The Quiver.
The tin quiver, made in different sizes to contain six, a dozen, or more arrows, with sometimes a receptacle at the top for spare strings, wax, thread, silk, file, &c., is too handy an article to be ever altogether discarded, though the arrows in it do occasionally suffer by being indiscriminately jumbled together. The arrow-boxes of wood now made to hold different quantities of arrows are, of course, to be preferred. But the best receptacle for arrows on a journey is a properly fitted compartment in the bow-box, and the method invented by the Rev. J. M. Croker is the best of all. This is fitted with a hinge, so that any arrow in it can be removed without shifting any of the others.
CHAPTER VI.
OF BRACING, OR STRINGING, AND NOCKING
In the previous chapters such plain directions have been given concerning the various implements of archery as will enable each archer to provide himself with the best of the kind that his inclinations or means may lead him to adopt, and to enable him to avoid such as are in themselves radically bad, or likely to add to the difficulties he is sure to meet with before arriving at any great or satisfactory proficiency in the art. Having been thus enabled to form a choice as to his weapons, he must now be guided in their use; and, in the first place, there are a few minor matters that cannot be altogether passed over in silence. The first of these is the bracing or stringing of a bow, which may be considered as the first preliminary operation to actual shooting. This is the act of bending the bow, when unstrung, sufficiently to enable the archer to slip the upper eye of the string into the nock of the upper horn. To effect this, the usual method is to set the lower horn of the bow (its back being turned towards the archer) on the ground, against the inside of the right foot, this being turned a little inward so as to prevent the horn from slipping out of place. Then, the handle being firmly grasped with the right hand, and the lower or wrist-part of the left hand being rested upon the upper limb of the bow a few inches below the upper eye of the string, a strong steady pull must be applied with the right hand at the handle (the left hand and right foot forming the points d'appui) so that the bow may be bent, whilst the thumb and second joint of the first finger, or preferably the tips of the first and second fingers of the left hand, carry the eye of the string into the nock. Novices must be particularly careful that they do not get either of the fingers entangled between the string and the bow.
In stringing the bow, it is quite unimportant whether it be held in the right or left hand; but if the finger-tips be worn on the right hand, it is better to use this hand for the purpose of grasping the bow, rather than for helping the eye of the string into its place.
To unstring the bow, the action is the same as in the final position of stringing it, except that the eye of the string is slipped out of the horn.
To string and unstring a bow gracefully and without apparent effort is an affair rather of knack than of much strength or force, and is therefore only to be learnt with a certain amount of practice. The archer must keep, as far as possible, an upright position, as to crouch over the operation is ungainly, and interferes with the satisfactory application of the necessary amount of effort.
The bow being now strung, two things must be carefully noted: first, that the bend of the bow be neither too much nor too little; and secondly, that the string starts from both horns exactly at the centre of each—i.e. no atom either to the right or left, but dividing the bow precisely in half from end to end. If this latter caution be not observed the grain of the bow runs considerable risk of being unnaturally strained, and the bow itself of being pulled away and out of its proper shape, and sooner or later breaking in consequence. It is even possible that the correct cast itself may be more or less disadvantageously affected by any carelessness on this point. This is one of the many minutiæ of archery, which is of more importance than may at first sight appear, and should always be attended to before the bow is allowed to discharge a single arrow. During the shooting, too, attention should be occasionally directed to the string, to observe whether the loop may not have slipped a little away, as it may sometimes unavoidably do. If a second eye has been added to the string in the place of the loop, the string will be much more easily adjusted, and then there will be no fear of its getting away during the shooting. As regards the first point—namely, the amount of bend in a bow when strung—it has been already stated that in a man's bow the distance of the inside of the handle from the string should scarcely ever be less than six inches. The advantages of having the bow low-strung are that the bow casts quicker and farther (owing to the greater length the arrow is acted upon by the string), and that the bow, and also the string, are less strained, and consequently in less danger of breaking; but to be balanced against these advantages is the fact that the danger of striking the armguard before the extreme point of the string's recoil (already shown to be fatal to accurate shooting) is greater, and the cast may be somewhat less steady.
It has been immemorially customary to ascertain the amount of the bend of the bow when strung, by placing the fist upright upon the inside of the handle (at the centre of the bow), at the same time raising up the thumb towards the string; if the string then just touches the extremity of the thumb the bracing is supposed to be tolerably correct. This is not, however, an infallible test, as the size of hands of different individuals varies considerably; but each archer can ascertain how far his own hand, placed in the above way, varies from the old-fashioned measure of six inches, known as a fistmele, and, bearing this constantly in mind, may ascertain the bracing of his bow as accurately as if his own fistmele were the exact six inches.
The nocking of the arrow must now be considered. This is the application of the nock of the arrow to its proper place on the string. Simple as this operation may at first sight appear, yet there is a right way and a wrong way of doing it; and as the wrong way leads to the injury and disfigurement of the bow, let the beginner acquire the right method at first, as follows:—
The bow being held somewhat downwards by the handle with the left hand, with the string upwards, let the arrow be placed with the right hand over the string (not on any account under the string, as this latter method of nocking is sure to lead sooner or later to the disfigurement of the belly of the bow, by numerous stabs inflicted upon it by the sharp point of the arrow) upon that part of the bow (close to the forefinger of the left hand) upon which it is to lie; the thumb of the left hand (not the forefinger) being then gently placed over it will serve to hold it perfectly under command, whilst the forefinger and thumb of the right hand take hold of the nock end of the arrow, and manipulate with perfect ease the application of the nock to the proper nocking-place on the string. Five minutes' practice will suffice to render this method of nocking easy and familiar. But if the archer be afraid of unsteadying his hold upon the handle of the bow by shifting his left thumb on to the arrow, as above described, let him hold the arrow with his right hand just above the feathers, and so apply the nock to the string without assistance from the left thumb. This method is, however, somewhat more awkward-looking.
The centre of the nocking-place should be exactly upon that point of the string which is opposite to the spot on the bow over which the arrow will pass when shot—i.e. the arrow when nocked must be precisely perpendicular to the string. If the arrow be nocked at a lower point, it will beat itself against the forefinger of the left hand, and thereby waste some of the energy that should be applied to its flight. On the other hand, if the arrow be nocked at a higher point, the drawing will be commenced from a point not contemplated in the manufacture of the bow when the compensated strength of the upper and lower limbs is arranged for a fulcrum not exactly central. Care must be taken that the nocking-part of the string exactly fits or fills the nock of the arrow. The hold of the nock upon the string must be neither too tight nor too loose; if the first, the nock may, and probably will, be split; and if the second, the shaft is apt to slip whilst in the act of being drawn, and the nock will be broken, or the correct elevation and proper flight of the arrow will be lost.
A word of warning must be added for the young archer against attempting to alter the range of his arrow by varying the nocking-place. For the reasons above given, a worse system could not be adopted.
CHAPTER VII.
OF ASCHAM'S FIVE POINTS, POSITION STANDING, ETC.
The various implements of archery having been now described, the proper use of these by the archer claims attention.
Roger Ascham stated in 1545 that 'fayre shootynge came of these thynges: of standynge, nockynge, drawynge, howldynge, and lowsynge'; and these his well-known five points of archery have been followed by most other writers on the subject in this same order. He has set out so well 'all the discommodities whiche ill custome hath grafted in archers' that 'can neyther be quycklye poulled out, nor yet sone reckened of me, they be so manye,' that it will be excusable to quote them for the benefit of beginners, for their avoidance before they have been acquired.
