];
aid given to Lower California, [306].
Kirke, Captain, expedition against French, [87], [141].
Kittery, Maine, claimed by Massachusetts, [157].
Kocherthal, Joshua von, [318].
Knights of Alcántara, [14].
Knights of Calatrava, [14].
Knights of Santiago, [14];
Otomi chief made member of, [39].
Knollys, English freebooter, [66].
Knowles, Admiral Charles, attack on Española, [366].
Kublai Khan, visit of the Polos to, [3].
Labadists, [318].
La Barre, governor of New France, [94], [258], [261].
Labrador, [420].
La Clede, fur trader, founds St. Louis, [396].
Laconia Company, [141].
La Cosa, explorations of, [24].
Lafayette, Marquis de, enlists in the American cause, [508];
influences France to send a second expedition, [511];
in Virginia, [530];
in Yorktown campaign, [531].
La Harpe, Bénard de, French explorer and trader in the West,
283-[284], [295].
La Junta missions, Chihuahua, [245], [290].
Lake Athabasca, discovery, [424].
Lake Chápala, Mexico, [36].
Lake Erie, La Salle on, [98].
Lake Michigan, French posts on, [96].
"Lake of New Mexico," Coahuila, [59].
Lake Ontario, discovered, [87].
Lake Superior, trading posts on, [90], [287];
Jesuit missions on, [96].
Lake Tezcuco, Cortés's fleet on, [33].
La Navidad, fort built by Columbus, in Española, [10].
"Land of War," Central America, [39].
Land grants and speculation in the Ohio Valley, [411]-[413].
Langlade, Charles, French trader leads attack on English, [368].
La Paz, California, attempts to colonize, [42], [71], [240]-[242], [307].
La Plata River, discovered by Vespuccius, [24].
La Pointe, Jesuit mission on Lake Superior, [96].
Larios, Father Juan, Franciscan missionary, in Coahuila and
Texas, [248].
La Salle, Jean Cavelier, Sieur de, [97], [98];
at Fort Frontenac, [97];
in Illinois, [98];
descends Mississippi, [98];
colony in Texas, [98]-[99], [249], [283];
assassination, [100].
Las Casas, Father Bartolomé de, [23];
opposition to the encomienda, [23], [50];
conquest of Guatemala, [39].
Las Casas, Francisco de, lieutenant of Cortés in Honduras, [38].
La Tour, Charles de, rule in Acadia, contest with Charnisay, [86].
Laud, William, Archbishop of Canterbury, tyranny, [113];
heads commission to handle dependencies, [114];
struggle with Massachusetts Bay Colony, [142]-[143], [145]-[146].
Laudonnière, French colonizer in Florida, [62], [84].
Laurain, French explorer on the Missouri River, [282].
Laurens, Henry, sent to the Netherlands, [521];
his capture, [522].
Laval, Abbé, bishop in Canada, [91].
La Vérendrye, fur trade monopoly, [287];
his "Post of the Western Sea," [287]-[288].
Law, John, the Mississippi Bubble, [278]-[279].
Lazarus (Philippine) Islands, [67].
Lea, Captain Charles, attempts to colonize Guiana, [132].
League of Armed Neutrals, [519]-[520].
League of Hanover, [360]-[375].
Leake, Captain John, [271].
Lee, Arthur, diplomat,
[506];
attempts to get Spanish assistance, [507].
Lee, Charles, [411], [464], [488], [489], [490], [509].
Lee, Richard Henry, member of Western Land Company, [411];
member of the First Continental Congress, [452];
Independence Resolution, [478].
Leeward Islands, made a province, [206];
granted an assembly, [206];
extension of power, [206];
social and economic conditions in the eighteenth century, [340].
Legazpi, Miguel López de, expedition to Philippines, [68];
conquest of islands, [68].
Leisler's Rebellion, [198], [263].
Le Jeune, French Jesuit superior at Quebec, [88].
Le Moyne, Charles, [275];
seignorial grant, [93].
León, Alonso de. See De León.
León (Cerralvo), City of, [60], [61], [247].
León, Nicaragua, founding of, [31].
León, kingdom of in New Spain, [13].
Lesser Antilles, slave hunting in, [23];
English settlements in, [132]-[133];
Dutch colonization, [167];
subdivisions, [247].
See individual islands.
Le Sueur, fur trader in Minnesota and Wisconsin, [101];
quoted, [97].
Levant Company, [107].
Levasseur, French trader, occupies Tortuga, [94].
Levis, Chevalier de, [375], [381].
Lewis, Colonel Andrew, [417].
Lewis and Clark, exploration of, [402].
Lexington, battle of, [460]-[461].
Leyva, expedition to New Mexico, [72]-[73].
Lief, son of Eric, discovery of Vinland, [2].
Linares, Duke of, viceroy of New Spain, [293].
Linares, Diocese of, [387].
Lincoln, General Benjamin, organizes New England militia, [495];
operations in Georgia, [524];
at Charleston, [524]-[525];
secretary of war, [554].
Lindsay, explorer in Ohio valley, [413].
Line of Demarcation, [11].
Link, Father, Jesuit explorer in Lower California, [307].
Lisbon, Columbus' reception at, [10].
Little Rock, Arkansas, La Harpe visits vicinity, [284].
Littleton, James, Commodore, [269].
Livingston, Robert R., member of committee for drafting the
Declaration of Independence, [479];
secretary of foreign affairs, [555].
Llano River country, Texas, mineral deposits, [298], [299].
"Llanos de Cíbola" (Buffalo Plains), [45].
Lloyd, Thomas, president of the Pennsylvania council, [205].
Loaisa, expedition to Far East, [46].
Locke, John, prepares a constitution for the Carolinas, [208].
London Company, Charter of 1606, [116];
Charter of 1609, [117]-[118];
Charter of 1612, [120]; charter annulled, [123].
London Gazette, [408].
Long Island, early English settlements, [150]-[151], [222];
granted to Duke of York, [196]-[197];
battle of, [483]-[484].
López, Fray Nicolás, Franciscan missionary, [245].
Lords of Trade, [182].
Loreto, California, founded, [306];
capital moved from, [392].
Los Adaes, mission founded, [295];
presidio and capital of Texas, [297], [298].
Los Angeles, California, founding of pueblo of, [392]-[393].
Loudoun, English commander, [376].
Louis XVI, attitude toward American Revolution, [505]-[506].
Louisiana, Under France, founding of, [275]-[278];
Pensacola founded, [275];
Biloxi founded, [276];
Iberville's Indian alliances, [276];
Bienville's first administration, [276];
Crozat's grant, [276]-[278];
attempts at commercial expansion, [278];
Indian difficulties, [278];
population, [278], [279], [281];
map, [277];
under Company of the Indies, [278]-[280];
the Mississippi Bubble, [278]-[279];
New Orleans founded, [279];
war with Spain, [279];
organization of the government, [279]-[280];
ecclesiastical divisions, [280];
the Natchez War, [280];
under the royal governors, [280]-[282];
Bienville's second administration, [280]-[281];
Chickasaw War, [281];
the Illinois district, [251]-[252];
slavery, [282];
Missouri lead mines, [282];
Under Spain, 1762-1783, [395]-[402];
ceded to Spain, [382]-[383], [395];
state of the province, [395]-[306];
population, [396];
industries, [396];
dissatisfaction with the cession, [306];
expulsion of the Spanish governor, Ulloa, [397];
O'Reilly, administration of, [397]-[398];
first governors, Unzaga and Gálvez, [398];
encouragement of commerce, [398], [400];
the English danger, [400];
Texas border abandoned, [400];
fur trade continued, [400]-[401];
De Mézières and the control of the Red River tribes, [401];
plans for war on Apaches, [401];
opening of routes to Santa Fé and the upper Missouri, [402].
Louisiana-Texas boundary question, [300], [301].
Louisbourg, Cape Breton Island, siege and defense of, [364]-[365].
Lovelace, Francis, governor of New York, [197].
Loyal Company, The, [367].
Loyalists, formation of the group, [459];
accompany the British army to Halifax, [471];
element in the colonies, [472]-[473];
classification of, [473];
religious aspects, [473]-[474];
their argument, [474];
persecution of, [474]-[475];
congressional attitude toward, [475]-[476];
in the Cherokee War, [512]-[513];
in the Southwest, [513]-[514];
in New York, [514]-[515];
at King's Mountain, [527];
attempts of British to protect, [536], [537];
dispersion, [538];
in Florida, [408], [409];
in Canada, [421].
Lucenilla, attempt to colonize California, [241].
Lumbering in New England, [217], [331];
in North Carolina, [334];
in South Carolina, [335].
Lutherans, [222], [226].
Lybyer, cited on trade routes, [5].
Lyford, John, [140]-[141].
Lyman, General, colony in West Florida, [408].
Lynn, settled, [142].
Lyttleton, Governor of South Carolina, [378].
McAfees, the, pioneers in Kentucky, [416].
McDonald, Donald, [471].
Machias Bay settlement, [139].
Machin, Robert, English voyager to Madeira, [4].
Machuco, Diego, explores Nicaragua, [32].
Madagascar, French attempt to colonize, [80].
Madeira, visited by Englishmen, [4].
Magdalena Bay, California, [71].
Magellan, Ferdinand, voyage of, map showing, [6];
discovery of Straits, [25];
conflict aroused by his voyage, [46].
Maine, early settlements, [136], [319], [140];
Canada and Laconia companies, [141];
land grants, [157];
settlements claimed by Massachusetts, [157];
northern part granted to the Duke of York, [196]-[197];
frontier defense, [312]-[313];
German migration to, [321], [322];
Scotch-Irish migration to, [325].
Malabar, Portuguese at, [24].
Malacca, [24].
Malay Peninsula, [24].
Maldonado, oidor of New Spain, [49].
Mallet brothers, expedition to New Mexico,285-[286].
Malocello, discovery of the Canary Islands, [3].
Manchester, founded, [325].
Mandan Indians, Dakota, reached by Spaniards, [402].
Mandeville, French Commander, [278].
Manhattan Island, purchase and settlement, [167].
Manila, Philippines, Audiencia of, established, [68];
captured by British, [382];
restored to Spain, [382].
Manila galleon, [66], [68];
route of, [68], [70], [307].
See also Acapulco.
Manoa, fabulous city of Guiana, [110].
Manors, in Maryland, [128].
Manufactures, in New England, [217]-[218];
in Pennsylvania, [226];
in the Chesapeake Bay region, [229];
in middle eighteenth century, [330].
Mansker, pioneer in Kentucky, [413], [419].
Maracaibo, plundered by Jackson, [252].
Maracaibo, Gulf of, [23], [24].
Marcos, Friar, discovery of Cíbola, [44].
Margil, Antonia, Franciscan missionary in Texas, [293], [295].
Maria Theresa, [364], [375].
Marine Committee, [543].
Marion, Francis, [527]-[529].
Maritime science, advance of in [15]th century, [4].
Markham, William, deputy-governor of Pennsylvania, [204].
Marquette, Jesuit Missionary, on the Mississippi, [97];
death, [97].
Marqués Cabrera, governor of Florida, sends expedition against
English, [255].
Martha's Vineyard, granted to the Duke of York, [196]-[197].
Martin and Castillo, pearl hunting expedition in Texas, [243]-[244].
Martinique Island, [93], [252], [262], [382].
Mary, Queen of Scots, [53].
Maryland, Baltimore's application for a grant in Virginia, [125]-[126];
founding, [125]-[129];
charter, [126]-[127];
first settlers, [127];
trouble with Virginia, [127]-[128];
early social conditions, [128];
government, [128]-[129];
under Puritan control, [102];
economic conditions, [188];
Charles Calvert, [188]-[189];
Notley's administration, [189];
rebellion of 1689, [189];
dispute with Pennsylvania over boundary, [203];
population, [227];
settled area, [227];
plantation system, [228];
commerce, [228];
system of labor, [229];
social conditions, [229];
religion, [229];
education, [229];
German migration to, [319]-[320];
social and economic conditions in the eighteenth century, [333]-[334];
under William III, [346];
trouble with the governor, [444];
navy, [518].
Mason and Dixon's line, [203].
Mason, John, land grants, [140], [146], [157];
interest in Canada and Laconia companies, [141];
death, [146].
