Principles of Mining: Valuation, Organization and Administration

by Herbert Hoover

CLASSIFICATION OF ORE IN SIGHT.

The risk in estimates of the average value of standing ore is dependent largely upon how far values disclosed by sampling are assumed to penetrate beyond the tested face, and this depends upon the geological character of the deposit. From theoretical grounds and experience, it is known that such values will have some extension, and the assumption of any given distance is a calculation of risk. The multiplication of development openings results in an increase of sampling points available and lessens the hazards. The frequency of such openings varies in different portions of every mine, and thus there are inequalities of risk. It is therefore customary in giving estimates of standing ore to classify the ore according to the degree of risk assumed, either by stating the number of sides exposed or by other phrases. Much discussion and ink have been devoted to trying to define what risk may be taken in such matters, that is in reality how far values may be assumed to penetrate into the unbroken ore. Still more has been consumed in attempts to coin terms and make classifications which will indicate what ratio of hazard has been taken in stating quantities and values.

The old terms "ore in sight" and "profit in sight" have been of late years subject to much malediction on the part of engineers because these expressions have been so badly abused by the charlatans of mining in attempts to cover the flights of their imaginations. A large part of Volume X of the "Institution of Mining and Metallurgy" has been devoted to heaping infamy on these terms, yet not only have they preserved their places in professional nomenclature, but nothing has been found to supersede them.

Some general term is required in daily practice to cover the whole field of visible ore, and if the phrase "ore in sight" be defined, it will be easier to teach the laymen its proper use than to abolish it. In fact, the substitutes are becoming abused as much as the originals ever were. All convincing expressions will be misused by somebody.

The legitimate direction of reform has been to divide the general term of "ore in sight" into classes, and give them names which will indicate the variable amount of risk of continuity in different parts of the mine. As the frequency of sample points, and consequently the risk of continuity, will depend upon the detail with which the mine is cut into blocks by the development openings, and upon the number of sides of such blocks which are accessible, most classifications of the degree of risk of continuity have been defined in terms of the number of sides exposed in the blocks. Many phrases have been coined to express such classifications; those most currently used are the following:—

Positive Ore		Ore exposed on four sides in blocks of a size variously prescribed.
Ore Developed
Ore Blocked Out		Ore exposed on three sides within reasonable distance of each other.
Probable Ore		Ore exposed on two sides.
Ore Developing
Possible Ore		The whole or a part of the ore below the lowest level or beyond the range of vision.
Ore Expectant

No two of these parallel expressions mean quite the same thing; each more or less overlies into another class, and in fact none of them is based upon a logical footing for such a classification. For example, values can be assumed to penetrate some distance from every sampled face, even if it be only ten feet, so that ore exposed on one side will show some "positive" or "developed" ore which, on the lines laid down above, might be "probable" or even "possible" ore. Likewise, ore may be "fully developed" or "blocked out" so far as it is necessary for stoping purposes with modern wide intervals between levels, and still be in blocks too large to warrant an assumption of continuity of values to their centers (Fig. 1). As to the third class of "possible" ore, it conveys an impression of tangibility to a nebulous hazard, and should never be used in connection with positive tonnages. This part of the mine's value comes under extension of the deposit a long distance beyond openings, which is a speculation and cannot be defined in absolute tons without exhaustive explanation of the risks attached, in which case any phrase intended to shorten description is likely to be misleading.

Fig. 1.—Longitudinal section of a mine, showing classification of the exposed ore. Scale, 400 feet = 1 inch.

Therefore empirical expressions in terms of development openings cannot be made to cover a geologic factor such as the distribution of metals through a rock mass. The only logical basis of ore classification for estimation purposes is one which is founded on the chances of the values penetrating from the surface of the exposures for each particular mine. Ore that may be calculated upon to a certainty is that which, taking into consideration the character of the deposit, can be said to be so sufficiently surrounded by sampled faces that the distance into the mass to which values are assumed to extend is reduced to a minimum risk. Ore so far removed from the sampled face as to leave some doubt, yet affording great reason for expectation of continuity, is "probable" ore. The third class of ore mentioned, which is that depending upon extension of the deposit and in which, as said above, there is great risk, should be treated separately as the speculative value of the mine. Some expressions are desirable for these classifications, and the writer's own preference is for the following, with a definition based upon the controlling factor itself.

They are:—

Proved Ore	Ore where there is practically no risk of failure of continuity.
Probable Ore	Ore where there is some risk, yet warrantable justification for assumption of continuity.
Prospective Ore	Ore which cannot be included in the above classes, nor definitely known or stated in any terms of tonnage.