'Some shooteth his head forwarde, as though he woulde byte the marke; an other stareth wyth hys eyes, as though they shoulde flye out; another winketh with one eye, and looketh with the other. Some make a face with writhing theyr mouthe and countenance so; another blereth out his tonge; another byteth his lyppes; another holdeth his neck a wrye. In drawynge some set suche a compasse, as thoughe they woulde tourne about and blysse all the feelde; other heaue theyr hand nowe vp, nowe downe, that a man cannot decerne wherat they wolde shote; another waggeth the vpper ende of his bow one way, the neyther ende an other waye. An other wil stand poyntinge his shafte at the marke a good whyle, and by-and-by he wyll gyue a whip, and awaye, or a man wite. An other maketh suche a wrestling with his gere, as thoughe he were able to shoote no more as longe as he lyued. Another draweth softly to ye middes, and by-and-by it is gon, you cannot knowe howe.
'Another draweth his shafte lowe at the breaste, as thoughe he woulde shoote at a rouynge marke, and by-and-by he lifteth his arme vp pricke heyghte. Another maketh a wrynching with hys back as though a manne pynched hym behynde.
'Another coureth downe, as though he shoulde shoote at crowes.
'Another setteth forwarde hys lefte legge, and draweth backe with head and showlders, as though he pouled at a rope, or els were afrayed of the marke. Another draweth his shafte well vntyll wythin ii fyngers of the head, and then stayeth to looke at hys marke, and that done pouleth it vp to the head, and lowseth; whiche waye, although summe excellent shoters do use, yet surely it is a faulte, and good mennes faultes are not to be followed.[2]
'Summe men drawe to farre, summe to shorte, summe to slowlye, summe to quickely, summe holde over longe, summe let go over sone.
'Summe sette theyr shafte on the grounde, and fetcheth him vpwarde. Another poynteth vp towarde the skye, and so bryngeth hym downewardes.
'Ones I sawe a manne whyche used a brasar on his cheke, or elles he had scratched all the skynne of the one syde of his face with his drawynge hand.
'An other I sawe, whiche at everye shoote, after the loose, lyfteth vp his ryght legge so far that he was ever in ieopardye of faulyng.
'Summe stampe forwarde, and summe leape backwarde. All these faultes be eyther in the drawynge or at the loose; with many other mo, whiche you may easelye perseyue, and so go about to auoyde them.
'Now afterwardes, when the shafte is gone, men haue manye faultes, which euell custome hath broughte them to, and specially in cryinge after the shafte and speakynge woordes scarce honest for suche an honest pastyme.
'And besyde those whiche must nedes have theyr tongue thus walkynge, other men vse other fautes: as some will take theyr bowe and writhe and wrinche it, to poule in his shafte when it flyeth wyde, as yf he draue a carte. Some wyll gyue two or iii strydes forwarde, daunsing and hoppynge after his shafte, as long as it flyeth, as though he were a madman. Some which feare to be to farre gone, runne backewarde as it were to poule his shafte backe. Another runneth forwarde when he feareth to be short, heauynge after his armes, as though he woulde helpe his shafte to flye. An other writhes or runneth a syde to poule in his shafte strayght. One lifteth up his heele, and so holdeth his foote still, as longe as his shafte flyeth. Another casteth his arme backewarde after the lowse. An other swynges his bowe aboute hym, as if it were a man with a staffe to make roume in a game place. And manye other faultes there be, whiche nowe come not to my remembraunce. Thus, as you have hearde, manye archers wyth marrynge theyr face and countenaunce wyth other partes of theyr bodye, as it were menne that shoulde daunce antiques, be farre from the comelye porte in shootynge whiche he that woulde be excellent muste looke for.'
He then frankly confesses that, though teaching others 'of these faultes, I have verie manye my selfe; but I talk not of my shootynge, but of the generall nature of shootyng. Now ymagin an archer that is clean, wythout all these faultes, and I am sure euerye man woulde be delyghted to se hym shoote.'
Another will suddenly crouch down on his hams, as though he were marking a bird's flight to pluck it down, or it were out of sight.
'Another will call himself uncomely names, whilst another casteth away his bow as though he would break it for faultes that are his own; and yet another will treat himself at faulte with such harsh usage that he shall scarce shoot again without black eyes for manye a daie.'
As the term standing seems insufficient to include all that has to be said respecting the attitude and general bearing of the archer whilst in the act of shooting, the expression position is adopted instead, as more applicable and comprehensive, and under position will be included, not only the footing or standing, but also the manner in which the hand should grasp the bow, and therefore, as well, the exact position of the bow itself.
In an endeavour to lay down such plain directions as may prevent the assumption of attitudes inimical to good shooting, and as may also assist in the avoidance of such other attitudes as do violence to gracefulness and are repulsive to the looker-on, it would be venturing too far to assert that but one position is good, or even that any particular one is the best; yet some general rules can with sufficient confidence be laid down for the purpose of controlling mannerisms and of confining them within harmless limits.
As regards the footing or standing and the attitudes of archers, it may be safely asserted that there are as many varieties as there are archers to call them into existence; that no two are exactly alike in all particulars; and that no one archer has yet been seen to combine all the excellences that might be centred in a perfect archer.
That an archer's general position may be a good one it must possess three qualities—firmness, elasticity, and grace: firmness, to resist the strain and the recoil of the bow—for if there be any wavering or unsteadiness the shot will probably prove a failure; elasticity, to give free play to the muscles, and the needful command over them—which cannot be the case should the position be too rigid and stiff; and grace, to render the archer and his performance agreeable, and not ludicrous, to the spectator. It so far, fortunately, happens that the third requirement—that of grace—is almost a necessary consequence of the possession of the other two: as the best position for practical results is, in fact, the most graceful one. Experience proves that an awkward ungainly style of shooting is very seldom successful. All these three requisites must be kept constantly in mind in every endeavour to arrive at the best position for combining them.
To the first part of position—that of footing, or standing—but little can be added to what has already been recommended in other books on the subject.
The heels should be, not close together, but about six or eight inches apart—thus avoiding the position that gives too little steadfastness in a wind in the one extreme, and an ungainly straddle in the other. The feet must be firmly planted on the ground, symmetrically, so as to form an angle of from 45° to 60° by the joining of the lines passing through the feet behind the heels. As regards the position of the heels with reference to the target to be shot at, undoubtedly the best position is that in which a line through the centres of the heels points to the centre of the target (fig. 34); but as many good shots have modified this position in the one or other direction, it may be allowed that any position of the feet—varying from that in which a line through the left or forward foot is at right angles to the line from the shooter's eye to the centre of the target (fig. 35) to that in which the line through the right foot is at right angles to the same line towards the target (fig. 36) (an extreme variation of 60°)—may be adopted without extreme violence to either freedom of action or grace. The fault of tipping forward towards the target shot at, caused by throwing the balance unduly upon the forward foot, may be cured by raising the heel of that foot. This is by no means an uncommon fault, and should be carefully guarded against as very fatal to shooting, and liable to result in most ridiculous developments. As the opposite fault has almost overtaken some of the best shots, it may be classed amongst exaggerated virtues, and is little likely to embarrass beginners. The legs should be perfectly straightened at the knees, and not on any account bent forward; and yet the knees should not be so rigidly locked back as to interfere with the elasticity of the position.
Fig. 34. Fig. 35. Fig. 36.
It will be observed that in fig. 34 only, the left and right shoulders, at points A and B respectively, come naturally into the best position for shooting at the target; but by adopting the position shown in fig. 36, a full-bodied archer may be enabled to draw a trifle further before the bowstring comes in contact with the chest; whilst in the position shown in fig. 35 an archer of supple figure can easily get the shoulders into the best position in the course of drawing up.
The body should be naturally upright, but not stiff; the whole person well balanced; and the face turned round so as to be nearly fronting the target.