Massachusetts, charter, [141]-[142];
Cambridge agreement, [142];
the "Great Migration," [142];
towns settled, [142];
form of government, [143];
the New England towns, [143]-[145];
representative system introduced, [145];
struggle with Laud, [145]-[146];
controversy with Roger Williams, [146]-[147];
controversy with Anne Hutchinson, [148];
Body of Liberties, [154]-[155];
member of the New England Confederation, [156];
claims New Hampshire and Maine settlements, [157]-[158];
fur trade, [158];
difficulties with Charles II, [180]-[190];
reception of royal commissioners, [191];
King Philip's War, [191]-[192];
complaints against, [192];
trouble with Randolph, [192]-[193];
annulment of the charter, [193];
temporary government, [193];
acquisition of Mason's rights, [193]-[194];
Dominion of New England, [194];
administration of Andros, [194];
overthrow of Andros, [194]-[195];
population, [216];
commerce, [217];
manufactures, [217];
religion, [220];
superstitions, [220];
education, [220];
literature, [221];
treaty with Maine Indians, [271];
German migration to, [322];
Scotch-Irish migration to, [324];
charter of 1691, [344];
protests against Grenville's policy, [431]-[432];
resists the Stamp Act, [436];
protests against the Townshend Acts, [440]-[441];
trouble with Governor Bernard, [440]-[442];
convention, [442];
trouble with Hutchinson, [444];
the tea controversy, [448];
Government Act, [449]-[450];
resistance to the Regulating Act, [459]-[460];
fighting around Boston, [460]-[461];
navy, [518].
Massachusetts Bay Colony. See Massachusetts.
Massanet, Father Damian, Franciscan missionary in Coahuila and Texas,
[249], [251].
Massasoit, chief of the Wampanoags, treaty with Plymouth, [138]-[139].
Matagorda Bay, LaSalle's colony on, [99], [100].
Matehuala, Mexico, founded, [59].
Mauro, Fra, map of the world, [5].
Maximilian I, [16].
May, Cornelius, [165]-[166].
Maya Indians, [26]-[27]. See Mexico.
Mayflower Compact, [138].
Mayhew, Thomas, missionary to Indians, [156].
Mayo Valley, Sonora, Jesuit missions in, [239].
Mazapil, Mexico, founded, [59].
Mazarin, administration of government of France, [80]-[81].
Mecklenburg Resolves, [463];
declaration of independence, [463].
Medellin, Mexico, founded, [36].
Medina-Celi, Count of, influence in favor of Columbus, [7].
Medina River, western boundary of Texas, [297].
Mediterranean, trade route to Far East, [5].
Memphis, DeSoto near, [42].
Méndez, Father, Jesuit missionary to Mayos, [239].
Mendoza, Antonio de, viceroy, crushes revolt in Nueva Galicia, [40];
sends expedition to explore Pacific, [46]-[47];
outfits expedition for Florida, [61];
achievements as administrator, [50];
sent to Peru, [50];
death, [50].
Mendoza, Hurtado de, expedition on west coast, [42].
Mendoza, Juan Domínguez de, expedition to Jumanos in central Texas,
[245].
Menéndez de, Áviles, destroys Huguenot settlement, [62];
colonizes Atlantic coast, [64];
explores Alleghanies, [64];
expedition to Chesapeake Bay, [65].
Mennonites, in Pennsylvania, [206].
Mercado, Ginés Vásquez de, search for treasure in Durango, [55].
Mercantilist system, [179]-[180].
Merry Mount, [139].
Mexico, the Nahuas (Aztecs), [27];
Nahua history, [27];
the Triple Alliance, [28];
Conquest of the Valley of Mexico, [32]-[35];
Cortés, [32];
the march to Mexico, [33];
loss and recapture of the city, [33];
Cortés's contest with Velásquez, [34];
made governor and captain-general, [34];
the spread of the conquest, [36]-[40];
factors, [36];
Vera Cruz, Oaxaca, and Tehuantepec, [36];
Olid in Michoacán, [36]; Colima and
Jalisco, [37];
Amichel and Pánuco, [37];
Olid, Casas, and Cortés in Honduras, [38];
Yucatán, [38];
Guzmán in Sinaloa, [39];
Querétaro, [39];
the Mirton War, [40];
establishment of the viceroyalty, [47]-[50];
Cortés as administrator, [47];
his powers curtailed, [48];
first and second audiencias, [48]-[49];
Cortés made Marquis of the Valley, [49];
Mendoza first viceroy, [49]; New Laws, [50];
Mendoza sent to Peru, [50];
Mexico under Philip II, [52];
Luis de Velasco, second viceroy, [53];
Martín Cortés, second Marquis of the Valley, [53];
the adelantados, [54];
audiencia and diocese of Nueva Galicia, [55];
the Zacatecas Mines, [55];
Francisco de Ibarra, [55]-[58]; Nueva
Vizcaya founded, [56]-[58];
Querétaro, Guanajuato, and Aguas Calientes, [58];
San Luis Potosí and Southern Coahuila, [59];
Tlascaltecan colonies, [59];
Parras, [60];
Nuevo León, [60];
New Spain at end of [16]th century, [75];
frontier administration in the [17]th century, [234]-[237];
the governors, [234];
central control, [235];
frontier autonomy, [235];
the missions, [236];
the Jesuits in Sinaloa and Sonora, [237];
Fathers Tápia and Pérez, [237];
Captain Hurdaide, [237];
missions in Fuerte, Mayo, Yaqui and Sonora valleys, [238]-[239];
Spanish settlements on the Pacific coast, [240];
efforts to occupy Lower California, [240]-[242];
pearl fishing, [240];
Iturbi's voyages, [240];
later attempts, [240];
the settlement of Chihuahua, [242];
mines of, [289];
the Conchos Valley, [290];
Diocese of Guardiana, [242];
Coahuila occupied, [247]-[249];
the Nuevo León frontier, [247];
Zavala's rule, [247];
Monclova founded, [248];
the College of the Holy Cross of Querétaro, [248];
Pimería Alta, [301];
Kino, [301]-[302];
a land route to California, [302];
missions and ranches, [302]-[303];
the Arizonac Mines, [304];
Keller and Sedelmayr, [304];
the Pima revolt, [305];
the Northwestern frontier in 1763, [305]-[306];
the Jesuits in Lower California, [306]-[307];
Salvatierra and his companions, [306];
readjustment following the Seven Years' War, [384]-[387];
Reforms of Charles III and Gálvez, [384]-[386];
Rubí's tour, [385];
expulsion of the Jesuits, [386];
the Provincias Internas, [386]-[387];
new dioceses, [387];
the intendancies, [387].
Mexico City (Tenochtitlán), [27];
Chapultepec, [28];
siege and capture by Cortés, [33];
rebuilt as a Spanish city, [34];
markets established, [47];
seat of audiencia and viceroyalty, [48]-[49];
canal of Huehuetoca, [53];
population, [75];
seat of archbishopric, [76];
of University, [53], [67].
Mexico, Gulf of, mapping of coast, [25]-[26], [249], [255], [385].
Michillimackinac, fur trade, [422].
Michoacán, [37];
Guzmán's march through, [39].
Middlebrook, [493].
Middletown, New Jersey, [198].
Miera y Pachecho, Captain Bernardo de, expedition to Utah Basin, [392].
Milan, [53].
Milford, founded, [150].
Milhet, Jean, delegate to France with protest on the Louisiana
cession, [396].
Mines and mining, in northern Mexico, [55]-[56], [58].
Minisink, burned, [515].
Minho River, [13].
Minuit, Peter, director-general of New Netherlands, [167], [169];
in Sweden, [175].
Missions, part in Spanish colonial expansion, [235]-[237].
See also Dominicans; Jesuits; Franciscans; California;
Florida; Georgia; New Mexico. In French Colonies, see Canada,
Catholic Church, Jesuits, Illinois, Louisiana.
Mississippi Bubble, [278]-[279].
Mississippi Company, [411].
Mississippi River (Rio del Espíritu Santo), discovery of, [26], [41], [42];
plans to occupy its mouth, [249].
Mississippi Valley, French approach to, [96], [102];
work of the Jesuits, [96]-[97], [101];
Joliet and Marquette, [96]-[97].
La Salle, [98];
Duluth, [100].
Missouri lead mines, [282].
Mixton war, [40].
Mobile, new site for St, Louis, [276];
judicial department of, [279];
during English rule, [403], [407]-[408];
captured by Gálvez, [516].
Mobile Bay, [42], [249], [255], [276].
Molasses Act, [356].
Moluccas, [42];
Spain claims sold to Portugal, [46].
Monclova, city of, [246], [247]. [248], [296], [297].
Monckton, Lieutenant-Colonel, [372], [374].
Mongolia, visit of the Polos to, [3].
Monhegan Island settlement, [140].
Monk, George, Duke of Albermarle, Carolina proprietor, [208];
interest in Hudson's Bay Company, [213].
Monmouth, battle of, [509]-[510].
Montcalm, Marquis de, in French and Indian War, [375], [376], [377], [380].
Monte Cristi, [428].
Montejo, Francisco de, conqueror of Yucatán, [36], [38].
Montemayor, Luis de, governor of Nuevo León, [61].
Monterey, Mexico, [59];
founding of, [61];
Franciscan monastery at, [61].
Monterey, California, [2];
founding, [389];
made capital [392].
Monterey Bay, California, [47], [71], [305], [380].
Montezuma II, Aztec ruler, [28];
death of, [33].
Montgomery, English colonel, [379].
Montgomery, Richard, [470].
Montgomery, Sir Robert, grant of Azilia to, [315].
Montreal, Canada, [82], [90], [257], [263], [265], [272], [419];
association of Montreal, [90];
captured by the English, [381];
center of fur trade, [422].
Montserrat Island, occupied by English, [133], [252];
in Leeward Isles government, [206];
social conditions, [340];
restored to Great Britain, [537].
Moore, Commodore John, [379].
Moore, Governor of South Carolina, destroys Apalachee missions, [270].
Moore's Creek, [471].
Moors (Mohammedans, Berbers), expulsion from Portugal, [4];
from Spain, [13], [14], [53];
Moqui pueblos, [46], [72];
discovery of, [45];
revolt of the Indians, [45].
Moraga, Lieutenant, founds San José, California, [392].
Moral, Father, Franciscan missionary in Florida, [254].
Moravian missionaries, among Delawares in the West, [416].
Morgan, Gen. Daniel, [495], [528].
Moro Castle, Havana, captured by British, [382].
Morris, Robert, financier of the Revolution, [554].
Morristown, winter quarters of Washington's army, [492].
Morton, Thomas, founds Merry Mount, [139];
driven out, [139];
opposition to Massachusetts Bay Company, [141].
Moscoso, explores Arkansas and Texas, [42], [61].
Moultrie, Colonel Wm., [471], [472].
Moya Contreras, viceroy of Mexico, plans for exploration, [70]-[71].
Mulattoes and mestizos, in population of the New World, [306].
Munck, Jens, explorations in Hudson Bay, [213].
Muscovy Company, [106].
Mystic, settled, [142].
Nahua civilization, [26]-[28].
Nanipacna, Alabama, Spanish settlement at, [62].
Nantasket settlement, [140].
Nantes, Edict of, [79].
Nantucket, granted to the Duke of York, [196]-[197].
Naples, [16], [52], [361].
Narragansett Indians and Roger Williams, [146], [147];
attitude in King Philip's War, [191]-[192].
Narváez, Pánfilo de, sent to arrest Cortés, [33];
governor of Florida, [37];
attempted conquest of Florida, [41].
Nashborough (Nashville), founded, [419].
Nashborough Association, [549].
Natchez, founded, [278];
a judicial department of Louisiana, [279];
under the English, [406], [407], [408];
captured by Gálvez, [515].
Natchez Indians, [278];
war with French, [280].
Natchitoches, founded by St. Denis, [278];
judicial department of Louisiana, [279];
rule of De Mézières at, [401].
Naval stores, [355]-[356].
Navidad, port in Mexico, [40], [47], [68].
Navigation acts, of 1650 and 1651, [153];
of 1660, [180];
of 1696, [348]-[349];
under Anne, [351];
later acts, [354]-[355].
Navy of the United States, organized, [464];
vessels provided by New England, [517];
congressional provision for, [517];
early operations, [517]-[518];
state navies, [518];
Penobscot expedition, [518];
operations of John Paul Jones,
[518]-[519], [520]-[521];
decline of the navy, [519].
Navy Department, of the United States, [554]-[555].
Needham, James, reaches the upper Tennessee, 1673, [211].
Negro slavery, [23], [56], [273], [276], [279], [282].
