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[Contents.] [Index.] [List of Illustrations] (In certain versions of this etext [in certain browsers] clicking on the image will bring up a larger version.) [List of Authorities Consulted for This Book.] (etext transcriber's note) |
THE HOME LIFE OF THE
ANCIENT GREEKS.
A GREEK LADY’S TOILET (Fig. 88, see p. 162).
THE HOME LIFE
OF THE
ANCIENT GREEKS
TRANSLATED FROM THE GERMAN OF
PROF. H. BLÜMNER
BY
ALICE ZIMMERN
Late Scholar of Girton College, Cambridge
With Numerous Illustrations
NEW AND REVISED EDITION
CASSELL and COMPANY, Limited
LONDON, PARIS & MELBOURNE
1895
ALL RIGHTS RESERVED
TRANSLATOR’S PREFACE.
The following pages do not claim to be an absolutely literal translation of Dr. Blümner’s text. Such slight alterations have been made as the different and more concise character of the English language seemed to demand, assuming that, in a work of this character, the most faithful translation is that which clearly presents the author’s meaning in the different dress of another language. In one or two cases I have ventured to make some slight alterations. Thus, on page 277, my translation of the passage from Lucian (Philopseudes 18) describing Myron’s Discobolus differs slightly from Dr. Blümner’s, and, as a result, the inference drawn as to the original position of the head is also different. This interpretation is in accord with more recent criticism, and has the support of Dr. Murray, Head of the Antiquities Department at the British Museum. The list of authorities consulted is printed on pages 533 to 536. The illustrations are taken from the German work, and a list is given on pages xi to xv.
I take this opportunity to express my warm thanks to those friends who have kindly helped me with the proof-sheets, and in particular to Mrs. Henry Unwin for her very welcome assistance.
Alice Zimmern.
Tunbridge Wells, October, 1893.
CONTENTS.
LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS.
| PAGE | ||
| [1.] | Ancient Male and Female Costumes. Vase-painting from Élite céramographique, II. 27 | [5] |
| [2.] | Antique Male Chiton with Himation. Vase-painting from Gerhard. Etruskische und campanische Vasenbilder. Plate 21 | [6] |
| [3.] | Antique Costumes (Dance) from the François Vase. From the Wiener archæologische Vorlegeblätter. Series II. Plates 3 and 14 | [8] |
| [4.] | Costumes of the Fifth Century B.C. (Rape of Helen.) Vase-painting by Hiero. From Gerhard. Trinkschalen und Gefäsze. Plates 11 and 12 | [10] |
| [5.] | Short Male Chiton with Kolpos. Vase-painting from Gerhard. (See 2.) Plates 6 and 7 | [13] |
| [6.] | Warrior in Exomis. Relief on a Tombstone. From Bulletin de correspondence hellénique, IV. Plate 7 | [14] |
| [7.] | Statue of Sophocles in the Lateran. From a Photograph. | [16] |
| [8.] | Citizen in Chiton and Himation. Terra-cotta from Bull. de corr. hell., VII. Plate 12. | [17] |
| [9.] | Costume of Ephebos (Adoration of a Hermes). Vase-painting from Schreiber. Kulturhistorischer Atlas, Altertum. Plate 14, 3 | [18] |
| [10.] | Dress of Attic Ephebos (Farewell of a Young Warrior). Vase-painting from Baumeister. Denkmäler des classichen Altertums. Fig. 421. | [19] |