What extent of openings, and therefore of sample faces, is required for the ore to be called "proved" varies naturally with the type of deposit,—in fact with each mine. In a general way, a fair rule in gold quartz veins below influence of secondary alteration is that no point in the block shall be over fifty feet from the points sampled. In limestone or andesite replacements, as by gold or lead or copper, the radius must be less. In defined lead and copper lodes, or in large lenticular bodies such as the Tennessee copper mines, the radius may often be considerably greater,—say one hundred feet. In gold deposits of such extraordinary regularity of values as the Witwatersrand bankets, it can well be two hundred or two hundred and fifty feet.

"Probable ore" should be ore which entails continuity of values through a greater distance than the above, and such distance must depend upon the collateral evidence from the character of the deposit, the position of openings, etc.

Ore beyond the range of the "probable" zone is dependent upon the extension of the deposit beyond the realm of development and will be discussed separately.

Although the expression "ore in sight" may be deprecated, owing to its abuse, some general term to cover both "positive" and "probable" ore is desirable; and where a general term is required, it is the intention herein to hold to the phrase "ore in sight" under the limitations specified.

CHAPTER III.

Mine Valuation (Continued).

PROSPECTIVE VALUE.[*] EXTENSION IN DEPTH; ORIGIN AND STRUCTURAL CHARACTER OF THE DEPOSIT; SECONDARY ENRICHMENT; DEVELOPMENT IN NEIGHBORING MINES; DEPTH OF EXHAUSTION.

[Footnote *: The term "extension in depth" is preferred by many to the phrase "prospective value." The former is not entirely satisfactory, as it has a more specific than general application. It is, however, a current miner's phrase, and is more expressive. In this discussion "extension in depth" is used synonymously, and it may be taken to include not alone the downward prolongation of the ore below workings, but also the occasional cases of lateral extension beyond the range of development work. The commonest instance is continuance below the bottom level. In any event, to the majority of cases of different extension the same reasoning applies.]

It is a knotty problem to value the extension of a deposit beyond a short distance from the last opening. A short distance beyond it is "proved ore," and for a further short distance is "probable ore." Mines are very seldom priced at a sum so moderate as that represented by the profit to be won from the ore in sight, and what value should be assigned to this unknown portion of the deposit admits of no certainty. No engineer can approach the prospective value of a mine with optimism, yet the mining industry would be non-existent to-day were it approached with pessimism. Any value assessed must be a matter of judgment, and this judgment based on geological evidence. Geology is not a mathematical science, and to attach a money equivalence to forecasts based on such evidence is the most difficult task set for the mining engineer. It is here that his view of geology must differ from that of his financially more irresponsible brother in the science. The geologist, contributing to human knowledge in general, finds his most valuable field in the examination of mines largely exhausted. The engineer's most valuable work arises from his ability to anticipate in the youth of the mine the symptoms of its old age. The work of our geologic friends is, however, the very foundation on which we lay our forecasts.

Geologists have, as the result of long observation, propounded for us certain hypotheses which, while still hypotheses, have proved to account so widely for our underground experience that no engineer can afford to lose sight of them. Although there is a lack of safety in fixed theories as to ore deposition, and although such conclusions cannot be translated into feet and metal value, they are nevertheless useful weights on the scale where probabilities are to be weighed.

A method in vogue with many engineers is, where the bottom level is good, to assume the value of the extension in depth as a sum proportioned to the profit in sight, and thus evade the use of geological evidence. The addition of various percentages to the profit in sight has been used by engineers, and proposed in technical publications, as varying from 25 to 50%. That is, they roughly assess the extension in depth to be worth one-fifth to one-third of the whole value of an equipped mine. While experience may have sometimes demonstrated this to be a practical method, it certainly has little foundation in either science or logic, and the writer's experience is that such estimates are untrue in practice. The quantity of ore which may be in sight is largely the result of managerial policy. A small mill on a large mine, under rapid development, will result in extensive ore-reserves, while a large mill eating away rapidly on the same mine under the same scale of development would leave small reserves. On the above scheme of valuation the extension in depth would be worth very different sums, even when the deepest level might be at the same horizon in both cases. Moreover, no mine starts at the surface with a large amount of ore in sight. Yet as a general rule this is the period when its extension is most valuable, for when the deposit is exhausted to 2000 feet, it is not likely to have such extension in depth as when opened one hundred feet, no matter what the ore-reserves may be. Further, such bases of valuation fail to take into account the widely varying geologic character of different mines, and they disregard any collateral evidence either of continuity from neighboring development, or from experience in the district. Logically, the prospective value can be simply a factor of how far the ore in the individual mine may be expected to extend, and not a factor of the remnant of ore that may still be unworked above the lowest level.