Netherlands (Holland), [16];
revolt against Spain, [52];
independent state, [53];
struggle with Spain, [164];
commercial expansion, [164];
search for northeast passage, [164];
trade to Far East, [164]-[165];
explorations of Henry Hudson, [165];
discovery of Cape Horn, [165];
trade on Hudson River, [165]-[166];
settlements in Brazil, Guiana, and the Antilles, [166]-[167];
New Netherlands, [167]-[174];
struggle with the Swedes on the Delaware, [175], [177];
absorption of New Netherlands by English, [177]-[178];
alliance with England and France, [359];
treaty of Seville, [360];
attitude toward American Revolution, [520];
St. Eustatius, [520];
the Scotch brigade and the Jones incident, [520]-[521];
British seizures, [521];
secret agreement of Amsterdam, [521];
declaration of war, [521]-[522];
loans to the United States, [554].
See New Netherlands.
Neve, Felipe de, governor of California, [392].
Nevis Island, occupied by English, [133], [252];
in Leeward Isles government, [206];
taken by French, [268];
social conditions, [340];
captured by De Grasse, [532];
restored to Great Britain, [537].
Neville, John, English vice-admiral, [262].
Nevome Indians, Sonora, [239].
New Albion, Drake's name for California, [70].
New Amsterdam, [167]-[169];
surrender to the English, [197].
Newark, New Jersey, [199].
New Brunswick, [421].
New Company, successor to Company of Hundred Associates, [90].
Newcastle, Duke of, [353]-[354].
New England, supposed visit of North men, [3];
Confederation, [156]-[157];
settled area in 1700, [216];
population, [216];
agriculture, [216]-[217];
fur trade, [217];
fishing, [217];
lumbering, [217];
ship-building, [217];
commerce, [217], [331];
manufactures, [217]-[218];
standard of living, [218];
social standards, [218];
religion, [220];
superstitions, [220];
education, [220]-[221];
literature, [221];
French and Indian attacks, [271];
population, [329];
settled area about 1750, [329];
farming, [330]-[331];
lumbering, [331];
ship-building, [331];
fisheries, [331];
ships furnished during the Revolution, [517]-[518].
See the individual colonies.
Newfoundland fisheries, [106];
English attacks on, in the War of the Spanish Succession, [271],
[272], [420].
New Gothenborg, [175].
New Hampshire, early settlements, [140];
land grants in, [157];
attempt of Randolph to take it from Massachusetts, [193];
a royal colony, [194];
population, [216];
Scotch-Irish migration to, [325].
New Jersey, granted to the Duke of York, [197];
granted to Carteret and Berkeley, [197];
government of East New Jersey, [198]-[199];
difficulties with New England men, [199];
Quakers in West New Jersey, [199], [201];
division of New Jersey, [201];
government of West New Jersey, [201];
trouble with the Duke of York, [201];
Burlington, [202];
proprietors of East New Jersey, [202];
German migration to, [319];
economic and social conditions in the eighteenth century, [332];
under William III, [345];
surrender of proprietary rights, [350];
a royal colony, [350].
See West New Jersey, East New Jersey.
New Haven, founded, [150];
government, [150];
code of 1656, [155];
member of the New England Confederation, [156];
confederation and expansion, [158].
New Laws, for Spanish America, [50], [55].
New Mexico,
Pueblo Indians, [44], [46], [234], [245];
Coronado's expedition, [40], [46];
exploration in later [16]th century, [72]-[73];
colonization, [73]-[74];
founding of Santa Fé, [73], [243];
isolation, [242];
in the [17]th century, [243]-[247];
missions, [243];
Benavides's report, in 1630, [243];
missionary and trading expeditions, [243]-[244];
in 1680, [244]-[245];
beginnings of El Paso, [245];
revolt of Pueblo Indians, [234], [245]-[247];
La Junta missions, [245], [290];
Mendoza's expedition to Jumanos, [245];
advance of French toward, [285]-[286], [300]-[301];
Moqui and Zuñi resistance, [290];
new settlements, [290];
population, [290];
Indian depredations, [290]-[291];
advance to northeast stimulated by French, [291];
explorers in Colorado, [291]-[292].
New Netherlands, early settlements, [167];
government, [167];
administration of Peter Minuit, [167], [169];
patroon system, [169]-[170];
the frontiers strengthened, [170];
administration of Van Twiller, [170]-[171];
Kieft's administration, [171]-[172];
Indian war, [172];
administration of Stuyvesant, [172]-[173];
economic development, [173]-[174];
conquest of New Sweden, [175], [177];
absorption by England, [177]-[178], [196]-[197].
New Netherlands Company, [165]-[166].
New Orleans, founded, [279], [293];
slavery and agriculture, [279];
population, [279];
judicial department of Louisiana, [279];
under Spanish administration, [398];
emigration to, [408].
Newport, Sir Christopher, voyage to Virginia, 1607, [116]-[117];
voyage of 1609, [118].
Newport, Rhode Island, founded, [148];
siege of, [510];
evacuated by British, [511];
occupied by Rochambeau, [511].
New Providence Island, occupied by English, [206];
captured by French and Spanish, [268], [269].
New Spain. See Spanish colonies in North America; Mexico.
New Sweden, the New Sweden Company, [175];
founding of Fort Christina, [175];
administration of Governor Printz, [175];
renewed colonization, [175],177;
conquest by the Dutch, [177].
New Sweden Company, [175].
Newtown (Cambridge) settled,
[145].
New York, province granted to James, Duke of York, [196]-[197];
seizure by the English, [197];
administration of Nicolls, [197];
administration of Lovelace, [197];
struggle for representative government, [197]-[198];
administration of Dongan, [198];
Leisler's rebellion, [198];
attempt to regain control of the Jerseys, [201];
deed to East New Jersey, [202];
dispute with Pennsylvania, [203];
population, [221];
industries, [221]-[222];
social conditions, [222];
religion, [222]-[223];
education, [222]-[223];
large estates, [223];
German migration to, [318]-[319];
Scotch-Irish migration to, [325];
economic and social conditions in the eighteenth century, [331]-[332];
a royal colony, [344]-[345];
protest against Grenville's policy, [432]-[433];
assembly dissolved, [438]-[439];
attitude regarding the Association, [458].
See New Netherlands.
New York City, charter granted by Governor Nicolls, [197];
in the eighteenth century, [332];
captured by the British, [482]-[484].
See New Amsterdam.
Nicaragua, conquest of, [29]-[30], [31], [32], [42];
audiencia of, [50].
Nicaragua, Lake, [29], [32].
Nicholson, Francis, lieutenant governor of New York, and the Leisler
rebellion, [198];
expedition against Montreal, [272].
Nicolet, Jean, French explorer in Wisconsin, [88].
Nicolls, Richard, governor of New York, [197];
sends colonists to New Jersey, [198].
Nicoya, Gulf of, Central America, [29], [31].
Nicuesa, founder of Nombre de Dios, [28].
Niña, one of Columbus' ships, [8].
Ninety-Six, [527], [529].
Niño, Andrés, expedition of, [29]-[30], [42].
"Noche Triste," [33], [36].
Nochistlán, Nueva Galicia, [40].
Nombre de Dios (Porto Bello), [24];
colony at, [28]; founding of, [29], [56];
port for Spanish merchant fleet, [66];
population, [75].
Nootka Sound, explored, [395].
North, Lord, prime minister, [443];
coercive acts, [449]-[451];
conciliatory resolution, [455]-[456];
attempts conciliation, [508]-[509];
sends Carlisle commission to America, [509].
North, Captain Robert, attempt to colonize Guiana, [132].
North Carolina (for Spanish activities in See Carolinas);
population, [227];
settled area, [227];
economic conditions, [228]-[229];
religion, [229];
separation from South Carolina, [313]-[315];
German migration to, [320];
Swiss migration to, [321];
Scotch-Irish migration to, [326];
social and economic conditions in the [18]th century, [333]-[334];
a royal colony, [354];
the Regulators, [414]-[415];
protest against Grenville's policy, [433];
in the Revolution, [471], [512]-[513], [528]-[529].
See Albemarle District, Carolinas.
Northern Mystery, [68].
Northmen, early maritime exploration, [2];
appearance in England, [2];
discovery and colonization of Iceland, and of Greenland, [2]-[3];
discovery of Vinland, [2]-[3].
Northwest Company, fur trade of, [423].
Northeast passage, sought by the English, [106], [108], [213];
sought by the Dutch, [164].
Nova Scotia, [3], [26], [272], [421];
English policy of defense, [312]-[313];
German migration to, [322].
See Acadia.
Nuevo Almadén (Coahuila), [61], [247].
Nueva Andalucía, Central America, [29].
Nueva Andalucía (Sonora), [239].
Nueva Galicia, conquest of, [39];
Mixton War, [40];
audiencia and diocese of, [55], [56];
growth of, [58].
Nueva Vizcaya, founding of, [56], [58];
development, [58];
Franciscans and Jesuits in, [58];
conflicts with Nuevo León, [61];
capital, [242].
Nuevo León, Kingdom of, Tlascaltecan Indians as colonists in, [60];
extent of, [60];
development under Carabajal, [60], [61];
administration of Montemayor, [61];
conflicts with Nueva Vizcaya, [61];
frontier, [247];
Zavala's rule, [247].
Nuevo Santander (Tamaulipus), settlement of by Escandón, [299]-[300].
Oaxaca, Mexico, [36], [53], [75].
Ocampo, circumnavigates Cuba, [17], [25].
O'Conor, Hugo, comandante inspector in North Mexican provinces, [386].
Oglethorpe, James, motives, [315];
founding of Georgia, [316];
in war of Jenkins' Ear, [361]-[362], [363]-[364].
Ohio Company, The, [367].
Ohio River Valley, Spaniards in, [64];
French in, [98], [101], [102], [257], [281]-[282], [368]-[369];
English in, [102], [211], [367];
struggle for, [367]-[378];
development under English rule, [403]-[419].
Oidores, [48].
Ojeda, explorer, [23], [28].
Ojuelos, Mexico, [59].
Oklahoma, region, early Spanish explorations, [42], [45], [243];
French trade and exploration, [286], [300];
later Spanish activities, [398];
English intruders before Revolution, [401].
Oldham, John, [140]-[141];
opposition to Massachusetts Bay Company, [141].
Olid, Cristobal de, lieutenant of Cortés, [36];
in Michoacán and Colima, [36]-[37];
expedition to Honduras, [38].
Olivares, Father Francisco, missionary in Coahuila and Texas, [249],
[292], [293].
Oñate, Cristóbal de, a founder of Nueva Galicia, [40], [55].
Oñate, Juan de, colonizer of New Mexico, [73];
explorations of, [74];
displaced by royal governor, [73];
believes California an Island, [240].
Oneida Indians, [265].
Onondaga Indians, [259], [265].
Opechancanough's War in Virginia, [160].
O'Reilly, Alexander, installs Spanish régime in Louisiana, [397]-[398], [407].
Orinoco River, [171];
Raleigh's exploration of the delta, [110].
Oré, Fray Luis de, Franciscan missionary in Florida, [253].
Oriskany, Battle of, [496].
Orista, South Carolina, Jesuit mission in, [64].
Orleans, Isle of, surrendered to Spain, [383].
Ormuz, capture of, [24].
Orozco, conquistador with Cortés, [38].
Oswego, founded, [313].
Ortega, Francisco de, founds colony at La Paz, [240].
Osage Indians, [283], [284].
Ostend East India Company, [360].
Ostimuri, Sonora district, [305], [306].
Otermin, effort to reconquer New Mexico, [245], [246].
Otis, James, opposition to writs of assistance, [429];
circular letter, [436];
member of the Stamp Act Congress, [436].
Oto Indians, French among, [284].
Ottawa, River explored, [87];
Indians, [258].
Oxenham, English freebooter, [66].
Pacific Ocean, fifth century voyages, [2];
discovery by Portuguese, [24];
by Balboa, [25];
Magellan crosses, [25];
explorations on Central American coast, [29]-[30];
on Mexican coast, [37], [42]-[44];
on California coast, [44], [46]-[47], [70]-[71], [240]-[241], [306]-[307], [389]-[394];
crossed by Saavedra, [42];
by Villalobos, [47];
Legazpi conquers Philippines, [67]-[68];
Urdaneta discovers return route, [68];
the Manila galleon, [68];
the Strait of Anian, [70];
raids of Drake and Cavendish, [78];
islands of Rica de Oro and Rica de Plata, [71];
Dutch voyages and raids, [164], [165], [240];
French interest in, [100], [285];
Vérendrye's effort to reach, [287]-[288];
Anson's raid, [363];
in Seven Years' War, [382];
Russian trade and voyages, [383];
Spanish exploration of the Northern Pacific, Pérez, Heçeta, and
Bodega, [395];
Cook at Nootka Sound, [395].
