CHAPTER XX.
SETTLED BY LAKON—POPULATION—SMALLPOX—TUTELARY SPIRITS—ANCIENT CITIES—TRADE-ROUTES AND COST OF TRANSPORT—THE CENTRE OF PING STATES—A LAKON PRINCE—VIEWS ABOUT RAILWAY—SMALLPOX RAGING—CALLOUSNESS OF NATIVES—DR CUSHING INFECTED—DESERTED CITIES—FAMOUS FOR POTTERY—GAMBLING CURRENCY—GAMBLING GAMES IN SIAM—FIGHTING CRICKETS, FISH, AND COCKS—COCK-CROWING IN INDO-CHINA—VARIATION IN TIMES OF NEW YEAR—GAMBLING MONOPOLY IN SIAM—PROCLAMATION OF THE KING—GAMBLING CHIEF CAUSE OF SLAVERY—PARENTS SELLING CHILDREN INTO SLAVERY—SLAVERY NOT ABOLISHED—PROCLAMATION ISSUED TO DELUDE FOREIGNERS—POSITION OF PEOPLE DAILY GROWING WORSE—A MONEY-LENDER BUYING INJUSTICE FROM PRINCES AND NOBLES—ENCOURAGING GAMBLING—GAMBLING-HOUSE JAILS—STATE OF SIAMESE GOVERNMENT MONOPOLIES—EFFECT OF CORVÉE LABOUR—BURDENSOME TAXATION—NO JUSTICE—GENERAL DEMORALISATION—SHAN STATES BETTER GOVERNED.
On our reaching Penyow, the Chow Phya, who was conducting us, went to the governor to announce our arrival, and we were assigned the court-house for our habitation; but as it was far from waterproof, we put up at a sala near the south wall. It would have been better to have camped near the temple outside the city, for during our stay our water had to be fetched from the well we had passed near the entrance-gate. The water drawn from the only well inside the city was nauseous and undrinkable, and the Meh Ing, which winds round three sides of the town, looked like a foul sewer, black with mud and filth held in solution. The current in the stream was barely perceptible.
In the morning we called on the governor, who has the title of Chow Hluang, or Great Prince—a pleasant old gentleman, who received us most courteously, and kept us in conversation for about an hour. He told us his Muang was resettled by Lakon, and is a sub-State of that principality. It contained 4820 houses, 300 of which were in the city. Each house on an average contained eight inhabitants: this average would give the Muang a population of 38,560 souls. Paddy, he said, yielded in his district a hundred-fold on well-irrigated land, and eighty-fold on land subject to drought or inundation.
After the chief had recounted the Buddhist legends, previously given, Dr Cushing was so disgusted at seeing him fondling his young son, who was covered with smallpox scabs, that he bade adieu. On passing me, he whispered that there were four cases of smallpox in the family. Dr M‘Gilvary kindly stopped on to the end of the interview, as I wished to learn about the trade-routes and geography of the country.
The Pee, or tutelary god, of the Muang,[[8]] is Chow Kam Doeng, the spirit of an ancient Lawa king who formerly ruled in Penyow: his predecessor is said to have been Phya Choo-ang.
The ancient cities whose names are known, situated in the chief’s jurisdiction, include Viang Tum, Viang Tom, Viang Muang, Viang Heang, Viang Chaum Taung, Viang Poo Lam, and Viang Meh Ta Lat. Besides these, the following lie outside the district: Muang Teung to the west of Loi Mun Moo, between it and the Meh Wung; and Viang Moo Boon and Viang Kyow, two days’ journey to the south-east. The journey over Loi Mun Moo to the Meh Wung, and thence along the valley of the Meh Wung to Lakon, takes eight and a half days; the journey to Zimmé by the Loi Sa-ket pass, takes five days; and the journey to Kiang Khong, on the Meh Ing near its junction with the Meh Kong, is done by elephants in six days.
With reference to the export of rice from Penyow to Lakon, which was suffering from drought, the chief told me that the cost of carriage for an elephant load of 266 lb. over the distance of 71 miles, was 13 rupees and 8 annas, which, at an exchange of 1s. 5d. to the rupee, is equivalent to a charge of 2s. 3d. a ton per mile. As rice is carried by train in Burmah for a halfpenny a ton per mile, the cost of elephant carriage is fifty-four times as expensive. Dried fish taken to Zimmé fetch double the Penyow price.