| [11.] | Antique Female Costumes from the François Vase. From Wiener arch. Vorlegebl. | [23] |
| [12.] | Antique Female Costume. Vase-painting by Exekias. From Mon. d’Inst. Archéol., II. 22. | [24] |
| [13.] | Antique Female Costume. Vase-painting from Stephani. Kampf des Theseus and Minotaurus. Plate I. | [25] |
| [14.] | Antique Female Dress, from the François Vase. (See 3.) Plate V. | [26] |
| [15.] | Antique Female Costumes. Vase-painting from El. céram., III. 36, B. | [27] |
| [16.] | Ancient Female Costume with Kolpos. Vase-painting from Gerhard. Auserlesene Vasenbilder, III. 727 | [29] |
| [17.] | Dress of the Fifth Century B.C. From a Vase-painting by Euphronios. From the Wiener arch. Vorlegebl. Series V. Plate 7 | [31] |
| [18.] | Female Costume of the Fifth Century B.C. (Mænads), from a Vase by Hiero. Idem. Plate 4 | [32] |
| [19.] | Female Costume of the Fifth Century B.C., from a Vase by Brygos. From Mon. d’Inst., V. 14 | [34] |
| [20.] | Modes of arranging Chiton. V.-P. from Tischbein. Vases Hamilton, I. 7 | [35] |
| [21.] | Putting on the Chiton and arranging the Bib. Bronze Statue from Herculaneum. From a Photograph. | [36] |
| [22.] | Caryatid from the Erechtheum. From Baumeister. (See 10.) Fig. 535 | [37] |
| [23.] | High-girt Chiton with Himation. Statue of a Daughter of Niobe in the Museo Chiaramonti in the Vatican. From a Photograph | [38] |
| [24.] | Ungirt Chiton with Himation. V.-P., Gerhard. (See 2.) Plates 6 and 7 | [40] |
| [25.] | Open Chiton with Mantle. Vase-painting from the Wiener arch. Vorlegebl. Series II. Plate 6, 2 | [41] |
| [26.] | Open Chiton with Mantle. Vase-painting from El. céram., III. 56 | [42] |
| [27.] | Lady in Walking Dress. Terra-cotta Figure from Stackelberg. Gräber der Hellenen. Plate 67 | [41] and [45] |
| [28.] | Lady in Walking Dress. Idem | [46] |
| [29.] | Sandals. Collected from Works of Art (chiefly Vase-paintings) | [49] |
| [30.] | Sandals with High Straps. Idem | [50] |
| [31.] | Antique Men’s Shoes. Idem | [51] |
| [32.] | Men’s and Women’s Shoes. Idem | [52] |
| [33.] | High Boots (Endromides). Idem | [53] |
| [34.] | High Boots with Overhanging Lappets. Idem | [54] |
| [35.] | Various Shapes of the Petasos. Idem | [56] |
| [36.] | The Common Forms of Petasos. Idem | [57] |
| [37.] | Uncommon Forms of Petasos. Idem | [58] |
| [38.] | Youth in Travelling Costume. Vase-painting from Overbeck. Gallerie heroischer Bildwerke. Plate 2, 1 | [59] |
| [39.] | Exomis and Pilos. Statuette of Odysseus. From Winckelmann. Monumenti mediti, No. 154 | [60] |
| [40.] | Sailor’s Costume. V.-P. from Welcker. Alte Denkamäler, III. Plate 39, 1 | [61] |
| [41.] | Lady with Petasos. Terra-cotta Figure from Kekulé. Terra-cotten von Sicilien. Plate 33 | [62] |
| [42.] | Lady with Sunshade. V.-P. from Gerhard. Vases grecs. Plate 8 | [63] |
| [43] and [44]. | Antique Modes of Dressing the Hair. Vase-painting and Marble Head from Schreiber. (See 9.) Plate 85, 3 and 14 | [66] |
| [45] and [46]. | Antique Coiffures. Marble Heads from Mitteilungen des Deutschen archäologischen Instituts in Athen, VIII. (1883.) Plate X. 12a and XI. 1 | [67] |