Padouca Indians, French among, [283].
Paine, Thomas, "Common Sense," [477].
Palenque, Maya center, [27].
Palma, Salvador, Yuma chief, [393].
Palos, Spain, port of sail of Columbus, [5].
Panamá, [24], [25];
founding, [29];
Audiencia of, [49], [50];
population, [75].
Panay, Philippines, [68].
Panton, Leslie, and Company, merchants of Pensacola, [407].
Pánuco, slave-hunting, [23];
district of, separated from Mexico, [33];
headquarters for Carabajal, [66].
Pánuco River, [25], [37].
Paoli, [500].
Paquimé (Casas Grandes), Ibarra at, [56].
Paraguay, [306].
Paramaribo, [23].
Pardo, Juan, explores Alleghanies, 1568, [64].
Pareja, Father, Franciscan missionary and writer in Florida, [253].
Paria, Central America, [29].
Parma, Duchess of, [52].
Parral, Mexico, town, garrison, and mission, [242].
Parras, colony established at, [60];
administered by Urdiñola, [60];
Santa Maria de, Jesuit mission, [60].
Parras, Laguna de, [59].
Parrilla, Diego Ortiz, Colonel, in Texas, [299];
explorations, [385].
Parson's Cause, [429].
Pastorius, Francis Daniel, [318].
Patroon system, [169]-[170].
Pátzcuaro, Mexico, [36].
Pauw, Michael, [170].
Pawnee Indians, [23], [283];
horse market for Atlantic coast colonies, [400].
Peace of Aix-la-Chapelle, [366].
Peace of Paris, [382]-[383].
Peace of Ryswick, [266]-[267].
Peace of Utrecht, [273], [361].
Pearl Coast, The, [24].
Pearl fisheries, [68], [71], [240], [243]-[244].
Pearls, Isle of, [29].
Pecos River, [45], [46], [72].
Pedrarias de Ávila, governor of Castilla del Oro, [29]-[31];
expeditions, [29], [31]-[32];
governor of Nicaragua, [31].
Pemaquid, Maine, [262], [265].
Pembroke and Montgomery, Earl of, receives West Indian grant, [132].
Peñalosa, ex-governor of New Mexico, proposes attack on Spanish
colonies, [249].
Penn, Admiral William, conquers Jamaica, [153], [253].
Penn, William, grant of Pennsylvania, [203];
his powers, [204];
founding of Philadelphia, [204];
frame of government, [204];
first sojourn in America, [204]-[205];
activities in England, [205];
attempts to relieve friction in Pennsylvania, [205];
restored to his proprietorship, [346];
grants Charter of Privileges, [350];
interest in New Jersey, [199];
settles dispute over lands in West New Jersey, [201];
lands in West New Jersey, [201];
holdings in East New Jersey, [202].
Pennsylvania, the Quaker faith, [202];
coming of the Quakers, [202]-[203];
Penn's grant, [203];
powers of the proprietor, [204];
founding of Philadelphia, [204];
frame of government, [204];
arrival of Penn and establishment of the government, [204]-[205];
friction in the colony, [205];
growth, [205];
population, [224];
economic conditions, [226];
religion, [226];
education, [226]-[227];
German migration to, [317]-[318], [319];
Swiss migration to, [321];
Scotch-Irish migration to, [325]-[326];
economic and social condition in the eighteenth century, [332]-[333];
under William III, [345];
Charter of Privileges, [350];
protest against Grenville's policy, [433];
navy, [518].
Penobscot expedition, [518].
Penobscot River settlements, [139].
Pensacola (bay and settlement), bay discovered by De Soto, [42];
De Luna's expedition to, [61]-[62];
Ichuse settled, [62];
plans to reoccupy, [255]-[256];
Pensacola founded, [275];
captured by French, [279]-[295];
under English rule, [403], [407], [408];
reoccupied by Gálvez, [518].
Pequot War, [149]-[150].
Pérez, Captain Juan, with Portolá expedition, [389];
voyage up Pacific coast, [395].
Pérez, Fray Juan, influence in favor of Columbus, [7].
Pérez, Martín, Jesuit missionary in Sinaloa, [55], [237], [239].
Pernambuco, captured by Dutch West India Company, [252].
Perrot, Nicholas, posts of, in Wisconsin, [101].
Peru, [29], [46], [49], [50], [66];
viceroyalty of, [75].
Peter the Great, [388].
Petit Guave, West Indies, [262], [268].
Petition of Right, [112].
Pez, Andrés de, explorer of Gulf of Mexico, [249], [255].
Philadelphia, founding, [204];
description of, [226];
in the eighteenth century, [332]-[353];
First Continental Congress, [452];
Second Continental Congress, [463];
captured by the British, [500]-[501];
evacuated by the British, [509].
Philip II, of Spain, emigration policy, [21];
inheritance, [52];
agent of the Catholic church in the Counter-Reformation, [52]-[53];
Spain's weakness under, [53];
decision to colonize Florida, [62];
to establish trade with Philippines, [67];
war with France, [79];
policy toward England, [105].
Philip III, of Spain, policy regarding Virginia, [119].
Philip V, of Spain, [359].
Philippines, Spanish claim to, [46];
expeditions to, [46]-[47];
occupation of, [54];
conquest of, [67]-[68];
Legazpi's expedition, [68];
the Manila galleon, [66], [68], [69];
discovery of return route from, [69];
captured by English, [382].
Phips, Sir William, expedition against Port Royal, Acadia, [264];
expedition against Quebec, [264];
orders rebuilding Fort Pemaquid and fort on the Saco, [265].
Pichilingues, pirates in the Gulf of California, [240].
Picólo, Francisco Maria, S.J., in Lower California, [306].
Pickens, General Arthur, [529].
Piedmont, settlement of, [309]-[329];
significance, [326]-[328].
Piernas, Pedro, lieutenant-governor at St Louis, [398].
Pilgrims at Scrooby, Gainsborough, and Austerfield, [137];
removal to Leyden, [137];
Use at Leyden, [137];
causes of removal from Holland, [137];
Mayflower Compact, [138].
See Plymouth Colony.
Pillars of Alexander, [1].
Pillars of Hercules, [1].
Pima Revolt, [305].
Pimería Alta (Sonora and Arizona), Jesuits in, [301]-[306];
exploration and settlement in Arizona, [302];
Kino's map, [303];
decline and revival of the missions, [303]-[304];
Arizonac mines, [304];
work of Keller and Sedelmayr, [304];
plans to occupy the Gila and Colorado, [304]-[305];
the Pima revolt, [305];
the northwestern frontier in 1763, [305]-[306].
Pimienta, captures English settlement, on Providence Island, [252].
Piñadero, attempt to colonize Lower California, [241].
Pineda, explores Gulf of Mexico, [26], [37].
Pinta, one of Columbus's ships, [8].
Pinzón, explores coasts, [24], [25].
Pious Fund of California, [306], [389].
Piquet, French missionary in New York, [368].
Piracy Act, [349]-[350].
Pirates. See Freebooters.
Pitt, William, [376], [381];
opposition to the Stamp Act, [437].
Pitt-Grafton Ministry, [438].
Pizarro, conqueror of Peru, De Soto with, [41]
Placentia Bay, Newfoundland, [271].
Plantation Duties Act of 1673, [181].
Platte River, Humana expedition to, 1594, [73]-[74];
French traders on, [285]-[286], [300];
Spanish plans to settle on, [295];
Villazur expedition destroyed, 1720, [296];
horse market for English colonies, [400];
Spanish fur trade on, [402].
Plowden, Sir Edmund, grant on Long Island, [150].
Plymouth Company, charter, [116];
attempts to colonize, [136].
Plymouth Colony, Mayflower Compact, [138];
settlement at Plymouth, [138];
economic development, [138]-[139];
trouble with western settlers, [139];
expansion, [139];
government, [139]-[140];
trouble with settlers at Cape Ann, [140]-[141];
with Morton's settlers, [141];
member of New England Confederation, [156];
the Dominion of New England, [194];
education, [220];
consolidation with Massachusetts, [340].
Pocahontas, [121].
Pocock, English admiral, captures Havana, [382].
Polo, Marco, Matteo, and Nicolo, in the East, [3], [7].
Pond, Peter, fur trader, [423].
Pontchartrain, French Minister of Marine, [275].
Pontgravé, French fur trader, [85], [86].
Pontiac, conspiracy of, [409], [417], [422].
Pope Alexander VI, assignation of discoveries between Spain and
Portugal, [11].
Pope Innocent IV, sends legate to the Great Khan, [3].
Popé, Indian leader of Pueblo revolt, [245]-[246].
Population. See Immigration and Population.
Port Royal, Acadia, [85], [86].
See also Acadia.
Port Royal, South Carolina, [62], [210].
Port Royal, Jamaica, destroyed, [262].
Port Royal Sound, Huguenot settlement on, [84].
Porter y Casante, attempt to colonize California, [240].
Portezuelos, Mexico, [59].
Porto Bello. See Puerto Bello.
Portolá, expedition to California, [389];
founds San Diego, [389];
Monterey, [389];
discovers San Francisco Bay, [389].
Portoláni, [4].
Porto Rico, Island, [17], [19], [67], [253].
Porto Santo, Island, [7].
Portsmouth, New Hampshire, settled, [140];
Puritan settlers in, [157];
claimed by Massachusetts, [157].
Portsmouth, Rhode Island, founded, [148].
Portugal, rise of, [4]-[5];
Henry the navigator, [4];
exploration and discoveries, [5]-[6];
map showing expansion, [6];
reception to Columbus, [10];
line of demarkation, [11];
Magellan, [25], [46];
purchase of Moluccas, [46];
a Spanish province, [53], [68];
spice trade, [67];
incorporated with Spain, [107];
joins League of Armed Neutrals, [520].
Post Office, English colonial, [35];
during the Revolution, [465].
Pownall, Thomas, western land scheme, [411].
Pragmatic Sanction, [360].
Presbyterians, in New Jersey, [202], [226];
in South Carolina, [231].
Prescott, Colonel William, [461].
Prester John, supposed Christian king in interior Africa, [5].
Preston, Colonel, [417].
Prevost, Colonel, [406].
Prevost, General Augustine, [524].
Prideaux, expedition against Niagara, [379].
Princeton, battle of, [492].
Princeton College, pillaged by Hessians, [489].
Printing press, established in Mexico, [50].
Printz, Johan, governor of New Sweden, [175].
Privateers, [465],518.
Privateers, English, French, and Dutch, in Spanish waters, [252], [271];
Spanish retaliation, [252].
Privy council, [113], [114], [343]-[344], [347]-[348], [354].
Prize courts, [542].
Prizes, [465].
Proclamation of 1763, creates crown colonies, [404];
discourages expansion, [411];
provisions for government and fur trade, [420], [421].
Protestant Reformation, [16], [52];
in France, [78]-[79].
Providence Island, occupied by English, [133];
English expelled by Spaniards, [134], [252].
Providence Island Company, [133]-[134].
Providence Plantation, founding, [147];
government, [143].
See Rhode Island.
Provincias Internas (New Spain), organization of, [386]-[387].
Ptolemy, his conception of the world, [1], [2].
Puaray, New Mexico, [72].
Puebla, Mexico, population, [75].
Pueblo Indians, of New Mexico, [46];
revolt of, [245]-[247].
Puerto Bello, [32], [360], [361].
Puritan Revolution, attitude of English colonies, [152].
Purry, Jean, [321].
Putnam, Colonel, plants colony on Mississippi, [408].
Putnam, Israel, [459], [461], [464].
Pym, John, interest in the Caribbean, [133].
Quakers, Massachusetts persecution, [189];
in New Jersey, [198]-[202], [226];
in Pennsylvania, [202]-[206], [226];
in Connecticut, [220];
in Rhode Island, [220];
in New York, [223];
in North Carolina, [229];
in South Carolina, [231].
Quartering Acts, [434]-[436], [438], [450].
Quebec Act of 1774, [413], [450]-[451].