In Mr Archer’s report, he notes the importance of Penyow as the seat of a large fishing industry, and as a station “on the important route from Chienghai (Kiang Hai) to the southern Lao provinces. This town may well be called the centre of the Lao (Ping Shan) country, for it is situated at an equal distance of six days’ march from nearly all the important places in the five States: Chiengmai (Zimmé), Chiengsen (Kiang Hsen), Nan, Phrë (Peh), and Lakhon (Lakon).”
On returning to our sala, we found Chow Rat, one of the princes of Lakon, who with his attendants was encamped outside the city, had come to pay us a visit. He, like all the princes of the Ping States whom I met, was free from awkwardness and affectation, courteous and well-mannered, and seemed anxious to oblige us by all the means in his power. He was evidently a highly intelligent man, and became much interested in the proposed railroad. After going fully into the matter, he said that the Ping princes would certainly do all in their power to facilitate its construction. Trade was as life-blood to the chiefs and people, and such a line would greatly increase the trade and wealth of the country. I had many talks with Chow Rat before we left for Zimmé, and he gave me a good deal of information about the country.
At the time of our arrival, smallpox had been raging in the city for twelve days, and had caused the death of seventy people. We visited house after house, and the disease seemed to be everywhere. Five and six deaths occurred each day during our stay: the pitiful screaming of the children suffering from the fell disease was heartrending. The deep boom of the chief’s gong, the finest-toned one that I ever heard, sounded nightly at about eleven o’clock, when the bodies were taken from the city for interment.
Our servants and followers were utterly callous of the possibility of contagion—they had most likely all had the disease; and notwithstanding our injunctions to the contrary, ate and slept in infected houses. Had I been aware of the state of the city, I would have camped near the well at the entrance-gate. I have little doubt that Dr Cushing was infected with the disease whilst being shampooed by one of the interpreters, who had been sleeping and taking his meals at a house in which there were two or three cases of the disease.
Terra-cotta pedestal.
One day we strolled through the remains of two deserted cities, situated in a park-like forest neighbouring Penyow. Viang Meh Ta Lat lies adjacent to the town, and was built in two or three compartments. It contains ruins of temples and pagodas, and is upwards of a mile long. Viang Poo Lam, which lies to the north-east of Viang Meh Ta Lat, is surrounded by double ramparts, with a ditch separating them. The ditch is 60 feet in width at the top, 15 feet at the bottom, and 20 feet deep from the crest of the inner rampart, which is 5 feet high, and 15 feet from the outer rampart, which is 10 feet high.
Amongst the ruins we came across several fine images of Buddha cut out of stone; and near one of the pagodas, saw some octagonal tiles, which measured 2 feet across, and were 2 inches thick—the largest I have seen in Indo-China. The neighbourhood must have been famous at one time for its pottery, for besides the tiles, I found the remains of a large and handsomely executed terra-cotta image and pedestal in the grounds of one of the monasteries in the city. The mutilated supporters to the pedestal are elephants and eagles, the latter representing “Garuda,” the sacred bird of Vishnu, in the Hindoo Pantheon, which was the mortal foe of the nagas or dragons, and all the snake race. Whilst rambling about these cities I became nearly clothed with caterpillars—whether of the silk-worm or not I do not know—which were dangling in myriads by long threads from the branches of the trees.
On our return, Jewan came to me with a long face, complaining that the people in the town had given him some pieces of pottery instead of change, and asked what he should do. On looking at them I found they were octagonal in shape, and stamped on one side with Chinese letters. After showing them to Dr M‘Gilvary, he said they were the ordinary gambling currency of the place, and represented two-anna and four-anna pieces. It appears that the gambling monopolist has the right to float them, and they are in general use amongst the people as small change. They remain current as long as the Chinese monopolist is solvent or has the monopoly. If he loses it, he calls the tokens in by sending a crier round, beating a gong and informing the people that he is ready to change the tokens for money. Dr M‘Gilvary said that such tokens formed the sole small change at Zimmé before the Bangkok copper currency supplanted them.
Phya Khrut or Garuda, the king of eagles.