| [47.] | Antique Coiffure. Marble Head. Idem. Plate XII. 4a and 4b | [68] |
| [48.] | Antique Coiffure. V.-P. by Euphronios. Idem. Plate XI. 5 | [69] |
| [49.] | Antique Coiffure. Bronze Head from Pompeii. From a Photograph | [70] |
| [50.] | Antique Mode of Wearing the Beard. Relief from Nuove memorie dell’Inst. Archeol. Plate 13 | [73] |
| [51] and [52]. | Female Coiffure. Terra-cotta Heads from Kekulé. (See 41.) Plates 161 and 22, 6 | [74] |
| [53] and [54]. | Female Coiffure. Idem. Plates 16, 5 and 162 | [75] |
| [55],[56],[57]. | Female Coiffure. Idem. Plates 17, 1; 18, 5; and 19, 5 | [76] and [77] |
| [58.] | Relief from a Tomb representing Child in Swaddling-clothes. From Ann. d’Inst. 1830. Add. Plate, G | [79] |
| [59.] | Hermes in the Cradle. V.-P. from Arch. Zeitg. for 1844. Plate 20 | [81] |
| [60.] | Child’s Bed on Rollers. V.-P. from Nuove mem. dell’Inst. Arch. Plate 15, 2 | [82] |
| [61.] | Mother giving her Child the Breast. Terra-cotta Figure from Gerhard. Gesammelte Abhandlungen. Plate 80, 2 | [83] |
| [62.] | Mother and Child. Relief from a Tomb at Athens. From a Photograph | [86] |
| [63.] | Boy with small Cart and Dog. V.-P. from Stackelberg. (See 27.) Plate 17 | [87] |
| [64.] | Child’s Cart. Vase-painting from Compte-rendu de la commission archéologique de St. Pétersbourg. 1871. Plate 5, 4 | [88] |
| [65.] | Child with Cart drawn by Dogs. V.-P. from Baumeister. (See 10.) Fig. 766 | [89] |
| [66.] | Jointed Doll. Terra-cotta Figure. From Antiqu. du Bosph. Cimmér. Plate 74, 8 | [90] |
| [67.] | Boy with Hoop. Vase-painting from El céram., I. 18 | [91] |
| [68.] | Toy Quiver. From Compte-rendu de St. Pètersb. for 1873. Plate 38 | [92] |
| [69.] | Girl flying a Kite. Vase-painting from Arch. Ztg. for 1895, p. 125 | [93] |
| [70.] | Boy with Wheel. V.-P. from Benndorf. Griech. u. Sicil. Vasenbilder, p. 62 | [94] |
| [71.] | Woman with Wheel. Vase-painting from Gerhard, Vases grecs. Plate 10 | [95] |
| [72.] | Child’s Swing. V.-P. from Ann. d’Inst. 1857. Add. Plate, A | [96] |
| [73.] | See-saw. Vase-painting from Schreiber. (See 9.) Plate 79, 6 | [96] |
| [74.] | See-saw on the Foot. V.-P. from Baumeister. (See 10.) Fig. 834 | [97] |
| [75.] | Attic School Instruction. Vase-painting by Duris. From Arch. Ztg. for 1869. Plate 1 | [105] |
| [76.] | Ephebi racing on Horseback. V.-P. from Schreiber. (See 9.) Plate 24, 9 | [125] |
| [77.] | Female Racer from Elis. Statue in the Vatican. From a Photograph | [131] |
| [78.] | Reception of Bride at Bridegroom’s House. Vase-painting from Stackelberg. (See 27.) Plate 32 | [143] |
| [79.] | Women at the Well. Vase-painting from Gerhard. (See 16.) IV. 308, 9 | [150] |
| [80.] | Woman Spinning. Vase-painting. Idem, IV. 302 and 3, M 3 | [153] |
| [81.] | Woman at the Loom (Penelope). V.-P. from Mon. d’Inst., IX. 42, 1 | [154] |
| [82.] | Women at Bath and the Toilet. Vase-painting from Stackelberg. (See 27.) Plate 33 | [155] |
| [83.] | Women Washing. Vase-painting from Gerhard. (See 16.) III. 218 | [156] |
| [84.] | Folding-up Clothes. Vase-painting. Idem, IV. 301 | [157] |