Quebec, [257], [264], [272];
founding, [86];
occupied by English, [87];
Jesuit schools in, [88];
during intercolonial wars, [257], [264], [272], [379];
British regulation of fur trade, [404]-[406], [421]-[424];
province of, under British administration, [419]-[421];
population in 1763, [419];
first British settlers, [419];
civil government established, [420];
Proclamation of 1763, [420];
Quebec Act, [420], [421];
boundaries extended, [420];
Loyalists in, [421];
fur trade under the British, [421]-[424];
American expedition against, [487].
See French and Indian War.
Queen Anne's War. See War of the Austrian Succession.
Queres Indians, New Mexico, [246].
Querétaro, a buffer province, conquest of, [39];
natives as agents of subjugation, [39];
battle of, [58];
founding of town, [58];
College of the Holy Cross at, [249].
Quexos, slave hunter and explorer, [26].
Quiché Indians, Guatemala, conquest of, [38].
Quincy, Josiah, defense of British soldiers, [443].
Quiroga, oidor of New Spain, [49]; bishop of Michoacán, [49].
Quivira (Kansas), [45], [72], [73], [243].
Radisson, French fur trader, [90], [260];
influence in establishment of Hudson's Bay Company, [213].
Raleigh, Walter, English freebooter and colonizer, [66], [251];
interest in Mediterranean commerce, [107];
charter of 1584, [109];
attempts to colonize Roanoke Island, [110];
expedition to Guiana, [110];
final attempt to colonize Guiana, [132];
death, [132].
Ramón, Domingo, founds colony in Texas, [293], [295], [296].
Randolph, Edward, royal agent, [192];
collector of the customs, [193];
attempt to enforce trade laws, [194];
imprisonment, [194];
surveyor-general of the customs, [344].
Randolph, Peyton, [463].
Rappahannock River, Spanish mission on, [65].
Rawdon, Lord Francis, [529].
Recollet friars, activities in Canada, [87].
Red River, Spanish and French on, [42], [283],284.
Reformation, The. See The Protestant Reformation.
Regidores, members of cabildo, [20];
manner of obtaining office, [20].
Renault, mining on the Missouri, [282].
Requisitions upon states, [545].
Restoration, the, [179].
Restraining Act, [456].
Revere, Paul, [460].
Revillagigedo, viceroy of New Spain, [305].
Revolution in English colonies, background of the contest and nature
of the causes, [423]-[429];
legislation during the Grenville Ministry, [429]-[436];
repeal of the Stamp Act, [436]-[438];
the Townshend Acts, [438]-[443];
beginning of organized resistance, [443]-[447];
the tea controversy, [447]-[449];
North's coercive policy, [449]-[451];
First Continental Congress, [451]-[456];
opening of hostilities, [458]-[463];
Second Continental Congress, [463]-[470];
progress of the war, [470]-[472];
Loyalists, [472]-[476];
Declaration of Independence, [476]-[481];
contest for New York, [482]-[489];
New Jersey campaign, [489]-[493];
struggle with Burgoyne, [493]-[499];
contest for Philadelphia, [499]-[504];
the French alliance, [505]-[512];
the war in the West, [512]-[515];
Spain in the war, [515]-[517];
the war on the sea and the Dutch alliance, [517]-[522];
the war in the South, [524]-[530];
the Yorktown campaign, [530]-[538];
the treaty of peace, [532]-[538];
governmental development during the Revolution, [539]-[555].
Ribas, Pérez de, missionary and historian in Sinaloa, [239].
Ribaut, Jean, French colonizer;
in Carolina and Florida, [62], [84].
Rica de Oro, Island, [71].
Rica de Plata, Island, [71].
Rice, [231], [313], [334]-[335], [356].
Richelieu, Cardinal, administration of, government of France, [79]-[80];
colonial policy, [80].
Rio del Espíritu Santo. See Mississippi River.
Rio Fuerte, Sinaloa, [42], [56].
Rio Grande, [45], [73];
pueblo region of, [46];
population on, in 1680, [244]-[245];
crossed by expedition from the south, [248].
See New Mexico, Nuevo León, Coahuila, Texas.
Rivas, explorer of Gulf of Mexico, [249].
Rivera y Moneada, with Portolá in California, [389].
Rivera, Juan Maria, explores in Colorado, [291]-[292].
Rivera, Pedro de, inspects frontier of New Spain, [297], [298],304.
Rhode Island, founding, [147];
confederation, [159];
code, [159];
government, [159];
charter, [190];
attitude toward royal commissioners, [191];
King Philip's War, [191]-[192];
Dominion of New England, [194]-[195];
charter restored, [195];
population, [216];
commerce, [216];
religion, [220];
education, [220];
restoration of the charter, [344];
protest against Grenville's policy, [432];
opposes the Stamp Act, [436];
British occupation, [489].
See Providence Plantation, Roger Williams; Anne Hutchinson.
Rich, Sir Nathaniel, interest in the Caribbean, [133].
Rich, Robert, Lord Warwick, interest in colonization, [133];
land grants in New England, [140], [149];
assists Reverend John White, [141].
Rising, John, governor of New Sweden, [177].
Roanoke, lost colony of, [110].
Roanoke Island, [66], [251].
Robertson, James, pioneer in Tennessee, [415], [416], [419];
defense of Watauga, [513].
Roberval, French colonizer, [82];
commissioned viceroy and lieutenant-general of Canada, [82].
Robinson, Rev. John, at Scrooby, [137].
Rochambeau, Comte de, [511].
Rockingham Ministry, [437]-[438].
Rocky Mountains, [282].
Rodney, Admiral, in the West Indies, [382], [511], [530]-[531];
defeats de Grasse, [532].
Rodrigo del Rio de Losa, expedition to open mines of Nueva Vizcaya,
56;
cattle ranches of, [58].
Rodríguez, Fray Agustín, expedition to New Mexico, [72].
Roe, Sir Thomas, expedition to Guiana, [132].
Rolfe, John, [121].
Rosicrucians, [318].
Roxbury settled, [142].
Royal council, Spanish, [14];
divided into three councils, justice, state, and finance, [14].
Rowley, William, English vice-admiral, [365].
Rubí, Marqués de, inspects outposts of New Spain, [385]-[386].
Ruí, Captain Francisco, in Missouri.
Rubruquis, William de, sent to court of Great Khan, [3].
Rump Parliament, [152].
Rupert, Prince, interest in Hudson's Bay Company, [213].
Russia, [3], [375], [382], [384];
expansion across Siberia, [388];
expeditions of Bering on Pacific, [388];
fur traders on Aleutian Islands, [388];
rumors of activities of, [394].
Rutherford, Gen. Griffith, [512]-[513].
Rutledge, Edward, member of the First Continental Congress, [452];
defense of Charleston, [471];
on committee to draw up Articles of Confederation, [550].
Rutledge, John, member of the Stamp Act Congress, [436];
member of the First Continental Congress, [452].
Saavedra, Alvaro de, expedition across the Pacific, [42], [46].
Saavedra, Hernando, in Honduras, [38].
Saba Island, settled by Dutch, [167];
captured by English, [206], [531].
Sable Island, [81], [85].
Saco Bay, settlement, [140].
Sagres, on Cape St. Vincent, [4].
St. Augustine, Florida, founding, [62];
Franciscan monastery at, [65];
siege of, in War of the Spanish Succession, [269]-[270];
attacks on, in War of Jenkins' Ear, [362], [364];
under English rule, [403], [408], [409].
St. Bartholomew's, massacre of, [79].
St. Christopher Island, settled by French, [93], [94], [252];
by English, [132]-[133], [252];
in the Leeward Isles government, [206];
in wars, [261], [268];
social conditions, [340];
captured by De Grasse, [532];
restored to Great Britain, [537].
St. Clair, Gen. Arthur, in Burgoyne campaign, [494]-[495].
St. Croix Island, French settlement of, [85].
St. Denis, Louis Juchereau de, founds Natchitoches, [278];
expeditions to Mexico, [278], [282]-[283], [293];
imprisonment, [283], [295];
raises French expedition, [297].
St. Eustatius Island, settled by the Dutch, [167], [252];
captured by the English, [206], [262];
trade, [341], [428];
in the Revolution, [520];
captured by the English, [530]-[531].
St. John, French fur trading post, [86].
St. John's River, [62].
St. Joseph, Michigan, captured by Spaniards, [516].
St. Julien, Peter, South Carolina trader, [369].
St Kitts. See St. Christopher.
St. Lawrence River, exploration of, [81], [82];
French settlement, [86]-[90].
St. Leger's expedition, [493], [496].
St. Louis, Missouri, La Clede's post at, [396];
emigration to from Illinois, [396];
Spanish régime installed, [397]-[398];
a center for Indian control and fur trade, [401], [402];
communication with Santa Fé, [402];
British expedition against, [516];
counter expedition to Michigan, [517].
St. Louis of France, sends Rubruquis to Great Khan, [3].
St Louis, Alabama, French settlement, [276]; moved to Mobile, [276].
St. Lucia Island, captured by English, [510];
attempted capture by De Grasse, [531];
given to France, [537].
St. Marks Bay, Narváez at, [41].
St. Martin Island, settled by the Dutch, [167];
captured by English, [531].
St. Mary's, Maryland, [127].
St. Thomas Island, Danes on, [253].
St. Vincent Island, occupied by French, [510];
restored to Great Britain, [537].
Salamanca, University of, [76].
Salazar, royal factor of New Spain, [48].
Salem, Massachusetts, founded, [141];
suffering at, [142];
Roger Williams controversy, [146]-[147];
witchcraft, [220].
Salmerón, oidor of New Spain, [49].
Saltillo, Coahuila, settlement of, [59];
Franciscan monastery at, [59].
Salvatierra, Juan Maria, Jesuit missionary in Lower California, [306].
San Antonio Mission, California, [389].
San Antonio, Florida, presidio of, [64].
San Antonio, Texas, founded, [293]-[295];
strengthening of, [298].
San Bernabé, Lower California, [307].
San Blas, naval base for California, [389].
San Bruno, Lower California, [242].
San Buenaventura Mission, California, [394].
San Carlos Mission, California, [389].
San Diego, California, founded, [389].
San Diego Bay, California, discovery of, [47];
exploration of, [71].
Sandoval, Gonzalo de, lieutenant of Cortés, [36], [37].
Sandys, Sir Edwin, and Virginia, [120].
San Esteban (Tampico), founding of, [37].
San Felipe, Sinaloa, [58], [59];
development of, [58];
Jesuit school for boys, [237].
San Felipe, South Carolina, [64].
San Fernando, Villa of, Texas, founded, [298].
San Francisco, California, founding of, [391].
San Francisco Bay, California, [47], [71], [389].
San Francisco Xavier, Sonora, [239].
San Gabriel Mission, California, [391].
San Gerónimo, Sonora, founding of, [45];
destruction of, [56];
refounding, [59].
San José, pueblo, California, [392].
San Juan, Sinaloa, mines of, [56];
revolt of Indians at, [58].
San Juan, Sonora, mines, [239].
San Juan, Porto Rico, founded, [17];
captured by English, [66];
decline of, [67];
captured by Dutch West India Company, [252].
San Juan River, Nicaragua, exploration of, [31]-[32].
San Luis, Nicolás de, Otomi Chief, conquest of Querétaro, [39].
San Luis Obispo Mission, California, [391].
San Luis Potosí, conquest and settlement of, [59];
growth of, [59].
San Mateo, Florida, [64].
San Miguel de Gualdape, South Carolina, settlement of, [41].
San Miguel el Grande (Allende), Mexico, [59].
San Pedro mines, Mexico, [59].
San Sabá, Texas, mines, [248];
mission, [299].
San Salvador, Central America, conquest, [31], [37]-[38];
population, [75].
San Salvador Island, discovered and named by Columbus, [8], [10].
San Xavier (San Gabriel) River, Texas, mission and presidio on, [299].
Santa Ana, Father, missionary in Texas, [299].
Santa Bárbara mission and presidio, California, [394].
Santa Bárbara, Mexico, mines of, [56];
expedition from, [72].
Santa Catalina Island, California, [71], [255];
mission, [255].
Santa Clara Mission, California, [392].
Santa Cruz de Tlatelalco, Mexico,
College of, founded, [50].
Santa Cruz Island, [252].
Santa Elena (Port Royal) South Carolina, [61]-[62], [64], [65], [253].
Santa Fé Mission, Florida, [2], [69].
Santa Fé, New Mexico, [73], [243], [246], [290].