In every village throughout Siam may be found common gambling-houses. These houses are usually built of bamboo; the entire front being of unsplit bamboo placed perpendicularly, every other one extending not more than four feet from the ground. This plan enables those passing to see what is going on inside, and is evidently intended as a bait. Everything is done to attract people to the den. Musicians and play-actors are hired and separated from the gamblers by a paper screen, with lamplight on the side of the performers, behind which a man is employed making shadow puppet-shows for the amusement of the spectators. A great gong is beaten, men utter unearthly sounds through horns, and the discord is made more complete by the grating notes of various stringed instruments and unmusical human voices. Play usually begins late in the afternoon, and lasts far into the night. At one end of a Chinese gambling-saloon is often an altar, and on it a figure of the god of luck. When weary with gambling or temporarily dispirited, the Siamese retire to watch the musicians and play-actors. The gambling in Siam consists, besides lotteries, of the mat game, the brass-cup game, the fish, shrimp, and crab game, and games at cards, which are conducted as follows:—
The Mat Game.—The gambling is conducted on one general plan, which is subject to certain modifications, probably for the sake of variety, lest the gamblers should weary of the monotony of a single method. A large mat, twelve or fifteen feet square, is placed on the floor. On this mat are two lines forming a rectangular cross. The four angles made by the two lines are marked respectively 1, 2, 3, 4. The proprietor sits on the mat in the angle marked 4, and has near him a pile of cowries (small shells formerly used as money in Siam). From this pile he takes a double handful. The gamblers place their money on any one of the numbers they choose. We will suppose there are but four playing, and that each places a tical on a different number.
After the players have put down their stakes, the proprietor counts out his double handful of shells into fours, and notes the remainder. If there is a remainder of two, the man who placed his money on No. 2 doubles his money. No. 4 loses his, while Nos. 1 and 3 neither lose nor win. If there is a remainder of 1, No. 1 doubles his money, No. 3 loses, Nos. 2 and 4 neither lose nor win. But there may be twenty or thirty playing. The principle is the same. All whose money is on the number representing the remainder, after counting out the fours, double their money; while all on the opposite numbers lose, and the other two numbers neither lose nor win. If the shells amount to even fours, No. 4 wins.
There is one modification of this game. The gamblers may place their money on the diagonal line between 2 and 3: then if there is a remainder of 2 or 3, that money is doubled; while if there is a remainder of 1 or 4, it is lost. In this case the chances both of gaining and losing are doubled.
In many of the gambling-houses smaller mats are used, and there are then several modifications of the game, according to the position of the money laid down. But the principle of the game is the same as that already described. The proprietors of these gambling-houses issue the porcelain money that we see in the market, which, when they are unable to redeem it, becomes absolutely worthless.
The Brass-cup Game.—In this game the proprietor has a square brass cup, in which he places a cube of wood. One-half of one face of the cube is white and the other half red. The cube is put into the cup, which is then inverted on the mat or table, and gamblers place their money opposite any one of the four sides they choose. The cup is then removed, the cube remaining with the painted face uppermost. The money opposite the white wins, three for one, and the other three sides lose.
The Fish, Shrimp, and Crab Game.—While passing along the street one often sees an old man with a crowd of boys about him. He has a board before him, in size about 18 by 20 inches, and divided by lines into six equal oblong squares. In one of these squares is the picture of a fish, in another of a shrimp, in another of a crab, &c. The man has a cocoa-nut shell, in which are three large wooden dice, on the faces of which are pictures corresponding to those on the board. The boys place their pieces of money on any picture they choose. The proprietor rattles his dice in the shell, and then inverts it on the board. All who have money on the pictures corresponding to the upper faces of the dice, win; all the rest lose.
Card Games.—The cards used in gambling are about one inch by three. These are marked to represent kings, governors, officers, soldiers, &c. A full pack contains 116 cards, and the principle of the game seems to be similar to that of games of cards in more enlightened countries.
The alphabet of gambling is learned by Siamese children nearly as soon as they can run alone. They are seen pitching their coppers in the street, according to rules they seem to understand, and their parents are often among the most interested spectators. The appetite for gambling is likewise fostered by the universal custom of fighting crickets, fish, and cocks, and the Government allows all classes to gamble without a licence during the three days the festivities of the New Year last.
Siamese children have few pets, and those they have are used for fighting. Just at sunset the boys may be seen searching for crickets. These little creatures are put into small clay cages, closed at the top by bars of little sticks, which let in the light and air. When they have collected a good number, the boys gather together in the evening and put all their crickets into a large box. Then commences a general scrimmage. Cricket meets cricket, as Greek met Greek, and the excited boys bet every copper in their possession on the one they think likely to win.