| [85.] | Women’s Toilet and Bath. V.-P. from Baumeister. (See 10.) Fig. 220 | [158] |
| [86.] | Washing at the Well and Completion of Toilet. (Athene and Hera before the Judgment of Paris.) V.-P. from Mon. d’Inst., IV. 18 | [160] |
| [87.] | Women’s Public Bath. Vase-painting from El. céram., IV. 18 | [161] |
| [88.] | Toilet Scene. Vase-painting from Gazette archéologique for 1879. Plate 23 | [Frontispiece] |
| [89.] | Lady Arranging her Hair. Terra-cotta from Tanagra. Idem. 1878. Plate 10 | [163] |
| [90.] | Lady (Bride?) at her Toilet. V-P. from Benndorf. (See 70.) Plate 45, 1 | [164] |
| [91.] | Scene from the Life of Women. V.-P. from Gerhard. (See 4.) Plate 14, 1 | [165] |
| [92.] | Toilet Scenes. From Compte-rendu de St. Pétersbourg. 1860. Plate 1, 3 | [168] |
| [93.] | Diagram of a Water-clock | [187] |
| [94.] | Bronze Razors, from Helbig. Das homerische Epos. Fig. 49 | [188] |
| [95.] | Hair-dresser. Terra-cotta Group, from Tanagra. From Arch. Ztg., XXXII. Plate 14 | [189] |
| [96.] | Men’s Public Bath. Vase-painting from Schreiber. (See 9.) Plate 21, 9 | [193] |
| [97] and [98]. | Drinking Scenes. V.-P. from Mon. d’Inst., III. 12 | [210] and [211] |
| [99.] | Female Juggler. Vase-painting from Mus. Borbonico, VII. 35 | [217] |
| [100.] | Female Juggler, from Baumeister. (See 10.) Fig. 631 | [218] |
| [101.] | Cottabus. Vase-painting from Mon. d’Inst., VII. 51, 2 | [222] |
| [102.] | Playing “Board-games.” Terra-cotta Group from Arch. Ztg., XXI. Plate 173, 1 | [224] |
| [103.] | Girl Playing Astragals. Terra-cotta Figure from Tanagra; from Baumeister. (See 10.) Fig. 156 | [226] |
| [104.] | Morra Players. Vase-painting from Arch. Ztg., XXIX. Plate 56, 1 | [227] |
| [105.] | Cock-fighting. Vase-painting from Baumeister. (See 10.) Fig. 695 | [228] |
| [106.] | Consequences of Intemperance. Vase-painting from Arch. Vorlegebl. Series VIII. Plate 5 | [229] |
| [107.] | Scene at a Nocturnal Comus (Hercules and Satyrs). Vase-painting from Benndorf. (See 70.) Plate 95 | [231] |
| [108.] | Funeral Lament. Vase-painting from Mon. d’Inst., III. 60 | [247] |
| [109.] | Funeral Lament. V.-P. from Ann. d’Inst. 1869. Plate 299, O.P. | [248] |
| [110.] | Burial. Vase-painting from Mon. d’Inst., VIII. 4, 1b | [252] |
| [111.] | Corpse in the Tomb. V.-P. from Stackelberg. (See 27.) Plate 38 | [253] |
| [112.] | Extinguishing the Funeral Pile. V.-P. from Mon. d’Inst., IV. 41 | [256] |
| [113] and [114]. | Athenian Beliefs on Tombs. From Arch. Ztg., XXIX. Plates 43 and 44 | [257] and [259] |
| [115.] | Care of a Grave. Vase-painting from Stackelberg. (See 27.) Plate 44 | [260] |
| [116.] | Care of a Grave. Vase-painting from Benndorf. (See 70.) Plate 25 | [261] |
| [117.] | Relief from an Athenian Tomb. From a Photograph | [263] |
| [118.] | Gymnastic Exercises. V.-P, from Baumeister. (See 10.) Fig. 611 | [267] |
| [119.] | Exercise with Dumb-bells. Engraving from a Bronze Discus. From Ann. d’Inst. Plate B | [268] |
| [120.] | Racers. Vase-painting from Mon. d’Inst., X. 48m | [272] |
| [121.] | Runners and Jumpers. Vase-painting from Gerhard. (See 16.) IV. 259 | [273] |