Santa Fé de Guanajauto, founding of, [58].
Santa Lucia, Florida, [64].
Santa Maria, one of Columbus' ships, [8];
wreck of, [10].
Santa Maria de Lagos, Mexico, [59].
Santa Maria de Parras, Coahuila, [60].
Santangel, Luis de, influence in favor of Columbus, [7];
loan to the Castilian treasury, [8].
Santa Cruz, Franciscan College of, at Querétaro, [249].
Santiago de Cuba, founded, [17], [18];
decline of, [67];
captured by Jackson, [252];
English attempt to conquer, [363].
Santo Domingo, [17], [67];
establishment of audiencia, [20];
population, [75];
attacks on during King William's War, [262].
Saratoga, campaign, [497], [498].
Sardinia Island, [13], [359].
Satren, Pierre, expedition to New Mexico, [286].
Sault Ste. Marie, [88];
Jesuit mission, [88], [96].
Saunders, English vice-admiral, [379], [380].
Savannah, founding, [316];
attempted relief by D'Estaing, [511];
captured by the British, [524];
failure to recapture, [524].
Saybrook, [149].
Saye and Sele, Lord, interest in the Caribbean, [133];
holdings in the Connecticut Valley, [149];
obtains lands in New Hampshire, [157].
Sayle, Captain William, governor of the Bermuda Islands, leads
colony to Segatoo, [152];
leads settlers to old Charles Town, [208].
Schenectady, New York, [263].
Schouten, William Cornelius, discovers Cape Horn, [165].
Schuyler, Captain John, [264].
Schuyler, Peter, [265].
Schuyler, Gen. Philip, appointment, [464];
in command of the northern department, [487];
defense of northern New York, [493]-[496];
superseded by Gates, [496].
Schuylkill River, settlement, [155].
Scotch, in New Jersey, [202];
at Port Royal, [210];
in New England, [216];
in New York, [222].
See Scotch-Irish.
Scotch-Irish, causes of migration, [322]-[323];
seventeenth century migration, [324];
the great migration, [324];
to New England, [324]-[325];
to New York, [325];
to Pennsylvania, [325]-[326];
to the Southern Piedmont, [326];
in North Carolina, [415].
Second Continental Congress, delegates, [463];
nature of the work of the congress, [463]-[464];
military and naval preparations, [464];
prizes and privateers, [465];
finance, [465];
post office established, [465];
Indian policy, [465]-[466];
enforcement of the Association, [466]-[467];
letter to the people of Canada, [467];
attempts to influence public opinion in the British Empire, [468];
statement to the army, [468];
petition to the king, [468]-[469];
reply to Lord North, [469];
abandons Philadelphia and goes to Baltimore, [490];
second abandonment of Philadelphia, [502];
provides a navy, [517];
its nature, [539];
original powers of the delegates, [540];
causes of weakness, [540]; business, [541];
organization and conduct of business, [541];
early acts, [541]-[542];
judicial functions, [542];
military affairs, [542]-[543];
naval affairs, [543];
foreign affairs, [543]-[544];
financial affairs, [544]-[545];
creates executive offices, [553].
Secretaries of State, [347], [351], [353].
Sedelmayr, Father Jacob, Jesuit missionary and explorer in Arizona,
304, [307].
Segatoo (Eleutheria) Island, settled, [152].
Segura, Father, Jesuit, founds missions in Florida, Georgia,
Carolina, and Virginia, 1568-1570, [65].
Seignorial grants in New France, [92], [93].
Seneca Indians, [259];
in St. Leger's army, [496].
Sénégal, Africa, coast of, explored, [5];
retained by British, 1763, [382].
Separatists, [135].
Sena, Junípero, [386];
president of the California missions, [389];
member of Portolá expedition, [389];
goes to Mexico, [389]; death, [394].
Seven Years' War, [375], [384].
See French and Indian War.
Sevier, John, Tennessee pioneer, [415], [416];
defense of Watauga, [513];
at King's Mountain, [527].
Seville, [10];
treaty of, [366].
Shaftesbury. See Cooper.
Shawnee Indians, [417].
Sheffield, Lord, land grant to, [140].
Shelby, Isaac, [527].
Shenandoah Valley, settlement, [320].
Sherman, Roger, member of First Continental Congress, [452];
on the committee for drafting Declaration of Independence, [479];
on committee to draw up Articles of Confederation, [550].
Ship-building, [217], [331], [332].
Shirley, governor of Massachusetts, [364]. [374], [375]-[376].
Shrewsbury, New Jersey, [198].
Sicily, [16], [359], [361].
Sieur de Argaud, New World project, [275].
Sieur de Monts, fur trader. [85], [86].
Silao, Mexico, founded, [58].
Silva, Father Juan de, Franciscan missionary in Florida, [65].
Sinaloa, conquest of, [39];
development of, [56], [305]-[306], [387];
Jesuits in, [237]-[240];
map of, in seventeenth century, [238].
Sinclair, British commander at Mackinac, expedition against St.
Loins, [516].
Sioux Indians, French among, [287].
Six Nations. See the Iroquois Indians.
Slavery, beginning of the traffic, [5];
slaves in Spain, [13];
enslaving of the Indians, [22], [23], [31], [37], [56], [60]-[61], [72], [75], [270], [298];
practiced by Mayas and Nahuas, [27];
negro slavery, [23], [56], [273], [276], [279], [281], [282], [361];
in French settlements, [94];
St. Thomas, slave-trading station, [253];
English monopoly of slave-carrying trade, [385];
Dutch slave trade, [196];
English slave trade, [196], [197];
in tobacco colonies, [229];
in South Carolina, [230], [334]-[335];
in Georgia, [316];
Rhode Island slave trade, [331];
in various colonies, [336];
in the West Indies, [339]-[341].
Sloughter, Henry, governor of New York, [198], [344]-[345].
Smith, James, explorer on the Tennessee, [413].
Smith, John, in Virginia, [117];
explorations on the New England coast, [136].
Smuggling, [350]-[360], [361], [385], [398], [406].
Smythe, Sir Thomas, interest in Mediterranean trade, [107];
in Virginia Company, [120].
Society for Propagating the Gospel, [338].
Solís, Juan de, explorer, [25].
Sombrerete, Mexico, [55], [56].
Somers, Sir George, wrecked on Bermuda Islands, [129];
forms Somers Island Company, [130].
Somers Island Company, [130];
dissolved, [206].
Sonora, Mexico, [41];
Jesuits in, [237], [230]-[240];
map, [238];
development, [305]-[306], [387];
Indian disturbances, 1768-1771, [386].
See Pimería Alta.
Sons of Liberty, [436].
Sosa, Castaño de, alcalde-mayor in Nuevo León, [60];
expedition to New Mexico, [72].
Sothell, Seth, [211].
Soton, French trader on the Tennessee, [102].
South America, explorations of Portuguese in, [5];
Columbus' discovery of mainland of, [17];
explorations of coasts of, [23]-[24], [25];
Spanish conquests, [50].
Southampton, on Long Island, settled, [151].
South Carolina (for early history see Carolinas) in later [17]th
century, population, commerce, religion, education, society,
[230]-[231];
separation from North Carolina, [313]-[315], [354];
Spanish resistance to English advance, [253]-[256];
Yamassee revolt against Spaniards of Georgia, [255];
English raids on Georgia missions, [255];
South Carolina traders among the Creeks;
Anglo-Spanish border, struggle during War of Spanish Succession, [269]-[271];
expeditions against Florida, [269]-[270];
Spanish attack on Charleston, [270].
South Company, [174]-[175].
South Sea. See Pacific Ocean.
Spain, during the conquest, [13]-[16];
unification of, [14];
Charles V, [15]-[16];
under Philip II, [52]-[53], [67];
decline in the [17]th century, [232];
relations to the Powers, 1715-1739, [359]-[361];
attitude toward American Revolution, [507]-[508];
in American Revolution, [515]-[517];
operations on lower Mississippi, [515];
repulse of British at St. Louis, [516];
expedition against St. Joseph, [516];
capture of Mobile and Pensacola, [516]-[517];
in League of Armed Neutrals, [520];
loans to United States, [554].
Spanish Armada, defeat of, [52]-[53].
Spanish Colonies in North America, general history, the discovery,
[7]-[11];
the founding of New Spain, [13]-[50];
occupation of West Indies, [16]-[19];
beginnings of colonial administration and policy, [19]-[23];
exploration of mainland coasts and search for strait, [23]-[26];
Maya and Nahua civilization, [26]-[28];
conquest of Central America, [28]-[32];
conquest of Valley of Mexico, [32]-[36];
spread of conquest in southern Mexico and Central America, [36]-[40];
exploration of Florida, Cíbola, Quivira, California and Philippines,
[40]-[47];
establishment of viceroyalty of New Spain, [47]-[50];
expansion in later [16]th century, [52]-[76];
New Spain under Philip II, [52]-[55];
the mines of northern Mexico, [55]-[61];
occupation of the Atlantic seaboard (Florida, Georgia, South
Carolina, Virginia), [61]-[65];
foreign intrusions in the Atlantic, [65]-[67];
the Philippines and California, [67]-[71];
New Mexico founded, [72]-[75];
Spanish achievement in the sixteenth century, [75]-[76];
expansion in the [17]th century, [233]-[256];
frontier administration, [234]-[235];
the missions, [235]-[237];
Jesuits in Sinaloa and Sonora, [237]-[240];
efforts to occupy Lower California, [240]-[242];
Chihuahua settled, [242];
New Mexico in the [17]th century, lost and regained, [243]-[247];
Coahuila founded, [247]-[249];
first attempts in eastern Texas, [249]-[251];
struggle with rivals in the West Indies, [251]-[253];
with the English on the Carolina border, [253]-[256];
New Spain in the Wars of English and Spanish successions, [261]-[262],
[267]-[271];
French intrusions in Louisiana, Texas, and New Mexico, [275]-[286];
expansion and frontier conflict during early [18]th century, [289]-[307];
development of Chihuahua and New Mexico frontier, [289]-[290];
explores in Colorado and Utah Basin, [291]-[292];
the province of Texas, [292]-[300];
French intrusion, [295]-[297]; [300]-[301];
occupation of Pimería Alta, [301]-[306];
the Jesuits in Lower California, [306]-[307];
Spanish colonies during intercolonial wars, [359]-[383];
Florida lost, Louisiana acquired, [382];
readjustments after Seven Years' War, [384]-[388];
Charles III and José de Gálvez, [384]-[387];
expulsion of Jesuits, [386];
the Provinciali Internas, [386]-[387];
new dioceses, [387];
the intendancies, [387];
the Russian menace, [388];
Alta California founded, [380]-[394];
communication with New Mexico, [391]-[392];
explorations in Northern Pacific, [394]-[395];
Louisiana under Spain, [395]-[402];
ceded, [382], [395];
hostility to transfer, [396];
O'Reilly's coup d'état, [397];
development of the province, [397]-[402];
Spain in the American Revolution, [515]-[517];
Gálvez's conquests, [515]-[516];
English campaign against St. Louis, [516];
Florida restored to Spain, [535]-[538].
Spice Islands, [24], [46], [68].
Spillberg, Dutch freebooter on the Pacific, [240].
Spotswood, Governor Alexander, expedition to the Blue Ridge
Mountains, [313].
Springfield founded, [149].
Squanto, [138]-[319].
Stamford founded, [150].
Stamp Act, [433]; opposition and resistance
to, [434]-[436]; repealed, [437].
Stamp Act Congress, [436]-[437].
Standish, Captain Miles, at Leyden, [137];
commanding expedition to Cape Ann, [141].
Staple Act of 1663, [180]-[181].
Stark, Gen. John, [461], [495]-[496].
State governments, organization, [546];
types, [546];
variations from type, [547];
selection of judiciary, [548];
courts, [548];
state of Vermont, [548];
western state-making, [549].
Statute of Henry VIII regarding trials for treason, [442].
Stephen, negro, with Vaca, [44].
Stirling, Sir Thomas, [484], [490], [500].
Stone, William, governor of Maryland, [162].
Stoner, pioneer in Kentucky. [413], [417].
Stony Point, captured by Wayne, [511].
Strabo, his conception of the world, [1].
Strait of Anian, [24], [25], [67]-[68].
Straits of Magellan, [25].
Stuart, John, British Indian superintendent, [407], [412].