Small fish, called needle-fish, are also used for this sport. Two fish are put into separate bottles. The moment the bottles are brought together, the fish begin snapping, but of course cannot reach each other. Sometimes a looking glass is held before one, and it is amusing to see how angry it will become. This passion for mimic fights grows in the boys; and when they become young men, they spend most of their time at cock-pits, where nearly all their betting is done. The cocks in Indo-China resemble small game-cocks, and crow four times in the twenty-four hours—at midnight, dawn, noon, and sundown,—and thus serve to note the time.
In Siam, not including the Ping and Lao Shan States upwards of £100,000 is paid by the Chinese gambling monopolists for their licences. Five-ninths of this amount comes from the lottery-holders, and four-ninths from the gambling-houses. Nine-tenths of the monopolists sublet their farms, making from 15 to 20 per cent profit: 2 per cent of the money paid by the monopolists is said to be a private perquisite of the King of Siam.
In his proclamation, “concerning the limitation of the ages of the children of slaves and of free people,” issued in 1874, the King of Siam declared: “With reference to gambling and all games of chance, where money is lost and won, it is a prolific source of slavery. These subjects have his Majesty’s best thoughts as to their eventual termination. They now yield a revenue of 11,000 catties (528,000 dollars), which is regularly expended in defraying the expenses of the Government. If gambling were completely abolished, there would not be enough at the command for Government and military purposes to meet the deficit that would be occasioned by such abolition. This subject, however, his Majesty has presented for the deliberation of the council, and when definite conclusions have been arrived at they will be made known to the public.” Fourteen years have elapsed since this proclamation was issued, during which time no further action has been taken in the matter. The king still draws revenue from the monopolists. The monopolists can still force the Prai-luangs, who form the majority of the inhabitants of Siam, to sell themselves, together with their wives and families; can still force freemen to sell their children, without the children’s consent up to the age of fifteen, and with the children’s consent up to the time that they reach their twenty-first year.
To explain this clearly, and to show the present state of slavery in Siam, I will here quote Articles 6, 7, 8, and 11 of the law passed by the king in 1874, which has not been rescinded:—
“Art. 6. If any of the people who are now free, having had no trouble necessitating their becoming slaves, should subsequently become involved, and the father, mother, the paternal grandfather, grandmother, the maternal grandfather, grandmother, uncles, aunts, elder brothers or sisters, be inclined to sell their children or relatives that were born in the year of the Major Dragon, tenth of the decade (A.D. 1868), (as the starting-point)—if less than fifteen years old, they may do so only temporarily (until they reach their twenty-first year)—and allow their services to the purchaser in lieu of interest, inserting their names in the bill of sale of the purchaser, with or without the knowledge of the person sold, the sale is valid according to the laws of the land, because the father, mother, and elder relatives are paramount, &c.
“Art. 7. If a child or a relative that has been born since the year of the Major Dragon, tenth of the decade (A.D. 1868), has attained any age between the fifteenth and twentieth year—that is, knows the difference between right and wrong—and the parents or elder relatives wish to sell and give their services to the purchaser in lieu of interest, and the seller places that person’s name in a bill of sale, the party so doing must inform the person to be sold, that he may know and see the transaction, and attach his name to the instrument in confirmation thereof, to give it validity, and make it available to the purchaser: his valuation, however, shall be according to the rates of the present laws. If the person sold neither knows of nor saw the transaction, and has not appended, nor hired, nor asked others to write his name to the instrument, he cannot be regarded as a slave.
“Art. 8. If the child of a slave or of a free person born in the year of the Major Dragon, as the starting-point, has reached the twenty-first year of his or her age, should the parents or the relatives or the persons themselves become embarrassed and involved, and apply to sell such persons, offering their personal services in lieu of interest on the purchase-money, all moneyed people and property holders are hereby absolutely forbidden to purchase them as slaves, &c.
“Art. 11. All persons under obligation to the Government known as Prai-luangs,[[9]] soldiers, artisans, labourers, miners, provincials, attamahts; those whose freedom has been forfeited to the State for crimes against the laws,[[10]] royal domestics, labourers at the Government rice-mills, Government weavers, silk manufacturers, female guards of the inner apartments of the palace, and the distributors and objects of royal charities; all people under obligation to the Government, and known as Kon-hluangs, who clandestinely and fraudulently allow their names to be entered into bills of sale, pledging their personal services in lieu of interest to the purchaser, if they have children born to them in the house of the money-master from and since the year of the Major Dragon, tenth of the decade, and those children have attained the twenty-first year of their age,—in all these cases let the money-master make known the circumstances to the Krom Pra Surasadee, that the real Government master may have him tattooed and designated to his proper group, the group to which his father and mother belonged, so that when off required (Government) duty he may serve his money-master, and when on required duty he may serve his Government master, according to the original laws.”