| [122.] | Armour Race. Vase-painting from Mon. d’Inst., X. 48e, 3 | [274] |
| [123.] | Standing Discobolus of the Vatican. Marble Statue. From a Photograph | [276] |
| [124.] | Throwing Discobolus (after Myron) in the Vatican. Marble Statue. From a Photograph | [279] |
| [125.] | Discobolus after the Throw. Bronze Statue at Naples. From a Photograph | [280] |
| [126.] | Spear-thrower. Engraving. Reverse of Fig. 119 | [282] |
| [127.] | Running, Jumping, Spear-throwing, Boxing. Vase-painting by Pamphaios, From Mon. d’Inst., XI. 24 | [283] |
| [128.] | Wrestlers. Marble Group in the Uffizzi at Florence. From a Photograph | [287] |
| [129.] | Wrestlers. Vase-painting from Mon. d’Inst., II. 24 | [288] |
| [130.] | Wrestlers. Vase-painting. Idem, X. 48e, 1 | [289] |
| [131.] | Wrestlers. Vase-painting from Gerhard. (See p. 4.) Plate 20 | [291] |
| [132.] | Boxers. Vase-painting from Mon. d’Inst., 48e, 2 | [294] |
| [133.] | Boxers. Vase-painting from Benndorf. (See 70.) Plate 31, 2a | [295] |
| [134.] | Gymnastic Exercise with a Sphere. Bas-relief from Schreiber. (See 9.) Plate 23, 2 | [300] |
| [135.] | Archery. Vase-painting from Schreiber. (See 9.) Plate 80, 7 | [301] |
| [136.] | Women playing Musical Instruments. V.-P. from El. céram., II. 86 | [310] |
| [137.] | Woman playing the Trigonon. Vase-painting from Mon. d’Inst., V. 37 | [313] |
| [138] and [139.] | Flute player. Bronze Statuette from Dodona. From Carapanos. Dodone et ses ruines. Plate 10 | [314] and [315] |
| [140.] | Flute-player. Vase-painting from Mon. d’Inst., X. 10 | [317] |
| [141.] | Performance of a Flute-player. Vase-painting by Euphronios. From Wiener arch. Vorlegebl. Series V. 4 | [318] |
| [142.] | Female Flute-player and Dancer with Castanets. Vase-painting by Hiero. Idem. Series C. 5 | [319] |
| [143.] | Lustral Sacrifice. Vase-painting from Heydemann. Griechische Vasenbilder. Plate 11, 3 | [331] |
| [144.] | Presentation of Sacrificial Offerings. Vase-painting from Mon. d’Inst., VI. and VII. Plate 37 | [332] |
| [145] and [146.] | Presentation of Sacrificial Offerings. Vase-paintings from Benndorf. (See 70.) Plate 45, 2 | [333] and [334] |
| [147.] | Sacrificial Scene, Vase-painting from Mon. d’Inst., IX. 53 | [339] |
| [148.] | Leaden Tablet with Question addressed to the Oracle of Delphi. From Carapanos. (See 138.) Plate 36, 2 | [345] |
| [149.] | Putting Horses to a Chariot. Vase-painting from Gerhard. (See 16.) IV. 249 and 250 | [355] |
| [150.] | Plan and Section of the great Theatre of Dionysus at Athens. From the Zeitschrift für Bildende Kunst for 1878, p. 193 | [393] |
| [151.] | Theatre of Syracuse in its present Condition. From a Photograph | [395] |
| [152.] | Theatre of Syracuse: Ground plan. From Strack. Griechisches Theater. Plate V. 1 | [396] |
| [153.] | Theatre of Segesta, Reconstructed. Idem. Plate I. | [397] |
| [154] and [155.] | Tragic Mask. Terra-cotta from Vulci. From Ann. d’Inst. 1881. Plate K | [427] |
| [156] and [157.] | Comic Masks. Idem. Plate J | [431] |
| [158.] | Comic Actor. Terra-cotta from Arch. Ztg. for 1854 Plate 69, 3 | [432] |
| [159.] | Comic Actor. Terra-cotta from Kekulé. (See 41.) Plate 51, 5 | [433] |