During the brief period of time between the nocking of the arrow (already described in pp. 80-2) and the loosing of it, some slight alteration of the body's attitude, as arranged when the archer assumes his footing, will take place, as in the combined act of drawing and aiming, the right shoulder will be brought a little forward, and the left shoulder will be taken a little backward, before the shoulders resume their former relative positions previous to the loose, which in that position only can be most advantageously executed. The slightest possible inclination forward should be given to the head and chest, that the arrow may be brought directly under the right or aiming eye, without bringing the line of aim so close to the line through the left shoulder and bow as to make it impossible that the string can clear the forearm at the loose.
Many archers bend the body considerably forward from the waist, and quote the following passage from Bishop Latimer's sixth sermon—My father 'taught me how to drawe, how to lay my bodye in my bowe, and not to drawe with strength of armes, as other nacions do, but with strength of bodye'—in justification of this practice. Here, laying the body in the bow means taking up the best position for shooting. An archer in olden times was said to shoot in a bow, not with a bow.
'Not stooping, nor yet standing straight upright,' as Nicholl's 'London Artillery' hath it, expresses the right position correctly.
The second part of position which is most, important also, is the manner in which the hand should grasp the bow, and the attitude of the bow itself—i.e. whether this should be vertical, or more or less oblique.
It may be stated at once that the most natural and easy method of grasping the bow is also the best; in fact this remark is applicable to almost every point connected with archery, and cannot be too much or too often insisted upon. If the wrist and hand be in any way unnaturally employed bad results immediately follow. For instance, if the grasp be such as to throw the fulcrum much below the centre of the bow, its lower limb runs great risk of being pulled away and out of shape, which sooner or later will cause it to chrysal or break. Again, the Waring method, which used to be in high favour, 'of turning the wrist in as much possible,' causes the left arm to be held in such a straightened position, that it will not only present a constantly recurring obstacle and diverting influence to the free passage of the string, but will also be the cause of an increased strain and additional effort to the shooter, besides taking the spring and elasticity out of that all-important member the bow-arm. If the reverse of this method be adopted, and the wrist be turned intentionally and unnaturally outwards, it will be found that in avoiding Scylla Charybdis is at hand, and, though the string is well clear of the armguard, the wrist cannot sustain either the strain of the bow at full stretch or its recoil at the loose. Thus, as in every other instance, the extremes are bad, and the correct position will be found at the balancing-point between them.
When the footing has been taken, with the arrow nocked, let the bow lie easily and lightly in the left hand, the wrist being turned neither inwards nor outwards, but allowed to remain in the position most easy and natural for it; as the drawing of the bow commences, the grasp will intuitively tighten, and by the time the arrow is drawn to the head the position of the hand and wrist will be such as to be easiest for the shooter and best for the success of his shot.
Fig. 37.—WRONG POSITION.
Fig. 39.—WRONG POSITION.
Fig. 38.—RIGHT POSITION.
It will be observed in the three figures giving the correct and wrong positions of the hand on the bow-handle, that the upper part of the bow hand, including the whole of the thumb and first finger, is above the upper line of the wrist (line AB), whilst the fulcrum, or working centre of the bow, is also above that line, or even in such bows as have their centres in the middle of the handle but little below that line. It is pretty clear that if the hand had been originally constructed solely with a view to its application to the bow, or even as a weapon in the noble art of self-defence, it might have been constructed so as to be a more evenly-balanced hammer at the end of its handle, the arm, than it is at present. Possibly its narrow escape from being another foot has interfered with its proper development from an archer's point of view. However this may be, it would be better, as a mechanical contrivance, for drawing a bow, if the strain applied by the loosing hand could pass directly along the line through the centre of the arm, with centre or fulcrum of the bow in the same line—i.e. in line a b (fig. 38).
The nearest approach to this condition of a perfect archer's hand was possessed by Mr. G. Edwards, the first archer to displace Mr. H. A. Ford from the position of Champion, in 1860, who, though he may never have made the extraordinary scores credited to Mr. Ford, was an excellent shot, and, when at his best, had the steadiest bow-arm and the firmest grip ever seen on a bow. Through a gun accident, he lost entirely his left thumb, and held his bow with his four fingers, pressing it against a leather pad inserted between the bow and his wrist, much in the position the thumb would occupy if it could be placed downwards across the palm of the hand. This altered formation shifted the position of his arm so that the line through the fulcrum of the bow was well below the upper line of his wrist.
Some archers acquire the habit of extending the thumb upwards along the belly of the bow. This method of grasping the bow tends to weaken and unsteady the drawing power, but as a point of drill for the acquisition of such a grasp of the bow with the fingers, before the thumb is placed in position to assist, as will enable the archer to clear his armguard, its trial is strongly recommended. A steadier hold of the bow is in the end obtained by keeping the upper part of the thumb off the bow, so that the hold is between the root of the thumb and the fingers. As the first finger is often used to assist in adjusting the position of the arrow on the bow, care must be taken to replace it at the commencement of the draw. Unless the bow be held firmly between the four fingers and the thumb and heel of the hand, at the loose and recoil an unpleasant jar will be felt, with the further ill-consequence of blisters, &c. The position of the bow should be straight across the palm of the hand, so that the fingers when closed in position to hold it lie as nearly as possible at right angles to the axis of the bow.
A lateral projection on the left side of the handle of the bow is sometimes added, if the archer's hand be hollow, and this contrivance assists the bowstring to avoid the armguard.
Before the consideration of the final position of the bow at the loose, as to whether it should be vertical or oblique, a glance must be taken at the horizontal position which should be adopted by all those who disbelieve in the possibility of aiming with bow and arrow whilst the arrow is discharged from the side of the bow, because in that position the arrow cannot be thrown to the left of the mark aimed at. This position is so cramped and awkward as to be practically useless for shooting at a horizontal aim, when a full-length arrow cannot be drawn up, as the string comes too soon in contact with the left side. Yet archers have been known to make successful scores in this style, using weak bows and light arrows.
The vertical position of the bow (but not as sometimes adopted, when the bow is thus set up at the end of a horizontal arm to be hauled at until the beginner's arrow is discharged) is an assistance in clearing the bowstring from the chest when a full-length arrow is fully drawn; and a tendency towards this position at the instant of loose will correct the curious habit many archers acquire of throwing the upper limb of the bow down and the lower limb up after the loose, as if part of the loosing or drawing action had been a mutually antagonistic screw between the holding and loosing hands.
The chief advantage of the oblique position is that the arrow is not so likely to be blown away from its contact with the bow by a high wind from the bow side.
CHAPTER VIII.
DRAWING
Ascham seems to be right in declaring that 'Drawyne well is the best parte of shootyng'; and, as it is in the course of this part of the act of shooting that all the ridiculous antics already quoted may be exhibited, and without drawing well it is almost impossible to take aim or loose with any chance of success, every archer must pay the utmost attention to the acquisition of the best and easiest method of drawing. Yet it is not pretended that there is but one best method of drawing.