An estimation of the chances of this extension should be based solely on the local factors which bear on such extension, and these are almost wholly dependent upon the character of the deposit. These various geological factors from a mining engineer's point of view are:—

1. The origin and structural character of the ore-deposit.
2. The position of openings in relation to secondary alteration.
3. The size of the deposit.
4. The depth to which the mine has already been exhausted.
5. The general experience of the district for continuity and the development of adjoining mines.

The Origin and Structural Character of the Deposit.—In a general way, the ore-deposits of the order under discussion originate primarily through the deposition of metals from gases or solutions circulating along avenues in the earth's crust.[*] The original source of metals is a matter of great disagreement, and does not much concern the miner. To him, however, the origin and character of the avenue of circulation, the enclosing rock, the influence of the rocks on the solution, and of the solutions on the rocks, have a great bearing on the probable continuity of the volume and value of the ore.

[Footnote *: The class of magmatic segregations is omitted, as not being of sufficiently frequent occurrence in payable mines to warrant troubling with it here.]

All ore-deposits vary in value and, in the miner's view, only those portions above the pay limit are ore-bodies, or ore-shoots. The localization of values into such pay areas in an ore-deposit are apparently influenced by:

1. The distribution of the open spaces created by structural movement, fissuring, or folding as at Bendigo.
2. The intersection of other fractures which, by mingling of solutions from different sources, provided precipitating conditions, as shown by enrichments at cross-veins.
3. The influence of the enclosing rocks by:—
   1. Their solubility, and therefore susceptibility to replacement.
   2. Their influence as a precipitating agent on solutions.
   3. Their influence as a source of metal itself.
   4. Their texture, in its influence on the character of the fracture. In homogeneous rocks the tendency is to open clean-cut fissures; in friable rocks, zones of brecciation; in slates or schistose rocks, linked lenticular open spaces;—these influences exhibiting themselves in miner's terms respectively in "well-defined fissure veins," "lodes," and "lenses."
   5. The physical character of the rock mass and the dynamic forces brought to bear upon it. This is a difficult study into the physics of stress in cases of fracturing, but its local application has not been without results of an important order.
4. Secondary alteration near the surface, more fully discussed later.

It is evident enough that the whole structure of the deposit is a necessary study, and even a digest of the subject is not to be compressed into a few paragraphs.

From the point of view of continuity of values, ore-deposits may be roughly divided into three classes. They are:—

1. Deposits of the infiltration type in porous beds, such as Lake Superior copper conglomerates and African gold bankets.
2. Deposits of the fissure vein type, such as California quartz veins.
3. Replacement or impregnation deposits on the lines of fissuring or otherwise.

In a general way, the uniformity of conditions of deposition in the first class has resulted in the most satisfactory continuity of ore and of its metal contents. In the second, depending much upon the profundity of the earth movements involved, there is laterally and vertically a reasonable basis for expectation of continuity but through much less distance than in the first class.

The third class of deposits exhibits widely different phenomena as to continuity and no generalization is of any value. In gold deposits of this type in West Australia, Colorado, and Nevada, continuity far beyond a sampled face must be received with the greatest skepticism. Much the same may be said of most copper replacements in limestone. On the other hand the most phenomenal regularity of values have been shown in certain Utah and Arizona copper mines, the result of secondary infiltration in porphyritic gangues. The Mississippi Valley lead and zinc deposits, while irregular in detail, show remarkable continuity by way of reoccurrence over wide areas. The estimation of the prospective value of mines where continuity of production is dependent on reoccurrence of ore-bodies somewhat proportional to the area, such as these Mississippi deposits or to some extent as in Cobalt silver veins, is an interesting study, but one that offers little field for generalization.

The Position of the Openings in Relation to Secondary Alteration.—The profound alteration of the upper section of ore-deposits by oxidation due to the action of descending surface waters, and their associated chemical agencies, has been generally recognized for a great many years. Only recently, however, has it been appreciated that this secondary alteration extends into the sulphide zone as well. The bearing of the secondary alteration, both in the oxidized and upper sulphide zones, is of the most sweeping economic character. In considering extension of values in depth, it demands the most rigorous investigation. Not only does the metallurgical character of the ores change with oxidation, but the complex reactions due to descending surface waters cause leaching and a migration of metals from one horizon to another lower down, and also in many cases a redistribution of their sequence in the upper zones of the deposit.