| [160.] | Masks from the Andromeda-myth. Pompeian Wall-painting from Arch. Ztg. for 1878. Plate 3 | [435] |
| [161] and [162.] | Tragic Actor. Ivory Statuette from Mon. d’Inst., XI. 13 | [437] |
| [163.] | Scene from Comedy (The Sick Chiron?) Vase-painting from El. céram., II. 94 | [439] |
| [164.] | Scene from Comedy. (Adventure of Hercules.) Vase-painting from Arch. Vorlegebl. Series B. Plate 32, a | [441] |
| [165.] | Scene from Comedy. (Soldier and Parasite.) Pompeian Wall-painting from Mus. Borbon., IV. 18 | [443] |
| [166.] | Military Chariot. Vase-painting from Compte-rendu for 1874. Plate 5 | [453] |
| [167] and [168.] | Warriors putting on their Armour. From Gerhard. (See 16.) IV. 269 | [458] and [458] |
| [169.] | Murder of Dolon. Vase-painting from Gerhard. (See 4.) Plate C, 1 | [460] |
| [170.] | Achilles binds up the Wounds of Patroclus. Vase painting from Mon. d’Inst., I. 25 | [461] |
| [171.] | Farewell of Amphiaraus. Idem, III. 54 | [463] |
| [172.] | Equipment of a Warrior. Vase-painting by Duris. Idem, VIII. 41 | [464] |
| [173.] | [174], and[175]. Ancient Greek Helmets. From Helbig. (See 94.) Figs. 70-72 | [466] |
| [176.] | Warriors playing Draughts. Vase-painting from Mon. d’Inst., II. 22 | [467] |
| [177.] | Death of Memnon. Vase-painting from Gerhard. (See 4.) Plate D | [469] |
| [178],[179],[180],[181]. | Spear-heads from Dodona. From Carapanos. (See 138.) Plates, 57, 8; 58, 1; 3 and 5 | [471] and [472] |
| [182],[183],[184]. | Swords from Mycenae. From Helbig. (See 94.) Figs. 90, 86 and 87 | [473] |
| [185] and [186.] | Swords from Italian Lake-dwellings. Idem. Figs. 88 and 89 | [474] |
| [187.] | Head of an Arrow from Megalopolis | [477] |
| [188] and [189.] | Greek Spurs from Dodona. From Carapanos. (See 138.) Plate 52, 1 and 2 | [479] |
| [190.] | Sailing Vessel. Vase-painting from Schreiber. (See 9.) Plate 45, 11 | [481] |
| [191.] | Ship of Odysseus. Vase-painting from Mon. d’Inst., I. 8 | [482] |
| [192] and [193.] | Antique Ships with Spurs at the Prow. Vase-painting from Helbig. (See 94.) Figs. [3] and [3] | [483] |
| [194.] | Ship with two Rows of Oars. V.-P. from Schreiber. (See 9.) Plate 45, 12 | [484] |
| [195.] | Attic Trireme. Relief from Ann. d’Inst. 1861. Plate M, 2 | [485] |
| [196.] | Men Ploughing, Vase-painting from Berichte der Sächsischen Gesellschaft der Wissenschaft for 1867. Plate I. 1 | [494] |
| [197.] | Olive Harvest. Idem. Plate III. 2 | [495] |
| [198.] | Artisan in Exomis. Terra-cotta from Bull. de corr. hell., VII. Plate 12 | [502] |
| [199.] | Shoemaker. Vase-painting. (See 196.) Plate III. 5 | [503] |
| [200.] | Shoemaker’s Workshop. Vase-painting from Mon. d’Inst., XI. 28, 1 | [505] |
| [201.] | Smithy. Idem. Plate 28, 2 | [507] |
| [202.] | Brass Foundry. Vase-painting. (See 196.) Plate V. 4 | [508] |
| [203.] | Vase Factory. From Ann. d’Inst. 1876. Plates D, E | [509] |
| [204.] | Cook(?). Terra-cotta from Tanagra. From Arch. Ztg. for 1874. Plate 14 | [511] |
| [205.] | Trade in silphium. Vase-painting from Mon. d’Inst., I. 47 | [515] |
| [206.] | Slave. Terra-cotta from Bull. de cor. hellén. | [528] |
INTRODUCTION.