Here two things have to be previously considered, namely, the strength of the bow to be used, and the length of the arrow, or rather how much of its length must be drawn up. First, as regards the strength of bow to be used, it should be observed that when, in modern times, the practice of shooting isolated arrows was discontinued in favour of three arrows shot by each archer consecutively at each end throughout a York Round, the possibility of making the delivery of each arrow a supreme effort became impossible, and the more frequent repetition of an effort, which, though considerable (as it should always be), is not quite a tour de force, is now accepted as more likely to exhibit grace in the execution and accuracy in the result, with the natural consequence that the average strength of bows now in use is scarcely so great as it used to be; though it must not be lost sight of that bows now are more accurately weighed, than they were before the invention of the York and National Rounds; and also that now a large proportion of archers pull their arrows well up, hold, and aim with them, whereas none did so in the old times when no archer had so much as dreamed that it was possible to take an aim with bows and arrows. Yet still at any public archery meeting it is easy to observe, in one or other of the many varieties of style of drawing represented, the germs of all possible contortions; but in nearly all these cases of contortion it will be found that the 'very head and front of the offending' is in the archer's vain attempt to employ a bow that is beyond his control; whilst, if the weapon be well within his control, it is as needless to distort even a muscle of the face as it is for a short-sighted person to make a grimace when fixing the glass in his eye. Still it will also be a mistake to be under-bowed with a plaything, as wasting part of the power of covering distance and overcoming wind, &c. Whilst bows varying in measure from 40 lbs. to 56 lbs. and arrows varying in weight from 4s. to 5s. can be easily procured, every archer's weakness or strength can be appropriately suited. For ladies there is the range in strength of bows from 20 lbs. to 35 lbs., and in weight of arrows from 2s. 6d. to 3s. 6d.
Next as regards the length of arrow to be drawn at each discharge. The variation in the arrows themselves may be only from 26 to 29 inches in those of men, and from 24 to 26 inches in those of ladies; but there is a much wider variation in the part of the arrow drawn up by different archers. There appears to be a widespread belief that in olden times the archer soldiers used arrows a yard long; but only a few archers participate in this belief, and join in treating this as a proof of the degeneracy of modern archers. Ascham, in his treatment of the subject of arrows, mentions them of many different lengths and thicknesses, without any precision, and no doubt they were much more various in his time than now. The 'clothyard' or the 'clothier's yard,' not the standard yard, is almost always mentioned by old writers when treating of the length of draw employed by English archers; and many considerations (supposing positive proof to be altogether wanting) point to the conclusion that this 'clothyard' was the length of 27 inches. In the absence of any representative surviving war-arrow the evidence of an ancient model may be taken, and such a model exists in the possession of the Royal Toxophilite Society, described thus in 'A History of the Royal Toxophilite Society 1870.' 'The most ancient piece of plate possessed by the Society is an arrow, 28-1/4 inches long, the "stele" being of iron very thickly plated with silver, and the barbed pile (1-1/4 inch long), of solid silver. The three feathers are also of solid silver. On the "stele" are these inscriptions:
Sir Reginald Foster, Kt. and Bart.
Warwick Ledgingham, Esq.
Stewards in Finsbury.
Anno Dom. 1663.
This arrow was presented to the Society by Mr. Philip Constable.' This Mr. Philip Constable is mentioned as one of the oldest Finsbury archers in Dailies Barrington's essay on Archery in the seventh volume of 'Archæologia.' The ancient Scorton arrow (1672) is of no greater length, but has been broken and repaired and has no date on it. There is an act of Parliament (Irish?) 5 Edward IV. ch. 4, which provides that every Englishman, and Irishman dwelling with Englishmen, and speaking English, being between sixteen and sixty years of age, shall have an English bow of his own length, and a fistmele at least between the nocks, and twelve shafts of the length of three-quarters of the standard. This points to the length of 27 inches as the regulation length for the stele of an arrow. The danger of breaking a bow increases the further it is drawn up, and there is no scarcity of bows that are broken at even a shorter draw than 27 or 28 inches. How many more broken bows would there have been then if the usual length of arrows drawn were 36 inches; and this in the course of a battle, when a broken bow meant an archer temporarily disabled, as an archer? The material used in the manufacture of bows, the wood, must have been the same as now, and, from the specimens extant, their length does not appear to have been much beyond those now in use. In fact, the length of a bow must always be limited so as to be within the reach of the archer who strings it, and the average stature of the human race does not appear to have diminished.
It is not pretended that no arrows were longer than 27 inches. Doubtless long and light arrows were employed to annoy an enemy whilst still at a distance; but for a war-arrow, with a heavy barbed pile, to be an effective missile, it must have been provided with a strong and stiff stele, and this cannot also have been unusually long.
As dictionaries seem to avoid the compound words clothyard and clothier's yard, no better evidence can be found than the statement that the 27 inches constitute a Flemish yard, and that Flemish bows, arrows, and strings were always in high repute. So the dispute must still be left for further consideration.
Hansard, in 'The Book of Archery,' 1840, treats the matter as fully as possible perhaps, and apparently leans towards the belief that the tallest and most stalwart archers may have drawn up huge bows a full yard of the standard; yet, as he contends, at p. 191, that 'great numbers of Welsh served at Crecy and Poictiers, and it is somewhere said that a considerable portion consisted of archers,' it seems unlikely that at the same time the average archer at those battles was of gigantic stature. Ascham might have settled the matter, but he ventures no further than the statement (p. 87 of Arber's reprint) that 'at the battel of Agincourt with vii thousand fyghtynge men, and yet many of them sycke, beynge suche archers, as the Cronycle sayeth, that mooste parte of them drewe a yarde,' &c.
Apart from the historical consideration of what used to be the average draw of the old English archers, it must be admitted that modern archers err on the side of not pulling up enough rather than on the side of overdrawing. Therefore it is strongly recommended to every archer to employ as long an arrow as he can conveniently use, and to bear in mind that the portion of it to be drawn up at each loose should bear some reasonable proportion to the length of arm, &c., in each individual case. It may be safely stated that no archer will find that he can conveniently draw fully up and loose evenly an arrow of greater length than the space between the left centre joint of the collarbone and the knuckle of the left-hand index-finger when the bow-arm is fully extended.
But few experienced archers now extend the bow-arm fully and take their aim before they commence drawing at all. Neither can this method be commended, as it has an awkward appearance, from the necessity that exists of stretching the other arm so far across the body in order to reach the string, and it materially increases the exertion necessary to pull the bow. Yet this method is not without its use as a preliminary drill for a beginner, that he may learn the necessity and the difficulty of drawing his arrow up, whilst keeping it constantly and exactly on the line which the arrow is afterwards to follow towards the object to be hit when it is loosed; at the same time not yet attending to the second and equally great difficulty of a beginner, namely, that of shooting the exact length as well; also that he may learn how to cover different lengths by higher and lower positions of the bow-hand.
Much diversity of opinion exists as to the best method of getting the bow-hand into position for the aim and loose, as to whether, in the course of drawing up, the arrow shall be brought into the line of aim from below or from above, or from the right to the left; and here it would seem that to make the motion of drawing from the right to the left and upwards at the same time is the simplest and most direct plan, since, after the nocking of the arrow, the drawing commences most naturally from beneath and to the right of the object to be hit.
There seem to be three successful methods of drawing—namely, first, to draw the arrow home[3] at once, loosing when it has been aimed, without any further draw; secondly, to draw the arrow within an inch or a little more of home,[3] aiming then, and loosing after the completion of the draw; and thirdly, the method of combining the operations of drawing and aiming so continuously that the loose is the uninterrupted completion of the draw. It is unnecessary to consider the distinct method of drawing up and letting out again before the loose, or the uncertain method of fraying up and down, or playing as it were at fast-and-loose a bit before the loose, as no archer would adopt any such uncertain style as a matter of choice; though such stuttering and hiccoughing performances may occasionally bring back an erring arrow to its duty, or may arise from the loss of nerve and the departure of the crisp finish from what was once steady and unhesitating. Any movement of the bow-hand in drawing up from the left towards the right should be avoided, as that movement tends to contract instead of expanding the chest; therefore great care should be taken, when lateral movement is used in drawing up, to avoid passing the line of aim in moving the bow-hand towards the left.