As the majority of the non-Chinese inhabitants of Siam are included among the above-mentioned classes, and there is no penalty for their selling themselves and their children clandestinely and fraudulently as slaves; and as the money-masters are told that they can keep them as slaves, and the original laws will apply to them and their children so long as they are permitted by their money-masters to serve the Government for three months in the year as Government slaves,—the law affords no protection to these people, and was evidently not meant to be a protection to them. The law was, in fact, merely enacted and published by the king in order to throw dust into the eyes of foreign nations, so that they might imagine him to be an enlightened and civilised monarch. I was only lately assured by gentlemen residing in Bangkok that slavery was never more prevalent in Siam than it is at the present time.
Instead of improving the position of the majority of the people, the law of 1874 makes it considerably worse; for the former law of A.D. 1787 states—“It is well known that registered slaves are exempt from monthly service to the Government. Government can demand their services only when there is war.” For the future, the Government will be able to demand their services for three months in the year, during which time they will have to provide their own lodging and food, and during the remaining nine months they will have to serve their money-masters, and their children will have to bear the same burdens and servitude.
The usual method employed by money-masters in Siam wishing to retain bond-slaves who wish to pay off their debts and regain their freedom, is fully explained by a proclamation that was issued by the late king in 1867, which runs as follows:—
“Proclamation of his Majesty Somdetch Pra Shaum Klow, the 4th of the present Dynasty. About the Merchant Bahng Mew.
“His Majesty issued a royal mandate to be proclaimed and published to all the princes and Government officials without and within, and to the people of the capital and of the provinces, north and south, for general information, about the merchant Bahng Mew, whose official title is Kun Penit Wohahn.
“He is truly a rich man, but he is tortuous. He is tricky in words and in litigation. His Majesty has really detected his artifice, his tortuousness, and lack of honesty. He has no compassion on the common people, who are his debtors and slaves, who are desirous of paying their indebtedness and the moneys advanced in purchasing them.
“When money is offered to him, he will not receive it, and contends about the necessities of the seasons. ‘Waters are worked for fish, and fields for grain.’ If it happens to be the 4th or 5th lunation, he is invisible, cannot be seen. If it happens to be the 10th or 11th lunation, he offers sundry excuses, and for three years he has evaded receiving proffered payments.
“The slaves have poured out their complaints and deposited their payments at the courts. He makes interest with the legal officers, and has evaded receiving his money for more than three and four years. A number of other persons also have poured forth their complaints of wrongs received from his Satee (Chetty, a banker and money-lender) Bahng Mew, and because he is wealthy he has confused the legal officers.
“He has access also to princes and nobles, who support him in his wrongs. This royal mandate is issued to be made known to the princes, nobles, and Government officials within and without, forbidding all to give him any further support in his practices. If they persist in backing him up, they will no longer be objects of royal favour. Given, Saturday, 1st of the waxing, 6th lunation, year of the Rabbit, 8th of the decade, Siamese civil era, 1229 (May 4, 1867).”
Returning to the subject of gambling. The latest law dealing with it was issued in 1794. In the previous reign an Act had been passed whereby the gambling-house keepers were not allowed to advance money for gambling purposes to the people. This caused a great falling off in the amounts paid to Government for the monopolies. The law of 1794 states that—
“When his Majesty ascended the throne, having quelled all commotions, he was graciously pleased to revise the laws. What it was befitting should be retained, were left as before. What was not fitting, was abrogated; but this (former) proclamation on gambling was not repealed, because his Majesty was graciously disposed towards the common people, who were biassed by avaricious desires, because the managers of the gambling establishments trusted them and allowed them to get into debt, even though they had not at their homes the means of meeting their liabilities—still the managers trusted them; but they did not think of their children and wives, but borrowed from the managers, played, and were trusted. When their losses increased, and the managers arrested them and enforced payment, they were obliged to borrow, run in debt, sell their wives and children, and submit to many hardships.
“With these facts in view that proclamation was allowed to stand, that the players might play only to the extent of their means. At the present time, however, the players have greatly diminished, have been impoverished more than in former times, and the royal revenue has diminished withal. The holders of the royal patents and the managers of the gambling establishments perceive that there are no players, and they fear they will not be able to meet their Government liabilities.”