If the account of Greek life and customs given in this work does not present all sides of life in due proportion, we must lay the blame on the insufficiency of the sources whence a description of this kind is derived. These are of three kinds: literary, artistic, and epigraphic. The literary sources supply us with a large amount of detail for the work in hand, but seldom give complete pictures or descriptions of social conditions. Those writers of the Free Age of Greece whom we still possess entirely, or in considerable fragments, are not all equally in a position to touch on matters of private or domestic life. The Homeric Epics give a good deal of insight into the life of those early times; but after Homer epic poetry disappears from the ranks of available testimony, and what remains to us of the Alexandrine Epic, which was essentially a learned style of poetry, supplies no useful material, if only because it seeks its subjects in the mythological period, and describes them on essentially Homeric lines. The lyric poets, too, afford little help; now and then they enable us to add a few details to our picture, but, as a rule, the results are small, and not till we reach the Alexandrine period, and there chiefly in bucolic and epigrammatic poetry, do we obtain richer results in this domain. Here the poems of Theocritus are of especial value. Unfortunately, very much of this period, which would have thrown most interesting lights on different aspects of Greek life, has been entirely lost, or survives only in small fragments. Tragedy again, which usually takes its subjects from mythology, cannot be considered at all. Ancient poetry possesses no “middle-class epic” like modern poetry, which will assuredly some day supply valuable material for the social historian. But ancient comedy is of the greatest value for our purpose, and may indubitably be regarded as the most fertile source of our knowledge of private life. The comedies of Aristophanes deal with the immediate present, and, although full of extravagant notions and fantastic inventions, yet treat of actual circumstances, and thus supply a mine of wealth for the student of Attic life. We can only judge, from numerous fragments of their comedies, how valuable would have been the other poets of the so-called “Older Comedy” of the fifth century B.C., who are, unfortunately, lost to us. Even though we must exercise some caution in the use of these authorities, distinguishing comic inventions and poetical exaggeration from actual fact, yet in the majority of cases it will not be very difficult to come to a decision on such questions. No less valuable, perhaps even more useful, for our purpose would be the so-called “New Comedy” of Menander and others, if we possessed more than a few scattered fragments of it. The imitations of Plautus and Terence compensate to some extent for the lost originals, yet even here we must be on our guard, since the Roman poets in their adaptation often introduced traits from Roman life. Still, as a rule they adhered to Greek, or, rather, Attic manners, upon which the original comedies were based.
Among prose writers we must chiefly consider the historians and orators. The former are of comparatively little use. They deal with great political and military events; the daily life going on around them gave them no subjects for description; apart from the fact that it probably never occurred to them that anyone in later ages would ever care to hear about the social conditions of that time. A writer like Herodotus, who introduces not only political history, but also geographical, ethnological, and social information, directs his attention for this very reason chiefly to foreign nations, and gives his countrymen a great deal of information about the life and customs of the Egyptians, Assyrians, and Persians; concerning the Greeks themselves he is absolutely silent. It is quite natural that historians should only mention by the way facts which we could use with advantage in a description of Greek life. The orators, on the other hand, supply richer material, not so much in political speeches as in private orations dealing with law-suits, of which a considerable number have come down to us. Here side-lights fall on many events of daily life, and we obtain an insight into private affairs such as we seldom gain elsewhere. Philosophical writings supply some material, though comparatively little; especially those that take actual life as their basis and deal with philosophical problems in connection with existing circumstances. Among these may be included such writings as the “Characters” of Theophrastus, and here we can but regret that we possess only mutilated fragments of these admirable descriptions of character, based on much accurate observation, and taken direct from real life.
The Greek literature of the Roman period can only be utilised in selections and with care, to illustrate the period with which we have to deal. After Greece came under Roman dominion, new manners and customs took root there, unknown during the period of Greek freedom and the Hellenistic epoch. This diminishes the value for our purpose of the writings of Plutarch, and even more of Lucian, that excellent delineator of the customs of the second century A.D. But even in this later literature there is a good deal which we have a right to use in our description, for some of its habits and customs obtained through the whole of antiquity; besides which, the later writers often turned to past centuries for descriptions, and sought their material in older sources or old historians and other authors, on whose accuracy we cannot, however, always depend. The same was the case with the materials which we are able to use in Roman literature.