Though the theory and practice of aiming will be fully treated in another chapter, some reference must here be made to aiming, although it may lead to apparently unnecessary repetition. Reference has already, somewhat prematurely, been made to the line of aim, and also to the length to be shot. Now it is clear that the success of a scientific shot must be the result of the exact combinations of the right line of aim, and the correct level of the bow- and loosing-hands by which to attain the length. In drawing, the process by which the line of aim and the level are arrived at must be associated in practice, but may be considered separately. Advice has already been given to avoid—as soon as possible after the beginner has got through the first elements—the setting-up of the bow-hand with the arrow already on the line of aim to be then hauled at, and this for reasons already given. But now comes in the apparently contradictory advice, to get it planted there to be hauled at in good time before the conclusion of the operation of drawing, so that that conclusion may be certainly in the right line of aim. And the further advice at this stage of drawing is that the loosing-hand be kept well back, and never allowed to advance between the archer's face and the object aimed at. In previous editions of this book it was laid down that 'the arrow shall be at least three-fourths drawn when brought upon the [line of] aim.' But this is far from sufficient at this point of the process. About nine-tenths of drawing should be by that time accomplished, or the archer will be in a still worse position for applying his strength to the loose with advantage should there be any pause at this stage of drawing to combine the level with the line of aim. Next come the considerations whether the arrow should be held quiescent for a short time, whilst the perfect aim is found, or whether the entire drawing should be one continuous act from the first moment of pulling and raising the bow to the loose. Neither of these methods appears to have much advantage over the other, if well executed. The former will be a little more trying to the bow, and, if the finish be imperfect, may lead to letting the arrow out, which is known as a creeping-loose. The latter may lead to an arrow being occasionally imperfectly drawn; but the bow will have no cause of complaint, and full advantage will always be taken of all the work that is done.
The method of drawing the arrow home at once, which has still to be considered, has this point apparently in its favour—that it ensures the arrow's being always drawn to the same point. But it is very trying to the bow, the arms, and the fingers, and, ending in what is called a dead-loose, at the best scarcely produces results commensurate with the labour undoubtedly taken, and whenever it is imperfectly finished a creeping-loose results.
Ascham, quoting Procopius, says that 'Leo, the Emperoure, would have hys souldyers drawe quycklye in warre, for that maketh a shaft flie a pace. In shootynge at pryckes, hasty and quicke drawing is neyther sure nor cumlye. Therefore, to draw easely and uniformely ... is best both for profit and semelinesse.' The modern style of shooting the York Round, &c., is the same as used in his days to be called shooting at pricks, and his advice as to the manner of drawing cannot be much improved.
A few lines before the passage above quoted he says, 'And one thynge commeth into my remembrance nowe, when I speake of drawynge, that I never red of other kynde of shootynge, than drawing wyth a mans hand either to the breste or eare.' This he says when referring to the invention of cross-bows. But it is curious that to no writer on the subject of archery it occurred that 'under the eye' might possibly be a better direction for 'drawing' than either to the breste or to the eare. Yet so it is that until the first appearance of Mr. H. A. Ford's 'Theory and Practice of Archery' in 1855 there existed no intermediate styles between the one, that was too low, and the other, which, though in the opposite extreme, was then so highly regarded as the grand old English style, that the author, though annually Champion since 1849, must have been a bold man to give the first indication of the new, and now almost universally admitted, best style for target-practice of drawing 'to such a distance that the wrist of the right hand come to about the level of the chin,' and the level of the arrow shall be a shade lower than that of the chin; its nock being in the vertical line dropped from the right eye.
One of the main features of good drawing is that the distance pulled be precisely the same every time; that is to say, the same length of the arrow must be drawn identically, whether this length be to the pile, or any shorter distance. Unless this be unerringly accomplished with every shot the length must be more or less uncertain, since the power taken out of the bow will be greater or less according to the longer or shorter draw.
A great many devices have been tried and practised to make this exact similarity in the distance drawn a matter of certainty, such as by notching the end of the arrow, so that the left hand may feel it when the right length of draw has been reached; or by touching some point of the face, neck, or chin, collar, button, or other fixed point with some part of the drawing hand. But it will be found infinitely better to arrive at an exact repetition of the same action by careful practice rather than by dodges, which may, however, be useful as experiments. These mechanical devices are unlikely to have a beneficial result when constantly in use, as, when the eye and mind are fixed and concentrated (as they should be) on the aim, if anything occurs to distract either, the loose is almost sure to become unequal.
The pile of the arrow should not be drawn on to the bow. It is far better that no arrow be drawn further than exactly to the pile; and every arrow should be longer, by at least as much as the pile, than the archer's actual draw. The danger of overdrawing, in that the arrow at the loose gets set inside the bow, to its own certain destruction and to the bow's and the archer's infinite risk, is very considerable. Nothing can be gained by the violation of this rule. In cases where a beginner may be likely to overdraw, a string of the correct length to be drawn may be tied between the bow string and the handle of the bow, which will effectually prevent such an occurrence.
It is believed that all archers, good, bad, and indifferent, are (more or less) constantly subject to one failing, namely, that in completing the draw, after the aim is taken, a slightly different line to that occupied by the arrow (if correctly aimed) is taken, instead of making the line of finish (as they should do) an exact continuation of the arrow's axis, dropping the right hand, or letting it incline to the right, or both; the effect being to cast the arrow out of the direction it had indicated, and by means of which the aim had been calculated. Here nothing but the most minute attention and constant practice will save the archer; but he must be prepared for participation in this common failing, and it is one of which he will be often quite unconscious, though the cause of his frequently missing the target. The very best archer needs to bear constantly in mind the necessary avoidance of this fault; for, however skilful he may be, however experienced and practised a shot, he may be quite sure that it is one into which he will be constantly in danger of falling. Failure in wind is frequently caused more by this failing than by the effect of the wind itself; for instance, the aim, perhaps, is designedly taken so as to make some allowance for a side-wind, and then the loose is delivered as if no allowance had been made. The difficulty all experience in shooting correctly on a ground where the distant level is not horizontal is more or less connected with this dangerous failing. Here, though the archer be perfectly aware that the distance slopes, however slightly, one way or the other to the correct horizon, yet at the instant of the loose he will unconsciously overlook this, and expect to have his unfortunate arrow travel in a plane vertical to the mock horizon instead of in a really vertical plane such as it must travel in, unless diverted from it by wind. Another way of accounting for this universal failing is that there is an unconscious detection of error at the last moment, and a convulsive attempt to correct this error before the completion of the loose by altering the line of the loose. Every archer is strongly advised, when he detects an error in the aim at the last moment that cannot be corrected before the discharge except in the action of the loose, to take down his arrow and begin the shooting of it afresh. The capacity to do this, when needful, is an excellent test of nerve.
As far as possible the right hand must always be drawn identically to the same point for all kinds of target-practice, whatever the distance to be shot may be. To the left arm alone should be left the delicate task of the elevation or depression necessary when a longer or a shorter distance from the target is adopted. It will be obvious that when the left hand is, according to this rule, higher or lower for the purpose of shooting a longer or shorter distance the relative positions of the two hands must vary from a greater to a less divergence from an horizontal level between them, and this leads to a most important consideration in the action of drawing, namely, the position of the right elbow. This, being necessarily out of the archer's sight whilst aiming, is too frequently forgotten, and a faulty weak position of the elbow is much more easily contracted than cured. Treated as a mechanical contrivance for drawing up an arrow, the only correct position of the right elbow with reference to the arrow is that the arrow's axis should pass through the point of the bent elbow, and in this position only can the archer apply his full strength. Yet, probably from the fact that the elbow must pass through positions of less advantage in the course of drawing before the full draw is reached, it will be observed that many archers at the loose have the elbow below the level of the arrow's axis; and not a few have the elbow projecting forwards from the same axis. These faults are believed to be the causes of the constant and otherwise unaccountable, but most frequent, downfall of successful archers, generally attributed to the failure of nerve. Yet the nerves cannot certainly be altogether at fault, for the same archer, whose arrow takes its flight into its own hands, when applied to target practice, can steadily draw and hold the same arrow when it is not to be shot. It can doubtless be observed that in such cases the arrow in the one case is drawn up with a faulty wavering of the elbow, whilst in the other the elbow is brought steadily into correct position. When a position of the elbow higher than the axis of the arrow comes to be considered, it appears to partake of the nature of an exaggerated virtue rather than a fault; is an assistance in the earlier processes of drawing; and, when in excess though not graceful, will probably cure itself. Much the same may be said of the much less frequent fault of drawing the right elbow into a position further back than the axis of the arrow. This can only be brought about by overdrawing, and is seldom observable except in beginners who are anxious 'to do all they know' with too long an arrow.