The effect of these agencies has been so great in many cases as to entirely alter the character of the mine and extension in depth has necessitated a complete reëquipment. For instance, the Mt. Morgan gold mine, Queensland, has now become a copper mine; the copper mines at Butte were formerly silver mines; Leadville has become largely a zinc producer instead of lead.

From this alteration aspect ore-deposits may be considered to have four horizons:—

1. The zone near the outcrop, where the dominating feature is oxidation and leaching of the soluble minerals.
2. A lower horizon, still in the zone of oxidation, where the predominant feature is the deposition of metals as native, oxides, and carbonates.
3. The upper horizon of the sulphide zone, where the special feature is the enrichment due to secondary deposition as sulphides.
4. The region below these zones of secondary alteration, where the deposit is in its primary state.

These zones are seldom sharply defined, nor are they always all in evidence. How far they are in evidence will depend, among other things, upon the amount and rapidity of erosion, the structure and mineralogical character of the deposit, and upon the enclosing rock.

If erosion is extremely rapid, as in cold, wet climates, and rough topography, or as in the case of glaciation of the Lake copper deposits, denudation follows close on the heels of alteration, and the surface is so rapidly removed that we may have the primary ore practically at the surface. Flat, arid regions present the other extreme, for denudation is much slower, and conditions are most perfect for deep penetration of oxidizing agencies, and the consequent alteration and concentration of the metals.

The migration of metals from the top of the oxidized zone leaves but a barren cap for erosion. The consequent effect of denudation that lags behind alteration is to raise slowly the concentrated metals toward the surface, and thus subject them to renewed attack and repeated migration. In this manner we can account for the enormous concentration of values in the lower oxidized and upper sulphide zones overlying very lean sulphides in depth.

Some minerals are more freely soluble and more readily precipitated than others. From this cause there is in complex metal deposits a rearrangement of horizontal sequence, in addition to enrichment at certain horizons and impoverishment at others. The whole subject is one of too great complexity for adequate consideration in this discussion. No engineer is properly equipped to give judgment on extension in depth without a thorough grasp of the great principles laid down by Van Hise, Emmons, Lindgren, Weed, and others. We may, however, briefly examine some of the theoretical effects of such alteration.

Zinc, iron, and lead sulphides are a common primary combination. These metals are rendered soluble from their usual primary forms by oxidizing agencies, in the order given. They reprecipitate as sulphides in the reverse sequence. The result is the leaching of zinc and iron readily in the oxidized zone, thus differentially enriching the lead which lags behind, and a further extension of the lead horizon is provided by the early precipitation of such lead as does migrate. Therefore, the lead often predominates in the second and the upper portion of the third zone, with the zinc and iron below. Although the action of all surface waters is toward oxidation and carbonation of these metals, the carbonate development of oxidized zones is more marked when the enclosing rocks are calcareous.

In copper-iron deposits, the comparatively easy decomposition and solubility and precipitation of the copper and some iron salts generally result in more extensive impoverishment of these metals near the surface, and more predominant enrichment at a lower horizon than is the case with any other metals. The barren "iron hat" at the first zone, the carbonates and oxides at the second, the enrichment with secondary copper sulphides at the top of the third, and the occurrence of secondary copper-iron sulphides below, are often most clearly defined. In the easy recognition of the secondary copper sulphides, chalcocite, bornite, etc., the engineer finds a finger-post on the road to extension in depth; and the directions upon this post are not to be disregarded. The number of copper deposits enriched from unpayability in the first zone to a profitable character in the next two, and unpayability again in the fourth, is legion.

Silver occurs most abundantly in combination with either lead, copper, iron, or gold. As it resists oxidation and solution more strenuously than copper and iron, its tendency when in combination with them is to lag behind in migration. There is thus a differential enrichment of silver in the upper two zones, due to the reduction in specific gravity of the ore by the removal of associated metals. Silver does migrate somewhat, however, and as it precipitates more readily than copper, lead, zinc, or iron, its tendency when in combination with them is towards enrichment above the horizons of enrichment of these metals. When it is in combination with lead and zinc, its very ready precipitation from solution by the galena leaves it in combination more predominantly with the lead. The secondary enrichment of silver deposits at the top of the sulphide zone is sometimes a most pronounced feature, and it seems to be the explanation of the origin of many "bonanzas."