From all this it is plain that the account given here deals especially with the real “classic” period of Greek antiquity from about the sixth to the third century B.C. It is impossible to give a connected history of the development of Greek civilisation from the beginning, if only on account of the nature of our authorities and the incompleteness of tradition. Between Homeric culture and that which we meet with afterwards in the poets and prose writers of the best time, lies a period of several centuries, about which we know very little, and that little chiefly in a legendary form. We can only determine in a few cases how the conditions of the sixth and fifth centuries gradually developed, for instance in the rise of the constitution, while it is impossible for us to trace the genesis of manners and civilisation. We shall, therefore, not attempt to give a separate account of Homeric civilisation, but content ourselves with introducing a few of its details in appropriate places; nor shall we go beyond the period of Hellenism, since even here foreign, and especially Oriental, influence produced many alterations, while Roman influence afterwards made many essential changes.
The artistic authorities are also chosen in accordance with this scheme. The vase paintings, of which so many have been preserved to us, supply a great quantity and variety of pictures of Greek life, and we have drawn largely on this valuable source of information, which supplies most of the pictures chosen as illustrations. Compared with this there is little else of importance. The statues to which we have access are chiefly figures of gods and heroes, or portraits. These we can only use to illustrate Greek costume. But a few genre pictures are preserved to us in the artistic productions of the best Greek period, and some of these we shall have occasion to discuss. For this purpose the small terra-cotta figures are more useful, which often represent with vigorous truth subjects from real life. Here, too, as in the case of the statues, we must always remember the difference between Hellenic and Roman work, and it is just this consideration which greatly limits our choice of sculptures; for the great majority of those which would be suitable for our purpose date from the Roman period, and usually represent Roman life. For this reason mosaics and frescoes can scarcely be regarded, since none have come down to us from the Greek period. Undoubtedly many of them imitate Greek models, or, at any rate, those of the Alexandrine epoch, but it is not always easy to decide in particular cases; and, moreover, the greater part are mythological pictures. It is obvious that works of Etruscan art, such as sarcophagi, pictures on mirrors, and the like, cannot be regarded. Thus the works of art suitable for supplementing our literary sources are limited in number. Of these the vase paintings constitute the great majority, and this is entirely in accordance with the chronological limits which we have set to our description; for they almost all belong to the centuries mentioned above, and only a few that would be suitable for our purpose are of greater antiquity.
The nature of our authorities not only sets a limit of time, but also one of space. When we speak of Greek life we ought to include in it not only life in actual Greece or Hellas, but also that in the numerous colonies on the Aegean and Black Seas, in Southern Italy, Northern Africa, etc. But we know very little of the conditions in those Greek settlements outside Greece, and even in Greece itself, where, in consequence of the political and racial differences, these circumstances are by no means everywhere identical, our knowledge is limited in many ways. Even though the difference in manners and customs was greater in early times than afterwards, when increase in trade and greater facility of travel produced more equal conditions, yet certain local and national peculiarities always prevailed. Life at Sparta differed in many respects from that at Athens. The other large towns of Greece—Corinth, Sicyon, Thebes, not to speak of the colonies of Miletus, Syracuse, and Cyrene—doubtless showed many local peculiarities which are entirely hidden from our knowledge. Our literary sources are for the greater part Athenian. The majority of our monuments, too, are of Attic origin, or, at any rate, influenced by it, though Southern Italy supplies some of the vases, and in many cases the customs of Magna Graecia are represented in these pictures. Most of our knowledge of Greek life, then, refers to Athens, and to be quite accurate we ought to call our description “Life in Ancient Athens.” Every now and then we are enabled to enlarge our pictures by details from other parts of Greece. Still, we must beg our readers to remember that most of the traits here introduced relate to Athens between the sixth and fourth centuries B.C. We have scarcely the remotest conception of the mode of life at that time in any small Greek city or in the country.
Here the third class of our sources comes in to help us, viz., the inscriptions. These not only give us most of our material for a knowledge of political conditions, legal and religious antiquities, etc., but they also supply interesting details of private life; and as they are found not only in Attica, but all over Greece, the islands, and the colonies, they supply much very valuable information about matters which our literary sources entirely ignore. As in most cases the period of the inscription can be ascertained by the character of the writing or by other peculiarities, we are not so liable here to make chronological mistakes and refer customs of a later period to earlier times. Compared with our literary sources, the inscriptions are also far safer material; for the accuracy of a writer may be sometimes called in question, especially when his information is supplied at second-hand.