The treatment of the elbow of the bow-arm remains to be considered. Here trouble is more likely to arise with beginners than in an archer's after-career. If a beginner, in obedience to the instructions of Waring and the older masters of the craft, hold out the bow-arm 'as straight as possible' i.e. locked tight at the elbow, a sprain difficult to cure may not unlikely be the result, and, at any rate, a vast deal of unnecessary arm or armguard thrashing. On the other hand, a bent bow-arm, such as may appear to be recommended in the earlier editions of this work, will lead to but poor results if a bow equal to the archer's power be used. Here again the best advice that can be given is to hit off the happy mean between the too rigid arm and that which is too slack. Let the bow-arm be straightened naturally as the strain of the loosing hand is applied to it, and by careful drill each archer will arrive at a method of rendering the recoil of the bow string harmless to the course of the arrow as well as to a naked wrist, which, it is now almost universally admitted, need not be brought into contact with the armguard.
A marked variation of the method of drawing has occasionally been adopted, with considerable success, with weapons of light calibre. The nocked arrow is placed horizontally a little below the shoulder-level. The draw then commences with the extension of the bow-arm, whilst the right hand and elbow take the position for loosing, the arrow being kept all the time on the line of aim.
One not altogether uncommon distortion must be mentioned for careful avoidance. This consists of a stiffening of the right wrist, with the hand bent backwards, at the time the fingers are applied to the bowstring. This antic of course cripples considerably the draw. The action of the wrist should be quite free and unconstrained until the commencement of the draw, and during the draw the back of the hand should be kept as nearly as possible in the same line as the forearm.
The left shoulder requires most careful attention. It must not be allowed to rise too high when the bow is drawn, nor to shrink inwards, as it will sometimes do with beginners when using bows that are too strong. Moreover, this shoulder must be kept so close to the line between the bow and the right shoulder that it shall project neither before nor behind that line.
CHAPTER IX.
AIMING
The aim is undoubtedly the most abstruse and scientific point connected with the practice of archery. It is at the same time the most difficult to teach and the most difficult to learn; and yet, of all points, it is the most necessary to be taught. Upon the acquisition of a correct method of aiming depends all permanently successful practice; yet respecting this important point the most sublime ignorance prevails amongst the uninitiated.
Unless the archer acquires a perfect understanding of the science of aiming, an almost impassable barrier is presented to his progressing a single step beyond the commonest mediocrity, whilst his interest in his practice is increased tenfold as soon as he has discovered that hitting or missing the object he aims at may be removed from the mysterious condition of an unaccountable sympathy between the hand and eye to the safer ground of positive knowledge.
It is perhaps quite natural that most beginners should assume that at any rate as regards the application of their eyes to the shooting of arrows they can have nothing to learn. Have they not had the full and constant use of their eyes from their earliest infancy? and have not these been with sufficient frequency applied in such a manner as must secure the necessary qualifications for such a simple task as aiming with bows and arrows? There cannot, surely, be any science wanted in the use of weapons that any child can not only use but even make? Was it ever necessary to take lessons in order to secure accuracy in throwing stones? or can any amount of abstract study of optics contribute the smallest improvement or finish to a bowler? So it is in this matter of aiming that beginners, and still more those who are more advanced in practice, seem most to resent interference and advice; partly because they object to being told that they are making a wrong or incomplete use of their own eyes—looking upon it as a direct accusation of folly—when they feel that they must surely know better than their adviser all about those useful members, which, though almost constantly in employ, have never given any trouble, and have never even seemed to require any training or education; and partly with the more advanced, who have met with considerable success in hitting with their purblind (as it may be called) method of aiming, because they fear to weaken their not wholly complete faith[4] in their own system by admitting even the possibility of a better. Thus in this matter of aiming it will be better that the inexperienced archer should be referred to written instruction; and whilst on the subject of instruction it should be thoroughly well enforced that nothing is more unpleasant than the unsolicited interference and advice of the officious busybody, and—particularly at an archery meeting—no unasked advice or instruction should ever be offered.
It need now be no matter of surprise that before the first appearance of this work, in 1855, no writer on archery had been able to grapple intelligently with the subject of aiming. When firearms first took the place of bows and arrows as weapons of war and the chase, the firearms themselves were so inaccurate that chance went almost, if not quite, as far as science in the use of them. Their improvement was but slow and gradual; and for the firing of them the invention of percussion instead of flint and steel, which in its turn had displaced the original fuse, belongs to quite modern times. The neglected bows and arrows naturally gained no improvement; yet, until the invention of rifling firearms, bows and arrows, except for the greater inherent difficulty in the use of them, might have had a better chance to hold their own against Brown Bess and the bullet (it was commonly believed that it cost the expenditure of about a ton of lead to kill a single enemy in battle) had aiming with them been well understood. It cannot be doubted that many an archer (besides those who converted their knuckles into pincushions, and resorted to other dodges) must have hit upon an intelligent method of aiming for himself in early times; but such early experts must have resorted to the expedient of getting the arrow under the eye by pulling low, and would have to bear the withering scorn of all their brethren, who blindly upheld that the grand old English style of aiming from the ear was alone worthy of a man; and such despised experts would be most likely to keep their better knowledge to themselves for the same selfish but valid reason that Kentfield the inventor of the side-stroke in billiards, kept his own counsel as long as he could; and also because any crusade having as its object the deposition of the pull to the ear in favour of the pull to the breast must always have proved quixotic. So it came about that Mr. H. A. Ford was the first who, after five or six years of successful practice and many diligent and careful experiments conducted in combination with Mr. J. Bramhall, braved the danger of being anathematised as a heretic for daring to impugn the dear old legend of the 'pull to the ear,' and preached in favour of a style of shooting that brought the arrow as directly under the archer's eye as is the barrel of a rifle in the hands of a marksman, without resorting to the justly condemned style of pulling as low as the breast.
Much about the same time great improvements were effected in firearms, which brought the accuracy of rifles much closer to perfection. The Volunteer movement, followed by the establishment of the annual Wimbledon rifle meeting, at which a Ross (then an illustrious name) was the first Queen's Prizeman in 1860, brought the scientific practice of aiming to a pitch of perfection that had never previously been dreamed of. Thus it will be seen that archery was not behind firearms in scientific advancement.
It is stated in 'Scloppetaria'—a scarce book on the rifle, published by Colonel Beaufoy in 1812—that 'as the deflection from the original line of flight was an inconvenience from which arrows were not found so liable as bodies projected from firearms, it naturally led to an inquiry how that could arise. The prominent feature of an arrow's flight is to spin with considerable velocity all the time of its flight, and therefore attention was directed towards attaining the same advantage for firearms'; and it is not without interest to notice that the modern rifle is thus directly derived from the clothyard shaft.
The improvement of the conical bullet is a later offspring of the same ancient missile.