Stuyvesant, Peter, director of Curaçao [172];
director-general of New Netherlands, [172];
struggle over representation, [172]-[173];
conquest of New Sweden, [177];
difficulties with the English, [177]-[178].
Suaque Indians, Sinaloa, [239].
Suffolk Resolves, [452].
Sugar, [340]-[341].
Sugar Act, [430]-[431].
Sullivan, Gen. John, at Long Island. [484];
in Northern New York, [487];
at Trenton, [490], [491];
at Brandywine, [500];
at Germantown, [502];
at Newport, [510];
expedition against the Iroquois, [515].
Sully, French minister, [79].
Sulpicians, in the Illinois country, [91], [101].
Sumter, Thomas, South Carolina leader in the Revolution, [526], [527],
529.
Superstitions in New England, [220].
Surinam, [197].
Swannendael, Dutch settlement, [170].
Swanson and McGillivray, traders in Florida, [407].
Sweden, alliance with France, [80];
expansion movement, [174]-[175];
settlements on the Delaware, [175];
conquest of New Sweden by Dutch, [175]-[176].
Swiss migration to South Carolina, [321];
to North Carolina, [321];
to Georgia, [321].
Sylvius, Æneas, General History and Geography, [7].
Tabasco, Mexico, [33].
Tacuba, Mexico, [28].
Tadoussac, fur trading settlement, [85], [87].
Tagus River, [10], [13].
Talon, first intendant of New France, [92];
administrative activities, [92]-[93], [96].
Tamaulipas, Mexico. See Hausteca, Pánuco, Nuevo Santander.
Tamaral, Father, Jesuit missionary in Lower California, [307].
Tampa Bay, DeSoto at, [41].
Tampico (San Estéban), Mexico, [37].
Tangaxoan, Tarascan chief, [36].
Tano Indians, [246].
Tápia, Cristóbal de, attempt to investigate Cortés, [34].
Tápia, Fernando de, Otomi chief in, conquest of Querétaro, [39].
Tápia, Gonzalo de, Jesuit missionary in Sinaloa, [237].
Tarahumare Indians, [242];
revolt of, [246].
Tarascans, Mexican tribe, [28], [36].
Taraval, Father, Jesuit missionary in Lower California, [307].
Tarleton, Sir Banastre, [525], [526], [528].
Tartary, travelers' report of, [3].
Tea controversy, [447]-[449].
Tegesta, Florida, [64].
Tehuantepec, Mexico, [36].
Tehueco Indians, Sinaloa, [239].
Tejas (Texas) Indians, [245].
Tennessee, settlement of eastern, [414]-[416];
stimulated by North Carolina troubles, [414]-[415];
the Watauga settlement, [415];
the Watauga Association, [415]-[416];
middle, [418]-[419];
Cumberland settlement, [419];
Davidson County, North Carolina, [419].
Terán, Domingo de, governor of Texas, [251].
Terreros, Don Pedro de, gift to Apache missions, [299].
Texas, Pineda coasts, [26];
Vaca crosses, [41];
Moscoso in, [41];
Coronado in Panhandle, [45];
Espejo crosses, [72];
Castaño de Sosa crosses, [72];
Oñate crosses Panhandle, [73];
La Salle's colony in, [98]-[100];
Tonty in, [99];
map, [99];
expeditions from New Mexico to Jumanos, [243]-[244], [246];
beginnings of El Paso, [245];
the La Junta missions, [245];
Azcué crosses Rio Grande, [248];
Cerro de la Plata, [248];
Bosque-Larios expedition, [248];
the Querétaro friars, [248]-[249];
search for LaSalle's colony, [249];
eastern Texas occupied (De León and Massanet), [249]-[251];
and then abandoned, [251];
map, [250];
Hurtado in western Texas, [291];
advance of the Coahuila frontier, [292];
plans to reoccupy Texas, [292];
new French intrusion, [278], [283];
St. Denis in Mexico, [278], [292];
eastern Texas reoccupied (Ramón, Espinosa, Margil), [293];
San Antonio founded (Olivares, Alarcón), [293]-[295];
map, [294];
French invasion (Blondel), [279], [295];
the Aguayo expedition, [296]-[297];
Texas won for Spain, [297];
expansion of Texas, [297];
Rivera's inspection, [297];
San Antonio strengthened, [298];
Apache wars, [298];
Tonkawa and Apache missions, [298]-[299];
the Gulf coast occupied (Nuevo Santander), [299];
western boundary, [300];
the Texas-Louisiana boundary, [300];
the Lower Trinity fortified, [301];
readjustment after 1763, [385];
explorations of Parrilla and Escandón, [385];
Rubí's tour, [385];
eastern outposts abandoned, [385], [400];
Gil Ybarbo, [400];
De Mézières among the northern tribes, [401];
Croix, Ugalde, and the Apache War, [401];
communication with Louisiana and New Mexico (Vial), [402].
Thirty Years' War, [80].
Thomson, Charles, secretary of Second Continental Congress, [541].
Three Rivers, Canada, [257], [419].
Ticonderoga, captured, [462];
an American base, [487];
abandoned, [493]-[494].
Tidewater, Atlantic, settled in [16]th and [17]th centuries, [52]-[231],
passim.
Tierra Firme, Las Casas' Utopian colony in, [23].
Tiguex, [45].
Tlascala, resistance to Cortés, [33].
Tlascaltecan Indians (Tlascalans), [28], [59];
used as colonists, [59]-[66].
Tobacco industry in English colonies, [121], [122]-[125], [130], [183]-[184],
188, [228], [313], [333]-[334];
Tobago Island, [252];
granted to the Earl of Pembroke and Montgomery, [132];
captured by De Grasse, [531];
given to France, [537].
Tobar, discovers Moqui pueblos, [45].
Tocobago, Florida, [64].
Toledo, victory over English at St. Kitts, [252].
Tololotlán, Rio de, Mexico, [37].
Tolosa, Juan de, founder of Zacatecas, [55].
Toltecs, Nahua tribe, settle in Valley of Mexico, [27].
Toluca, Merico, [53], [75].
Tonkawa, missions in Texas, [209].
Tonty, soldier with La Salle, [8], [9];
fur trader, [265], [275], [276].
Tópia, Mexico, [56].
Tordesulas, Treaty of, [11].
Tories. See Loyalists.
Torres, Admiral Don Rodrigo de, [363].
Tortola Island, captured by the English, [207].
Tortuga Island, occupied by French, [94];
occupied by the English, [133].
Toscanelli, Florentine geographer, influence on Columbus, [7];
map, [7].
Touacara Indians, Oklahoma. [283].
Townshend Acts, [438]-[443].
Townshend, Charles, policy, [438].
Trans-Alleghany settlement, English, before the French and Indian
War, [413];
Boone, Croghan, Finley, and other pioneers, [413]-[414];
the Appalachian barrier, [414];
the Indian barrier, [414];
Indian cessions, [414].
Transylvania, Kentucky, [417], [418], [549].
Treasure ships, Spanish, routes of, [62].
Treasury, United States, [465].
Treasury Board, United States, [544].
Treaty of Tordesulas, [11];
of Breda, [86], [197];
of 1604 between England and Spain, [114];
of 1650 between New Netherlands and New England Confederation, [177];
of Pyrenees, [232];
of Ryswick, [266]-[267];
of Utrecht, [273];
of Aix-la-Chapelle, [366];
of Paris, 1763, [382]-[383];
of Lochaber, [412];
of alliance with France, [508];
at end of American Revolution, [532]-[548].
Trent, Council of, [52].
Trenton, battle of, [491].
Treviño, Baltasar, founder of Zacatecas, [55].
Tribunal de la Santa Hermandad, [53].
Trinidad, Guatemala, population, [75].
Trinidad Bay, California, discovery of, [395].
Trinidad Island, West Indies, [262];
granted to the Earl of Pembroke and Montgomery, [132].
Trinity River, Texas, [301], [400].
Trujillo, Honduras, [38], [252].
Tryon, Governor of North Carolina, [415].
Tunica Indians, [410].
Turkish Empire, rise of, supposed effect on trade routes, [5];
opposition of Charles V to westward advance of, [16].
Turk's Island, settled, [152];
attacked, [269].
Turnbull Dr., colonizes East Florida, [309].
Tuscarora War, [271], [320].
Twenty Reasons, by Father Las Casas, [50].
Ugalde, Juan de, campaigns against Apaches, [401].
Ugarte, Juan de, Jesuit missionary and explorer in Lower California,
306.
Ulloa, Antonio de, Spanish governor of Louisiana, [396]-[397].
Ulloa, Francisco de, explores Pacific coast, [44].
Unalaska, rebellion of natives, [388].
Underwood, Captain John, raids Newfoundland, [271].
United Empire Loyalists, [538].
See Loyalists, Canada.
University of Mexico, [76];
founding of, [53].
See Education in Mexico.
Unzaga y Amezaga, Luis de, Spanish governor of Louisiana, [398].
Urdaneta, Fray Andres de, discovers return route from Philippines, [68].
Uraba, Gulf of, [38].
Urdiñola, Francisco de, settlement of Saltillo, [59];
lieutenant-governor of Nueva Vizcaya, [60];
commission to conquer New Mexico, [60].
Ursulines, The, in New France, [88].
Usselincx, William, in the Dutch West-India Company, [166];
in Sweden, [174]-[175].
Utah Basin, explorers and traders in, [291]-[292], [392].
Utatlán, Guatemala, submission to Cortés, [38].
Utrecht, Peace of, [273], [361].
Uxmal, Maya settlement, [27].
Urribarri, Juan de, expedition to El Quartelejo, [291].
Vaca, Alonzo de, expedition to Quivira, [243].
Vaca, Alvar Nuñez Cabeza de, treasurer of colony of Florida, [41];
journey across continent, [41], [42];
application for governorship of Florida, [41].
Valcárcel, Antonio de, alcalde mayor of Coahuila, founds
Monclova, [248].
Valcour Island, battle of, [487]-[488].
Valley Forge,. [503].
Valverde, governor of New Mexico, expedition across Arkansas River,
[295]-[296].
Vandalia colony, [412]-[413], [418].
Vane, Governor Harry, in the Hutchinsonian controversy, [148];
member of Committee of Trade, Plantations, and Foreign Affairs, [153].
Van Noort, Oliver, circumnavigation of the globe, [164].
Van Rensselaer, Kiliaen, patroon, [170].
Van Twiller, Wouter, director-general of New Netherlands, [170].
Vargas, Diego de, reconquest of New Mexico, [246]-[247].
Varkens Kill, settled, [155].
Vaudreuil, governor-general of New France, [375], [381].
Vaughan, Sir William, land grant in Newfoundland, [125].
Velasco, Father, Jesuit missionary, in Sinaloa, writes grammar, [237].
Velasco, López de, author of geographical work on Spanish colonies, [75].
Velasco, Luis de, second viceroy of New Spain, [53];
promotes expansion, [59], [61]-[62], [67], [71].
Velasquez, Diego, governor of Cuba, [17];
exploring expeditions, [25], [32];
his contest with Cortés, [33], [34].
Venables, conquest of Jamaica, [253].
Venetian Company, [107].
Vera Cruz, founding of, [33], [36], [47];
port of departure for expeditions to Florida, [61], [62];
port for Spanish merchant fleet, [66];
population, [75];
capture of fleet by Heyn, [252].
Vera Paz, Central America, [39].
Veragua, Central America, [28];
dukedom of, [32];
Audiencia of, [49].
Vérendrye. See La Vérendrye.
Vergennes, Comte de, French minister, policy toward the American
Revolution, [505]-[506], [507];
perfects an alliance, [508];
sends De Grasse to America, [530];
dealings with John Adams, [532]-[533];
treaty of peace, [534]-[538].
Vermont, German migration to, [322];
Scotch-Irish migration to, [325];
organization of, [548]-[549].
Vernon, Admiral Edward, [361], [363].
Verrazano, exploring expedition, [81].
Vespucius, Americus, explorations of, [24].
Vetch, Colonel Samuel, [272].
Vial, Pedro, explorations in Southwest, [402].
Viceroyalties in Spanish America, New Spain and Peru, [75]-[76].
Victoria Garayana. See Pánuco.
Vila, Captain Vicente, explores Northern Pacific, [389].
Villafañe, attempt to colonize Florida, [61]-[62].
Villalobos, López de, expedition to Philippines, [47], [67].
Villazur, expedition to Platte River, 1720, [279], [284], [291], [296].
Villiers, lieutenant-governor of Arkansas Post, [398].
