NECESSITY FOR FIELD LESSONS AND IMPORTANCE OF FORMING, IN CONNECTION WITH THEM, A HABIT OF MODELING, PAINTING AND DRAWING.
The study of geography, which in the past consisted mainly in the memorizing of meaningless names with little or no exercise of the reasoning faculties, or opportunities for making generalizations through acts of comparison and inference, has been superseded by instruction of a more rational order.
We have learned that to memorize names and locations of mountains, rivers and lakes, without seeing their relation to a whole, or to make only superficial observations of extended areas of land, results merely in indefinite mental impressions, leaving out the very basis of all concise and clearly defined geographical knowledge.
To the end that definite mental images may be acquired, field excursions under the direction of competent leaders are now advocated, and when entered upon with an intelligent purpose are held to be indispensable factors in the correct study of geography.
Section of Stream Showing Rapids.
Under these conditions (the intelligent purpose and the competent leader), the pupil who visits a lake is likely to have a more adequate mental image of old ocean, than one who has never seen a lake or other large body of water. One who has seen low hills with their out-cropping rock, and the action of small streams upon them, will have a better idea of what mountains and rivers may be.
In the new education the pupils are thus in the field lesson brought face to face with nature. Through these lessons the powers of the imagination are quickened and strengthened by the continual observation of surface forms, the true basis for all attempts to image the structure of the earth.
Inferences are made at every step of the way as to the history of the physical features observed, and the nature of the forces that have acted upon them to shape and distribute. Areas and forms of land are constantly being compared as to shape, size, width, length and height, and simple generalizations, formed from direct observations, are combined with other generalizations, to form those that are higher or more comprehensive. This is but a brief suggestion of the part the field lesson bears to education in general.
In the particular study of geography it must be borne in mind that no essential knowledge can be gained except through close observation of the earth’s surface forms. As the true teacher of science in his classes in botany or zoology leads his pupils to an individual study of plants and animals, and also to a study of these in their surroundings, their social relations, so also the student of geography goes directly to nature for all fundamental knowledge pertaining to the subject.
Field lessons, though conducted mainly as contributing to the student’s fund of knowledge, are also a source of pleasure, and may be made the foundation of a more healthful love for and delightful companionship with nature. They are not alone a mine of knowledge but also a perfect well-spring of inspiration.
In every stream, plain and valley, new beauties of form and color are continually presenting themselves. Varying tints of landscape vistas, drifting cloud masses, softly rounding hills, majestic mountain forms, the play of sunlight and shadow; all make subtle appeal. Entering into harmony with creation we are led into harmony with its source.
Everything combined, all the wealth of color, warmth of sunlight, song of birds, hum of insects and breath of growing things, conspire to the unfoldment of the being on all the planes of life’s expression, for, the first and controlling impulse is toward expression; expression on the physical, mental and emotional planes—in fulfillment of the law of growth, for expression is a necessity to growth.
Expression. Geography has been said to be an analytical study of the earth’s surface, or the study of the separate landscape elements, such as form, color and organic structure.
Geography is emphatically a study of form, the forms of the earth’s surface features, each to be studied in relation to other and contrasting forms, as well as in relation to their environment.
Upon the pupils’ return from the field, the forms and areas observed may be modeled in sand, sketched on paper, or chalk modeled on the blackboard. Maps may be drawn of the areas studied and sketches may be made in color of stretches of different soils and verdure, together with the atmospheric effects observed. Tints of sea, sky and cloud, color and shades of rock and foliage are all speaking in tones which the child may interpret and render intelligible to others, through the medium of brush and paints.
It is of great importance to his future growth that the student acquire the habit of freely expressing himself through the art modes of modeling, painting and drawing, since much of his mental power depends upon such expression; for by holding in mind, while in the act of expression, the images acquired through observation, more of the details of the object or scene as well as the generalities are recalled.
River Basin.
Expression thus reacts upon self, causing the mental picture to be intensified and expression to become more definite and complete. No other means are so adequate to this end: i.e., the forming of distinct images in the mind, unless it may be the giving of oral and written descriptions. These, of course, should be demanded of the pupil as well. By this demand the pupil sees the necessity of closer observation and investigation that he may give a fuller and more truthful expression, and with careful leading he becomes a critic of his own thought and skill, which is a step pre-eminently educative.
Aim of Field Lesson. A direct purpose or aim of the field lesson in teaching geography should be to form a clear idea or mental picture of a river basin as a basis for imaging other river basins, and as a unit for the study of the continent, or of all land surface: and to know the river basin is to know its history; that is, the history of the river itself, its valley, and the story of its building and shaping.
It may not be possible for all students to make a study of the whole of a river or brook basin, yet it may be done by sections—getting a general idea of the slope of the river bed, water-parting, slope and valley. The action of the forces of nature may also be seen in the changes now going on in the different sections—the cutting back of the stream at its source, its eroding power, its carrying power, and its building or leveling power.
If it is not possible to take the children to the field for nature study, they may find fruitful sources of study without.
City Schools. Nearly every school-house has some surroundings that may be studied to advantage, except those in closely built city streets; but even in such cases there is always the work of rain, heat, frost, and wind to study, as well as insect life. The drifting of sand and snow, the frost on the window-panes, the forming of ice around doors and windows and the effect of heat in its melting, rain-drops, clouds, puddles of water in the slight depressions of sills and walks, with tiny streams flowing therefrom, are all to be observed.