Further on the Act goes on to state—
“The former law cannot longer be retained, and is therefore abolished. Henceforth if players enter a gambling establishment to play, and are in want of wherewith to play, and wish to borrow the money, or the current pieces of crockery belonging to the gambling establishment, to stake as wagers, let the gambling farmer or his agents in charge of the establishment form an approximate estimate of the ability of the player, and lend him accordingly, and only allow him to play within his approximate ability, and the power of the gambling establishment to collect, as in the last reign.”
After indicating the amounts that may be safely lent, which includes six dollars to a female who comes without ornaments or attendants, it continues—
“Again, players come to play at a gambling establishment who have no money of their own: they do not at first borrow from the manager, but take part in a play and lose, and having the money obstruct the interest of the game in the height of their excitement, and cause a delay of the fees: in such cases let the manager and his collectors remove the difficulty and make the necessary advances, remove the loser who does not pay, bind and fetter and enforce payment, according to the power granted to the gambling establishment. If the money is not obtainable from the party, make him or her over to the general farmer, and let him enforce payment to the particular manager.”
The farmer has his own jails, where he can keep debtors in fetters, until they clandestinely and fraudulently pay their debt, by selling themselves and their children to him as slaves.
If it were not for slavery, serfdom, vexatious taxation, and for the vices of the people, the Siamese might be a happy race. Living as they do chiefly upon vegetables and fish; in a country where every article of food is cheap; where a labourer’s wages are such as to enable him to subsist upon a fourth of his earnings; where a few mats and bamboos will supply him with materials for a house sufficient to keep out the rays of the tropical sun and the showers in the rainy season; where little clothing is needed, and that of a cheap and simple kind; where nine-tenths of the land in the country is vacant, without owners or inhabitants,—surely such a people might be contented and happy. The land is so fertile and the climate is so humid, that every cereal and fruit of the tropics grows there to perfection. Yet among the common people it is seldom a man or woman can be found who is not the slave of the wealthy or the noble.
The Government battens on the vices of the people by granting monopolies for gambling, opium, and spirits. Government places the people under unscrupulous and tyrannical Government masters—merciless, heartless, and exorbitant leeches—who, unless heavily bribed, force the peasantry to do their three months’ corvée labour at times and seasons that necessarily break up all habits of industry, and ruin all plans to engage in successful business.[[11]]
Government imposes taxes upon everything grown for human requirements in the country; fishing-nets, stakes, boats, spears, and lines are all taxed. The Government net is so small that even charcoal and bamboos are taxed to the extent of one in ten, and firewood one in five, in kind. Fancy the feelings of an old woman, after trudging for miles to market with a hundred sticks of firewood, when twenty of the sticks are seized by the tax-gatherer as his perquisite! There is a land-tax for each crop of annuals sown, and paddy and rice are both subject to tax; so that three taxes can thus be reaped from one cereal. The burdensome taxation is levied in the most vexatious manner that can be conceived; for the taxes are let out to unscrupulous Chinamen, who are thus able to squeeze, cheat, and rob the people mercilessly. It is no use appealing from the tax-gatherer to the officials. Money wins its way, and justice is unknown in Siam. Every one who has not a friend at Court is preyed upon by the governors and their rapacious underlings.
Such being the present state of Siam, one is not surprised to learn that the majority of its inhabitants, besides being slaves and selling their children, are libertines, gamblers, opium smokers or eaters, and given to intoxicating beverages. No amount of earnings will bear these heavy strains upon their industry and their purse. The effect of over-taxation has been showing itself of late years in the import of betel-nuts, bee’s-wax, cocoa-nuts, molasses, and other articles, which were formerly exported. The effect of sapping the morals of the people by encouraging gambling, opium smoking and eating, and spirit-drinking, is displayed by their present state of degradation.
Nowhere in the Shan States is misgovernment and oppression of the people so rampant as in Siam. Taxation in the Shan States is exceedingly light; and the people are not placed under grinding Government masters, but have the power to change their lords at their will; they are not compelled to serve for three months in the year without receiving either wages or food; amongst them gamblers, opium smokers, and drunkards are looked down upon and despised; and libertinism is nearly unknown. The only loose women seen by me in the Shan States were a few Siamese, who had taken up their quarters at Zimmé, the headquarters of the Siamese judge. Siam, in comparison with the Ping Shan States, is as pest-ridden Penyow, situated on its sluggish and fetid streams, to the healthy city of Muang Ngow, on its beautiful clear-flowing river, that we were about to visit.