An archer holds an intermediate position between a sportsman, who, in his attacks upon moving game, must waste no time in taking aim, and a rifleman, who, even in a standing position, can use the utmost deliberation. If he be as quick as the sportsman he will increase the difficulty of reproducing with each discharge exactly the same accuracy of pull and position. He must not be too hesitatingly slow, or he will spoil his bows and involve himself in unnecessary toil. Further, the rifleman has plenty of leisure to close the eye with which he does not aim; and such closing assists, and in no way hinders, his taking his aim, by bringing the bead at the end of his weapon and the mechanical sight by which the 'length' (distance from the target) is compassed to bear upon the centre of the target, or such other point at some trifling distance from it as the conditions of wind or weather may command; whilst the sportsman, whose weapon cannot be sighted for all the different distances at which the game he fires at may be from himself, must keep both eyes open, so that he may be better able to calculate distances and attend to such other surrounding circumstances as with the then more perfect indirect vision [he] will be able to do, taking in a much wider field than can be obtained when one eye only is open.
In the cases of the comparatively few archers who have but one eye, or where, from the natural but not unfrequent difference in the two eyes, one only is habitually used in aiming, the following considerations of binocular vision can have but an abstract interest. The binocular difficulties, moreover, will not occur to those archers who have acquired the habit of closing one eye whilst aiming. But the habitual closing of the non-aiming eye is not recommended, for the reason that any archer in full use of both eyes can much more readily and clearly watch the flight of his arrow towards the mark with both eyes open. There is as much enjoyment to be obtained by following the course of a well-shot arrow as there is necessity for watching the errors of those that fly amiss that the causes of such errors may if possible be avoided.
But before the demonstration of the true and only scientific mode of aiming can be proceeded with, a few words must be said on the subject of direct and indirect vision.
When both eyes are directed upon the observation of any single object—say the centre of the gold of the target at 100 yards—the axes of the eyes meet at that point, and all parts of the eyes having perfect correspondence as regards that point, the sensation of perfect vision is given, i.e. the best and most accurate image that can be obtained on the retinæ of the point to which the entire attention of both eyes is directed. But at the same time there are images formed on the retinæ, of other objects nearer (those more distant need not be considered) than this point, and to the right and left of it, as well as above and below it; and all such objects are included within the attention of indirect vision. The exact correspondence of the images formed on the two retinæ applies only to the point of direct vision, and the images of all other objects—i.e. the objects of indirect vision—are differently portrayed on each retina. Any object embraced in this indirect vision will be seen less or more distinctly according to its remoteness or otherwise from one or other of the axes in any part of its length; and it will be, or at any rate naturally should be, clearest to the indirect vision of that eye to the axis of which it most approximates.
Now, in aiming with an arrow, to arrive at anything like certainty, it is necessary to have in view three things, namely, the mark to be hit (the gold of the target); the arrow, as far as possible in its whole line and length (otherwise its real future course cannot be appreciated); and the point of aim.
It may be well to explain here that by the point of aim is meant the spot which the point of the arrow appears to cover. This spot, with the bow, is seldom identical with the centre of the gold, or if it be so with any individual archer at one particular distance, it will not be so at other distances, because the arrow has no adjusting sights such as are provided to assist the aim with a rifle. As an example, let it be supposed that an archer is shooting in a side-wind, say at 80 yards, and that this distance is to him that particular one where, in calm weather, the point of his arrow and the gold are identical for the purposes of aiming. It is clear that, if he now treat them so, the effect of the wind will carry his arrow to the right or left of the mark according to the side from which it blows. He is therefore obliged to aim on one side of his mark, and the point of his arrow consequently covers a spot other than the target's centre. And this other spot in this instance is to him his point of aim. Under the parallel circumstances of a long range and a side-wind the rifle will be found subject to the same rule.
Now it will be understood that it is necessary for the archer to embrace within his vision the gold, the point of aim, and the true line in which the arrow is directed.
Direct vision can only be applied to one object at a time, and as direct vision should be applied as little as possible to the arrow during the aim, it has to be shown in what way the arrow must be held in order that the archer may, by means of his indirect vision, clearly appreciate the true line in which it points at the time of aiming. The discussion as to whether the gold or the point of aim shall be the object of direct vision may be postponed for the present.
Now it may be positively asserted as an incontrovertible axiom in archery that this true line cannot be correctly appreciated by the shooter unless the arrow lie, in its whole length, directly beneath the axis of the aiming eye. This is most confidently maintained, in spite of the fact that the strongest, the most deliberate, and the most successful archer of the present day systematically keeps his arrow a trifle outside his right eye. It must be remembered that Ascham ordains that 'good mennes faultes are not to be followed.'
The indirect vision of both eyes can never be used here, for if it were, according to the law of optics, two arrows would be seen; but this is never the case with the habitual shooter—though both his eyes be open, habit, and the wonderful adapting power of the eye, preventing such an untoward effect equally well as (nay, better than) if the second eye be closed. To state this more correctly: an expert archer with both eyes open is in the same condition with two similar eyes as a person who, with imperfect sight, habitually wears a spy-glass to improve the sight of the one eye, with which improved eye alone he sees, to the complete neglect of all that is taken in by the other eye, though constantly open. Those who have shot both right- and left-handed—and there are not a few such—can answer for it that, though a different indirect vision of the arrow is observed with each eye, either can at will be used without any inconvenience arising from the unnecessary presence of the other. Another unusual exception may here be mentioned of a style of aiming which, though eminently successful through a good many years in the case of a Championess, cannot be recommended for imitation.
She kept her direct vision only on the point of her arrow, thus seeing the nock end of the arrow gradually diverging from its point towards each eye by indirect vision, and also by indirect vision seeing two targets, or two sets of targets, from which she had to select the correct one to secure the right direction for the loose. Many archers close the non-aiming eye, and it will be well for all beginners to do so to avoid a very possible trouble, in the case of an archer whose non-aiming eye is the best and most used of the two, of this better eye officiously interfering to do wrong what its neighbour only can do right.
But to return to the statement that the arrow in its whole length must lie directly beneath the axis of the aiming eye, which is now assumed to be the right eye, as it is so in ninety-nine cases out of a hundred. From fig. 40 it will appear that it must be so, because otherwise the shooter will be deceived as to the true line it has to take; for so long as the point of the arrow touches the axis of the aiming eye, the arrow may appear to that eye to be pointing in a straight line to the object looked at, though really directed far away to the right or left of it, as shown in fig. 41; where the arrow CB, though really pointing in the directions bCE, may, through touching the axis of the eye from B to D at C, falsely appear to the archer to be aimed at the object D.
(In figs. 40 to 43 the distances between A and B are supposed to represent the possible two inches or so between the two eyes, and the distances between A and D and B and D to be not less than fifty yards.)
 |  | |||
| Fig. 40. | Fig. 41. | Fig. 42. | Fig. 43. | |
| A B, the two eyes. B, the aiming eye. C, the arrow. D, the object directly looked at. A D and B D, the axes of the eyes. E, false point of aim. | A B, the two eyes. A, the aiming eye. C, the arrow. D, the object directly looked at. A D and B D, the axes of the eyes. E, false point of aim. | |||
For instance: suppose the archer to be shooting at such a distance that his point of aim is included in the gold; he of course will bring the point of his arrow to bear upon it, just as a rifleman would his sights; that is, the point will touch the axis of the aiming eye. But if the arrow itself be inclined, say to the right of the axis (as in the pull to the ear it would be), it will fly away some distance to the left of the object looked at. And the converse of this will be true also; for if it incline to the left of the axis it will then fly off to the right; the archer in these cases being in the position of a marksman who instead of keeping his foresight in a line with his backsight has deliberately adjusted the aperture of his backsight to the right or left of the bead at the muzzle of his weapon with reference to the object aimed at.