In gold deposits, the greater resistance to solubility of this metal than most of the others, renders the phenomena of migration to depth less marked. Further than this, migration is often interfered with by the more impervious quartz matrix of many gold deposits. Where gold is associated with large quantities of base metals, however, the leaching of the latter in the oxidized zone leaves the ore differentially richer, and as gold is also slightly soluble, in such cases the migration of the base metals does carry some of the gold. In the instance especially of impregnation or replacement deposits, where the matrix is easily permeable, the upper sulphide zone is distinctly richer than lower down, and this enrichment is accompanied by a considerable increase in sulphides and tellurides. The predominant characteristic of alteration in gold deposits is, however, enrichment in the oxidized zone with the maximum values near the surface. The reasons for this appear to be that gold in its resistance to oxidation and wholesale migration gives opportunities to a sort of combined mechanical and chemical enrichment.

In dry climates, especially, the gentleness of erosion allows of more thorough decomposition of the outcroppings, and a mechanical separation of the gold from the detritus. It remains on or near the deposit, ready to be carried below, mechanically or otherwise. In wet climates this is less pronounced, for erosion bears away the croppings before such an extensive decomposition and freeing of the gold particles. The West Australian gold fields present an especially prominent example of this type of superficial enrichment. During the last fifteen years nearly eight hundred companies have been formed for working mines in this region. Although from four hundred of these high-grade ore has been produced, some thirty-three only have ever paid dividends. The great majority have been unpayable below oxidation,—a distance of one or two hundred feet. The writer's unvarying experience with gold is that it is richer in the oxidized zone than at any point below. While cases do occur of gold deposits richer in the upper sulphide zone than below, even the upper sulphides are usually poorer than the oxidized region. In quartz veins preëminently, evidence of enrichment in the third zone is likely to be practically absent.

Tin ores present an anomaly among the base metals under discussion, in that the primary form of this metal in most workable deposits is an oxide. Tin in this form is most difficult of solution from ground agencies, as witness the great alluvial deposits, often of considerable geologic age. In consequence the phenomena of migration and enrichment are almost wholly absent, except such as are due to mechanical penetration of tin from surface decomposition of the matrix akin to that described in gold deposits.

In general, three or four essential facts from secondary alteration must be kept in view when prognosticating extensions.

Oxidation usually alters treatment problems, and oxidized ore of the same grade as sulphides can often be treated more cheaply. This is not universal. Low-grade ores of lead, copper, and zinc may be treatable by concentration when in the form of sulphides, and may be valueless when oxidized, even though of the same grade.

Copper ores generally show violent enrichment at the base of the oxidized, and at the top of the sulphide zone.

Lead-zinc ores show lead enrichment and zinc impoverishment in the oxidized zone but have usually less pronounced enrichment below water level than copper. The rearrangement of the metals by the deeper migration of the zinc, also renders them metallurgically of less value with depth.

Silver deposits are often differentially enriched in the oxidized zone, and at times tend to concentrate in the upper sulphide zone.

Gold deposits usually decrease in value from the surface through the whole of the three alteration zones.

Size of Deposits.—The proverb of a relation between extension in depth and size of ore-bodies expresses one of the oldest of miners' beliefs. It has some basis in experience, especially in fissure veins, but has little foundation in theory and is applicable over but limited areas and under limited conditions.

From a structural view, the depth of fissuring is likely to be more or less in proportion to its length and breadth and therefore the volume of vein filling with depth is likely to be proportional to length and width of the fissure. As to the distribution of values, if we eliminate the influence of changing wall rocks, or other precipitating agencies which often cause the values to arrange themselves in "floors," and of secondary alteration, there may be some reason to assume distribution of values of an extent equal vertically to that displayed horizontally. There is, as said, more reason in experience for this assumption than in theory. A study of the shape of a great many ore-shoots in mines of fissure type indicates that when the ore-shoots or ore-bodies are approaching vertical exhaustion they do not end abruptly, but gradually shorten and decrease in value, their bottom boundaries being more often wedge-shaped than even lenticular. If this could be taken as the usual occurrence, it would be possible (eliminating the evident exceptions mentioned above) to state roughly that the minimum extension of an ore-body or ore-shoot in depth below any given horizon would be a distance represented by a radius equal to one-half its length. By length is not meant necessarily the length of a horizontal section, but of one at right angles to the downward axis.