Vincennes, founded, [282];
captured by Clark, [514];
reoccupied by British, [514];
retaken, [514].
Vining, E.J., identification of Fusang, [2].
Vinland, discovery of, [2].
Virgin Isles, [341].
Virginia, Jesuit mission in, 1570, [65];
Council of, [113];
settlement of, [115]-[128];
charter of 1606, [116];
Jamestown founded, [116]-[117];
John Smith, [117];
charter of 1609, [117]-[118];
the starving time, [118];
governorship of Gates, [118];
under Lord Delaware, [118]-[119];
Spanish resistance to, [118]-[119];
under Sir Thomas Dale, [119]-[121];
charter of 1612, [120];
first governorship of Berkeley, [160];
Indian War of 1644, [160];
struggle with the Commonwealth, [160];
government under the Commonwealth, [160], [162];
growth, [162];
House of Burgesses, [120],
agricultural development, [120]-[121];
immigration, [121]-[122]; massacre of 1622, [122];
crown regulation of tobacco industry, [122]-[123];
a royal colony, [123];
population, [123];
plantations, [123]-[125];
attitude of Charles I, [124];
under Governor Harvey, [124]-[125]:
royal tobacco monopoly, [125];
trouble with Maryland, [127]-[128];
economic distress, [183];
population in 1680, [183];
Dutch attacks, [184];
abuses in the second administration of Governor Berkeley, [184];
proprietary grants, [185];
Indian War, [185]-[186];
Bacon's rebellion, [185]-[186];
Jeffreys in control, [187];
Culpeper, [187];
Howard, [187]-[188];
population, [227];
settled areas, [227];
plantation system, [228];
commerce, [228]-[229];
labor system, [229];
religion, [229];
education, [229];
German migration to, [320];
Scotch-Irish migration to, [326];
social and economic conditions in the eighteenth century, [333]-[334];
under William III, [345];
protests against Grenville's policy, [433];
resolutions, [435]-[436];
opposition to Townshend Acts, [442];
trouble with the governor, [444];
rebellion in 1775, [462]-[463];
struggle with Lord Dunmore, [471];
navy, [518];
Yorktown campaign, [530]-[532].
Vizigoths, kingdom of, in Spain, overthrown by Mohammedan Berbers, [13].
Vizcaíno, Sebastián, California expeditions, [71].
Wager, Charles, English Commodore, [268].
Walker, Sir Hovenden, expedition against Quebec, [272].
Wall Street, [172].
Wallen, pioneer in Kentucky, [413].
Walpole, Robert, [353], [360].
Walpole, Thomas, interest in Vandalia, [413].
Wampanoags, [138]-[139].
War department, of United States, organized, [554]-[555].
War between England and Spain, 1654-1655, [153].
Wars between the English and Dutch, 1652-1654, [153];
1667, 1672-1673, [184].
War of the Palatinate, [261].
War of the Austrian Succession, [364], [366];
French attack on Acadia, [364];
capture of Louisbourg, [364]-[365];
border warfare, Acadia to New York, [365];
naval activity, and battles off Cape Finisterre, [365]-[366];
Knowles's attack on the Spaniards in West Indies, [366];
peace of Aix-la-Chapelle, [366].
War of the English Succession (King William's War) in the colonies,
map, [260];
four years of war in the Caribbean Sea, [261]-[262];
the war on the Canadian frontiers, [262]-[266];
the Maine frontier, [262];
French attack on New England frontier and the English defense, [263]; English expedition
against Montreal, [263]-[264];
capture of Port Royal, Acadia, [264];
English expedition against Quebec, [264];
Schuyler's expedition, [265];
attacks of Abenakis and of the French, [265];
the New English frontier, [266];
massacre at Durham, [266];
activities on Hudson Bay, [266]-[267];
operations of Iberville, [266];
peace of Ryswick, [260]-[267].
War of Jenkins' Ear, [361]-[364];
in the West Indies, [361], [363];
on the Georgia frontier, [361]-[263], [363]-[364];
attack on St. Augustine, [362], [364].
War of the Polish Succession, [360]-[361].
War of the Spanish Succession, French expansion during the peace of
Ryswick, [267];
the Spanish succession, [267];
Second Treaty of Partition, [267];
English decision for war, [267]-[268];
war areas (in America), [268];
West Indies, indecisive struggle, [268]-[269];
on the Florida border, [269]-[271];
on the Canadian border, [271]-[272];
in the Hudson Bay country. [273];
Peace of Utrecht, [273].
Ward, Artemus, [464].
Warren, Joseph, distributes arms, [460].
Warwick, Lord. See Rich, Robert.
Warwick, Rhode Island, settled, [159].
Washington, George, bearer of Dinwiddie's message to the French in
Ohio, [369];
organizes plan of defense, [373]-[374];
member of Western Land Company, [411];
in northeastern Kentucky, [416];
member of the First Continental Congress, [452];
commander of the continental army, [464];
siege of Boston, [471];
New York operations, [482]-[487], [488]-[489];
New Jersey campaign, [489]-[493];
struggle for Philadelphia, [499]-[502];
Valley Forge, [503];
Conway Cabal, [503]-[504];
reception of Lafayette, [508];
Monmouth, [509]-[510];
draws cordon about New York, [511];
equips a fleet, [517];
on control of the sea, [530];
communicates with De Grasse, [531];
plan to trap Cornwallis, [531];
assembly of forces, [531]-[532];
Yorktown, [532].
Washington County, North Carolina, organized, 1416.
Watauga settlement, [412];
Association, [415]-[416];
attacked by Cherokees, [512], [513];
attempt at statehood, [549].
Watertown, settled, [142].
Watling's Island, [10].
Waxhaws, [525].
Wayne, Gen. Anthony, [500], [511].
Webb, Colonel Daniel, [376].
Weiser, Conrad, interpreter to Indians, [365].
Welles, Maine, claimed by Massachusetts, [157].
Welsh, settlers in North Carolina, [415].
Wessagusset, [140].
West, Joseph, governor of the Carolinas, [208];
trouble with Yeamans, [210];
political difficulties, [210].
West Indies, discovery of, [9]-[10];
Spanish colonies founded, [16]-[19];
rule of Columbus in, [16]-[17];
gold discovered, [17];
Santo Domingo founded, [17];
spread of Spanish settlement, [17]-[19], [251];
map, [18];
Spanish administration, [19]-[23];
the towns, [20];
immigration, [21];
agriculture, [21];
Indian policy, [22];
depopulation, [19], [22], [67];
French, Dutch, and English intrusions, [65]-[66], [80];
Spanish decline, [67];
French colonies, [93]-[96];
Company of St. Christopher's, [93];
French West India Company, [94];
Elizabethan Sea-dogs in, [107]-[108];
English colonies in the Lesser Antilles, [132]-[133];
Providence Island Company, [133];
English expansion in, [152];
Jamaica conquered by England, [153], [253];
Dutch settlements in, [166]-[167];
Dutch West Indian Company, [166];
English expansion and reorganization, [206]-[207];
unrest in Barbados, [207];
Spanish conflict with rivals in [17]th century, [251]-[253];
privateers, [252];
Spanish retaliation, [252];
Danes and Brandenburgers, [253];
during War of English Succession, [261]-[263];
during War of Spanish Succession, [268]-[269];
society in English colonies in the [18]th century, [339]-[341];
the planters, [339];
Barbados and Leeward Islands, [340];
Jamaica, [340]-[341];
emigration from, [341];
smuggling, [341];
piracy, [349]-[350];
the Molasses Act, [356];
the West Indies during the War of Jenkins' Ear, [361]-[363], [365];
during War of Austrian Succession, [366];
during French and Indian War, [379], [382];
Spanish reorganization, [387]-[388];
trade with Louisiana, [398];
English province of Grenada organized, [404];
relation of trade to American Revolution, [430]-[431], [454];
war activities during American Revolution, [510]-[516], [517]-[520], [530], [532];
in the Treaty of 1783, [537].
Western Sea, efforts to find route to, [287]-[288].
Western (Lazarus) Islands, [67].
West New Jersey, population, [224];
settled area, [224]-[225];
social conditions, [224]-[225];
religion, [226];
education, [226]-[227].
See New Jersey.
Westsylvania, [418].
Weston, Thomas, gives financial aid to the Pilgrims, [317];
his settlement at Wessagusset, [139];
aid from Plymouth, [139].
West Point, [511]-[512].
Westward movement, English, characteristics, [309]-[312];
into the Piedmont, frontier defense, [312]-[313];
reorganization of the Carolinas, [313]-[315];
founding of Georgia, [315]-[316];
German and Swiss migration, [316]-[322];
Scotch-Irish migration, [322]-[326];
significance of the settlement of the Piedmont, [326]-[328];
into the Trans-Alleghany West, [403]-[419].
Wethersfield founded, [149].
Weymouth, George, voyage to New-England, [116].
Weymouth settlement, [140].
Whigs, [458], [459], [463]. See Revolution.
White, Governor John, of Roanoke, [110].
White, Reverend John, forms association, [141].
Whitefield, George, [338].
White Plains, [485], [487].
Wichita, Kansas, Oñate at, [73].
Wichita Indians, [45]. See Quivira.
Wiehawken, New Jersey, [198].
Wilderness Road, opened by Boone, [417].
William and Mary College, [229], [338]-[339].
Williams, Roger, at Boston, [146];
at Salem, [146];
at Plymouth, [146];
preaching at Salem, [146]-[147];
his trial, [147];
founding of Providence, [147];
separation of church and state, [147];
government, [147];
keeps Narragansetts out of Pequot War, [150];
obtains revocation of Coddington patent, [159].
William III, first reorganization of the colonial system, [343]-[346];
second reorganization, [346]-[350].
See War of the English Succession.
William of Orange (the Silent), [52].
Windward Islands, [252].
Williamson, Col. Andrew, [513].
Williamsburg, made capital of Virginia, [345].
Willing, James, raids in the Southwest during the Revolution, [513]-[514].
Willoughby, Sir Hugh, expedition to Russia, [106].
Wilmington, made base by Cornwallis, [529].
Wilson, James, attitude toward Declaration of Independence, [478].
Windsor, founded, [149].
Windward Islands, organized into a province, [206].
Winslow, John, [375].
Winter, English freebooter, [66].
Winthrop, Fitz-John, [263].
Winthrop, John, governor of Massachusetts Bay Colony, [142];
arrives at Salem, [142];
moves to Charlestown, [142];
religious controversies, [147]-[148].
Winthrop, John Jr., erects Fort Saybrook, [149].
Witchcraft in New England, [220].
Wolfe, Major-General, capture of Quebec, [379]-[380].
Woolen Act of 1698, [349].
Wrenn, Ralph, English commodore, [262].
Wright, Commodore, English commander in the Caribbean Sea, [262].
Writs of assistance, [428]-[429].
Wyoming Valley massacre, [514].
Yale College, [339].
Yamassee Indians, revolt against Spaniards, [255];
War in South Carolina, [314].
Yaqui Indians, missions among, [239].
Yaqui River Valley, Sonora, [45], [56];
Jesuit missions in, [239].
Yazoo, judicial department of Louisiana, [279];
immigration to, [408].
Ybarbo, Antonio Gil, leader in eastern Texas, [400].
Yeamans, Sir John, expeditions to Carolina, [208];
claims the governorship, [210];
governor, [210].
Yeardley, Sir George, governor of Virginia, [120].
York (Maine), claimed by Massachusetts, [157].
Yorktown campaign, [530]-[532].
Yucatán, exploration of, [25];
inhabitants of, [27];
conquest of, [38]-[39].
Yuma, mission pueblos at, [393];
massacre of Spaniards at, [393]-[394];
punishment for, [394].
Zacatecas, mines of, [55], [56];
development of, [59];
population, [75].
Zacatula, Mexico, ship-building port, [37], [42].
Zaguaripa, Mexico, Ibarra at, [56].
Zaldívar, Vincente, pioneer in New Mexico, [73].
Zárate Salmerón, Gerónimo de, Franciscan missionary in New Mexico, [243].
Zavala, Martin de, conquistador of Nuevo León, [247].
Zenger case, [356]-[357].
Zultepec, Mexico, [75].
Zumárraga, Bishop of Mexico, [48].
Zuñi, New Mexico, pueblos, [44], [45], [46]. [72].
Zuñiga, Governor of Florida, [269].
Zuñiga, Spanish ambassador to England, [118]-[119].