Where did the dirt on the windows and sills come from, especially after some snow-storm? Tiny seeds in the corners where the winds have left them; insects in the spring;—where did they come from? Where were they all winter? These and many other hints might be given for such study.
The Cutting Back of a Stream at Its Source.
The country furnishes a rich field for investigation. Around every building and in many localities that can be easily reached, most of the types of the earth’s surface forms may be found. Care must be taken that they are considered as types, or the pupil might answer the question, “How high are mountains?” as the child did who said in reply, “Two inches high.”
In the lower grades of school, much of the geography work should be the direct lesson in the field followed by lessons in school. The higher grades, also, should continue the frequent field excursions which are begun in the lower.
Source of Brook in Nearly Level Country.
Visits may be made to the hills, groves, lakes and ponds of the vicinity, and upon returning to the school-room, these and surrounding areas may be modeled in sand or clay, painted in water-color or drawn on the blackboard.
Farm in Central New York.
Brook basins may be studied as presenting many if not all of the features of the river basins. Maps may also be made of these areas, as well as detailed drawings of special features.
As has been said, the pupil should model and draw continually, in connection with or after every lesson in the field. It is the very best method by which to attain mental growth, and should of course, be the genuine expression of his own mental images gained through observation. He should model and draw all surface features or areas seen in his excursions. He may model, in sand, putty or clay, maps of the areas of the school-yard, farms or parks in the vicinity; or chalk model them, then indicate upon them the boundaries of any sub-divisions they may have, such as fields, clumps of trees, houses or other buildings.
Map Showing Its Relation to the Brook and River.
Imaginary Areas. Let the pupil also sketch on the blackboard, imaginary scenes and typical features of other areas and countries under the same or contrasting climatic and other conditions; always questioning, as he draws his mental picture—if of a river, for instance—what is the cause of its rapidity, what its probable depth and effect on the soil, why it cuts here or builds there, and why the slopes back of it are terraced as they are.
If he represents islands, he should ask himself the question why they are rocky or alluvial; i.e., what their origin; and never represent in any expression that which is contradictory and so untrue to nature.
Landscapes typical of the different zones of temperature, showing characteristic structure, vegetation, homes, habits and occupations of inhabitants may be drawn.
Maps, also, of these areas and those adjoining, may be chalk modeled. As the mind becomes stored with separate images acquired through actual observation of areas of the earth’s surface, gradually, by the combining and blending of these, a new mental image, a comprehensive picture is formed, corresponding in the main to the general features of the whole earth, with its uplifted masses and lower plains, its natural divisions of continents, seas and oceans, its atmospheric and climatic conditions.
If the habit has been formed of chalk modeling imaginary areas, as well as those within the sense grasp, it will be a comparatively easy matter to chalk model a map of the whole continent. On this the student may mark the boundaries of all political divisions as he studies them, and locate the important cities and places of interest.
Practical Suggestions. Before we leave the subject of field lessons, some practical suggestions in regard to them are here offered.
Actual observations may be made on the action and effects of rivers, underground water, rain, wind, heat and frost.
The effects of glacial action, and the eruptive forces of nature may also be seen in places.
To study river action it is not necessary to visit a river (if there be none near); any small stream of water, any tiny rivulet beside the roadway, tells its story of wearing and building, its vertical cutting and its swinging from side to side. It has its miniature valley, its basin and water-parting and possibly a delta at its mouth. It may also have its cascade or waterfall.
Rivulet Showing Fall of Water and Delta.
The wearing of rock, through the influence of rain, frost and heat, may be seen in any stone building, fence or pavement.
Effects of heat and moisture on vegetation, as influencing the growth of plants and trees, should be noticed. The growth of shrubs and trees during a dry season can be measured and compared with that of wet seasons.
The observer should mark the effect of vegetation in the action of rain on a grassy slope—how the grass protects the soil, preventing it from being washed away, and how, by holding back the water so that it flows more slowly, it is less destructive in its action.
To add to the interest, the pupil may be led to imagine the effects upon climate and streams, of the denuding of large areas of their forests; also how rock sculpturing, in the forming of gorges, cañons, etc., would be modified by the volume and force of streams.
Observation should also be made on the making of soils, their constituents and relative proportions of loam, sand, gravel and clay, and the relation of these to plant and animal life.
The part that the common earth-worm bears in constantly uniting, enriching and otherwise preparing the soils for the support of vegetable life, may be seen in many areas. (It has been computed that in one year several tons of soil are brought up and distributed by them, within an area of an acre of land.)
A study made of the action of underground water, as shown in common and intermittent springs, would be full of interesting suggestions.
The effect of glaciers may be seen in part and their tremendous influence imagined, by the presence of the countless numbers of striated boulders, pieces of rock and pebbles, which are strewn all over our prairies hundreds of miles from any mountains which could have been their home.
It is not necessary to witness the devastation of a cyclone in order to study the effects of wind action. The piling of sand on the sea-shore, the drifting of snow or the whirling of dust in the street illustrate this. The observer may notice where the dust blown from the street has choked and buried the grasses and weeds beside it, and imagine what might be the fate of forests in the path of encroaching sand-dunes.
Sand-Dune on the Shore of Lake Michigan.
Pupils may be told of the dunes which travel great distances: that one way by which this is known is by noting trees and houses that were once back of the traveling sand-hills and are now in front of them; also tell of the sites of ancient cities long buried and now being excavated and brought to light again.