On these grounds, which have been reënforced by much experience among miners, the probabilities of extension are somewhat in proportion to the length and width of each ore-body. For instance, in the A mine, with an ore-shoot 1000 feet long and 10 feet wide, on its bottom level, the minimum extension under this hypothesis would be a wedge-shaped ore-body with its deepest point 500 feet below the lowest level, or a minimum of say 200,000 tons. Similarly, the B mine with five ore-bodies, each 300 hundred feet long and 10 feet wide, exposed on its lowest level, would have a minimum of five wedges 100 feet deep at their deepest points, or say 50,000 tons. This is not proposed as a formula giving the total amount of extension in depth, but as a sort of yardstick which has experience behind it. This experience applies in a much less degree to deposits originating from impregnation along lines of fissuring and not at all to replacements.

Development in Neighboring Mines.—Mines of a district are usually found under the same geological conditions, and show somewhat the same habits as to extension in depth or laterally, and especially similar conduct of ore-bodies and ore-shoots. As a practical criterion, one of the most intimate guides is the actual development in adjoining mines. For instance, in Kalgoorlie, the Great Boulder mine is (March, 1908) working the extension of Ivanhoe lodes at points 500 feet below the lowest level in the Ivanhoe; likewise, the Block 10 lead mine at Broken Hill is working the Central ore-body on the Central boundary some 350 feet below the Central workings. Such facts as these must have a bearing on assessing the downward extension.

Depth of Exhaustion.—All mines become completely exhausted at some point in depth. Therefore the actual distance to which ore can be expected to extend below the lowest level grows less with every deeper working horizon. The really superficial character of ore-deposits, even outside of the region of secondary enrichment is becoming every year better recognized. The prospector's idea that "she gets richer deeper down," may have some basis near the surface in some metals, but it is not an idea which prevails in the minds of engineers who have to work in depth. The writer, with some others, prepared a list of several hundred dividend-paying metal mines of all sorts, extending over North and South America, Australasia, England, and Africa. Notes were made as far as possible of the depths at which values gave out, and also at which dividends ceased. Although by no means a complete census, the list indicated that not 6% of mines (outside banket) that have yielded profits, ever made them from ore won below 2000 feet. Of mines that paid dividends, 80% did not show profitable value below 1500 feet, and a sad majority died above 500. Failures at short depths may be blamed upon secondary enrichment, but the majority that reached below this influence also gave out. The geological reason for such general unseemly conduct is not so evident.

Conclusion.—As a practical problem, the assessment of prospective value is usually a case of "cut and try." The portion of the capital to be invested, which depends upon extension, will require so many tons of ore of the same value as that indicated by the standing ore, in order to justify the price. To produce this tonnage at the continued average size of the ore-bodies will require their extension in depth so many feet—or the discovery of new ore-bodies of a certain size. The five geological weights mentioned above may then be put into the scale and a basis of judgment reached.

CHAPTER IV.

Mine Valuation (Continued).

RECOVERABLE PERCENTAGE OF THE GROSS ASSAY VALUE; PRICE OF METALS; COST OF PRODUCTION.

The method of treatment for the ore must be known before a mine can be valued, because a knowledge of the recoverable percentage is as important as that of the gross value of the ore itself. The recoverable percentage is usually a factor of working costs. Practically every ore can be treated and all the metal contents recovered, but the real problem is to know the method and percentage of recovery which will yield the most remunerative result, if any. This limit to profitable recovery regulates the amount of metal which should be lost, and the amount of metal which consequently must be deducted from the gross value before the real net value of the ore can be calculated. Here, as everywhere else in mining, a compromise has to be made with nature, and we take what we can get—profitably. For instance, a copper ore may be smelted and a 99% recovery obtained. Under certain conditions this might be done at a loss, while the same ore might be concentrated before smelting and yield a profit with a 70% recovery. An additional 20% might be obtained by roasting and leaching the residues from concentration, but this would probably result in an expenditure far greater than the value of the 20% recovered. If the ore is not already under treatment on the mine, or exactly similar ore is not under treatment elsewhere, with known results, the method must be determined experimentally, either by the examining engineer or by a special metallurgist.

Where partially treated products, such as concentrates, are to be sold, not only will there be further losses, but deductions will be made by the smelter for deleterious metals and other charges. All of these factors must be found out,—and a few sample smelting returns from a similar ore are useful.

To cover the whole field of metallurgy and discuss what might apply, and how it might apply, under a hundred supposititious conditions would be too great a digression from the subject in hand. It is enough to call attention here to the fact that the residues from every treatment carry some metal, and that this loss has to be deducted from the gross value of the ore in any calculations of net values.