An example that came within Mr. Ford's personal knowledge will afford a perfect illustration, and will be useful for the possible solution of similar cases. An archer had shot for many years, but invariably found that if ever his arrow pointed (as it seemed to him) in a straight line with the centre of the target it persistently flew off to the left of it five or six yards, even at the short distances (see fig. 43, where the arrow BC, though pointing in the direction BE, appeared to the shooter to be aimed at D). He was therefore obliged to make an allowance and to point his arrow that much to the right (see fig. 42, where the arrow BC, though pointed straight to D, appeared to the archer to be pointing in the direction AE). In vain he sought a solution of this anomaly. All could tell him that there was something faulty; but, as everything in his style and mode of action appeared correct, that something remained a mystery, until it was ultimately discovered that, though the arrow was held directly beneath the axis of the right eye (this being also open), this archer actually used his left eye to aim with. It will be readily seen why the discrepancy existed between his aim and the flight of his arrow, the fact being that the arrow did not appear to the shooter to be pointing towards the object at D until it touched the axis of his left eye, and consequently not until its direction pointed far away to the left of the mark (see fig. 43). On closing the left eye the direction of the arrow's flight and the aim coincided, because the eye beneath whose axis the arrow lay became the eye with which the aim was taken.
As to whether the direct vision should be applied to the mark to be hit or to the point of aim, the argument is all in favour of the latter. For the point of aim must of necessity be in relation to the mark—either in the same vertical line with it or outside that line. If outside, then the direct vision must certainly be upon the point of aim; otherwise the arrow cannot lie directly beneath the axis of the aiming eye, which has already been shown to be necessary. Therefore the only question remaining to be decided is, When the mark falls in the same vertical line with the point of aim, which of the two should be directly looked at? Here again an argument can be adduced to determine the choice in favour of the latter; for when the point of aim is above the mark the latter will be hidden from the right or aiming eye by the necessary raising of the left or bow hand, as may be easily proved by the closing of the left eye; therefore the direct vision cannot be applied to the mark, though it may be applied to the point of aim. There now remains but one case, namely, when the point of aim falls below the mark, but in the same vertical line with it; and here (though either of them may in this case be regarded with the direct vision) as no reasoning or argument can be adduced for violating or departing from the rule shown to be necessary in the other cases; and as it is easier to view the point of aim directly and the mark indirectly than the contrary, because the point of aim will necessarily lie between the mark and the arrow's axis; and as uniformity of practice is highly desirable, the application of direct vision to the point of aim in every case is most strongly recommended. This teaching was quite contrary to that taught by all the old-fashioned writers, who maintained that the eye, or eyes, should be kept always intently fixed upon the mark to be hit. It is probable that even those archers who imagine that they regard directly the mark only, do so only in the case when the mark and the point of aim coincide (which with each archer may be called his point-blank[5] range); and this is analogous to all rifle practice, where from any cause allowance must be made.
It must be borne in mind that all these remarks apply only to target lengths. As regards aiming at very long distances, when the mark and the point of aim are too far apart to be sufficiently seen in conjunction, no scientific principle can be laid down for the guidance of an archer. Practice alone will give him a knowledge of the power of his bow, and the angle of elevation required to throw up the arrow as far as the mark. If the distance to be shot be a known and a fixed one-for instance, two hundred yards—the necessary calculations are more or less attainable; but the great distance renders the result so uncertain as to prevent anything approaching to the accuracy of aim attainable at the customary target distances. If the mark be a varying and uncertain one, as in Roving, the archer is entirely dependent upon his judgment of distances. This sort of shooting, though very interesting, must be attended with a great amount of uncertainty; but, as in every other case, the more judicious practice be applied the greater will be the success.
No hard-and-fast rules can be laid down for deciding where the point of aim ought to be at any particular distance, as this is dependent upon a great variety of circumstances—as strength of bows, and the sharpness and dulness of their cast, heavy or light arrows, a quick or sluggish loose, and the varying force of different winds. One archer will find his point-blank range at 120 yards, whilst another can get a point-blank aim on the target, at 60 yards even, by raising his loosing hand so high that the angle between the axis of his aiming eye and the axis of the arrow is very small. It is now many years ago since two toxophilites, using bows of about fifty pounds in weight, with five-shilling arrows of the old-fashioned manner of feathering, and employing the same position (about three inches below the chin) of the right hand for the loose at each of the three usual distances of 100, 80, and 60 yards, found that the point of aim at 100 yards was about the target's diameter (4 feet) above the target, whilst the point of aim at 80 yards was about the same measure below the target, and the point of aim at 60 yards was at a spot about fifteen paces from the shooter.
It would have been highly interesting if Mr. H. A. Ford, who was always most faithful to his own dogma that the loosing hand must be brought to the same position at the loose, had published some account of his own points of aim, which must have had a very wide range of variation from those of his best period, when he was using 56 lb. bows, and arrows 29 inches in length, up to the time of his last appearance as Champion, in 1867 at Brighton, when, with weak bows and light arrows, his score was 1,037, with 215 hits.
The late ingenious Mr. James Spedding, who always touched some button on his coat-collar with his loosing hand, contrived a 'sight' upon his bow, which obviated the necessity of a point of aim. This was a bright metal bead such as is at the muzzle of a gun. This at the upper end of a slight metal rod (in fact, a bright-headed pin), and fitted into a groove added to the back of the bow (in which it could at will be lowered or raised), gave him a point of aim on the centre of the target at distances where his natural (may it be called?) point of aim would have been beneath the target. With this contrivance, the slightest variation in the slope of the bow distorted the aim.
The American contrivance of the peep-sight is a very minute instrument, with a still smaller aperture. This is shifted up and down the bowstring, and, when correctly adjusted, the aiming eye should just catch sight of the centre of the target through the aperture. This instrument is confessedly useless except for very weak bows, and the smallest trembling even would put it off the aim, and blind, as it were, the aiming eye.
An Irish shot, the late Captain Whitla, succeeded in getting his aim on the target at all the three distances by varying the strength and cast of his bows, using his best and strongest at 100 yards, then one that was slower and weaker at 80 yards, and trusting himself to a slug like a broomstick at 60 yards.
Another archer (with the same bow at all distances) got his aim upon the target when shooting at 100 yards by touching with the thumb of his right hand about the position of the right collar-bone. When shooting at 80 yards he got his aim again on the target by raising his hand so high that his thumb, now coiled up and close to the root of the first finger, with its top joint touched beneath the chin. And at 60 yards he still obtained an aim on the target by raising the loosing hand higher, so that the same point of the thumb touched the right corner of his mouth. It is believed that in this case the gradual contraction of the angle between the axis of the eye and of the arrow led to a shorter draw at the nearer distances.
One class of archers, though implied in previous discussions, should also be treated separately, as they may be more in number than is generally supposed, namely, those who, because the left eye is the best of the two, or, from constant and incurable habit, aim with the left eye, though shooting, as it is called, right-handed, i.e. holding the bow in the left hand. Such archers should, if the peculiarity be detected in time, be recommended to shoot with the bow in the right hand. Possibly more than one most promising archer has been kept on the top rung but one of the ladder of fame by trying to force his weaker right eye to do the work that might have been much better done by the left one. It has also been already explained that, where physical peculiarities admit it, this right-handed shooting with the left eye gives the archer a slight mechanical advantage, as the divergence from the line of force may be thus contracted.
To conclude the subject of aiming, it is not pretended that shutting one eye and aiming with the other is wrong, but that it is better, though occasionally closing one eye for experiments, to use the other eye for aiming with, the one being diligently trained to keep in the background, attending solely to its own subordinate functions.