The worship of the Church, and the beauty of holiness

by J. A. Regester

Symbolic Ornaments of the Church

The use of symbols for conveying and enforcing truth goes back to earliest ages. God said to Noah, "I do set My bow in the cloud, and it shall be for a token of a covenant between Me and the earth."

The ritual and appointments of the Tabernacle and its worship were an elaborate system of symbolism.

So, also, we find the use of symbolism in Christianity. The need of appealing to the eye as well as to the ear, by visible signs for sacred truths, led the early Christians to employ a number of such symbols as an effective means of imparting instruction. But their use was not wholly a matter of choice. Anxious to seek and to support one another under persecution, they were compelled to find some common signs of recognition which might be known only to themselves, and under which their new Faith might be safely concealed.

The Cross.—The Cross comes first in order. It is the especial emblem of Christianity. "It glitters on the crown of the monarch. It forms the ensign of nations. It crowns alike the loftiest spires of Christendom and the lowliest parish churches. It marks the resting-place of the departed who have died with faith in its efficacy, as it was the sign in Baptism of their admission to the kingdom of the Crucified." It is the symbol of Christ's atonement and of the salvation of men, and represents the Christian Faith, its demands and its triumphs. As might be expected, many fantastic stories were woven about this symbol in the middle ages. Yet back of their extravagance was often a true feeling. We see this even in the absurd legend of the tree from which our Saviour's cross was made.

This legend was as follows: "for four hundred and thirty-two years after his expulsion from Paradise, Adam had tilled the ground in the valley of Hebron, when he felt his end approaching, and determined to send his son Seth to the gates of Paradise to demand from their keeper, 'the angel called Cherubim,' the oil of mercy which had been promised to Adam when he was driven from the garden. Seth accordingly set forth, finding his way by the footprints of Adam and Eve, upon which no grass had grown since they passed from Paradise to Hebron.

"The angel, after hearing the message, ordered Seth to look beyond the gate into the garden and to tell him what he saw. He beheld a place of inexpressible delight and beauty, with the four great rivers proceeding from a fountain in the center; and, rising from the edge of the fountain, an enormous tree, with wide-spreading branches, but without either bark or leaves. He was ordered to look a second time, when he saw a serpent twisted round the tree; and a third time, when the tree had raised itself to heaven, and bore on its summit a Child wrapped in glittering vestments.

"It was this Child, said the angel, who would give to Adam the oil of mercy when the due time should come. Meanwhile the angel gave Seth three seeds from the fruit of the tree of which Adam had eaten. These were to be placed in the mouth of Adam before his burial, and three trees would spring from them—a cedar, a cypress, and a pine. The trees were symbolical of the Holy Trinity."

"It happened as the angel foretold. The trees were hardly a foot above the ground in the days of Abraham. Moses, to whom their true nature was revealed, took them up carefully, carried them with him during the years of wandering in the desert, and then replanted them in a mysterious valley named Comprafort (Comfort?). From Comprafort David was directed to bring them to Jerusalem. He planted them close to a fountain, and within thirty years they had grown together so as to form a single tree of wonderful beauty, under the shade of which David composed his psalms and wept for his sins. In spite of its beauty, Solomon cut it down in order to complete his temple, for which a single beam was wanted, of a size such as no other tree could furnish. But in fitting the beam to its place, it was found, after repeated trials, either too long or too short, and this was accepted as a sign that it was not to be so employed."

It was then, says one version of the story, reverently preserved in the temple. According to another version, when it was found too short or too long "it was flung aside into a certain marsh, where it served as a bridge. But when the Queen of Sheba came to Jerusalem to hear the wisdom of Solomon, and was about to cross the marsh, she saw in a vision how the Saviour of the world was to be suspended on that tree, and so would not walk over it. It was buried in the earth on the spot where the Pool of Bethesda was afterward made, so that it was not only the descent of the angel, but the virtues of the buried wood, which gave to the water its healing qualities. At the time of the passion the wood rose and floated on the surface. The Jews took it to make the cross of our Lord."

More attractive is the legend of how the cross was found, deeply buried in the ground at Jerusalem, by St. Helena, the mother of Constantine, the first Christian emperor. All three crosses were found, according to the story, and that of our Lord was recognized by certain miracles which it wrought on those who touched it.

In representations of the cross we trace two principal forms, the Latin and the Greek cross, from which a great variety, with various significations, have been produced.

Latin cross

The Latin or Passion Cross has the lower limb considerably longer than the other three. "It is doubtless most nearly the shape of the very instrument on which Christ suffered, and is therefore most suitable to symbolize the Atonement and to express suffering." When it is placed on steps it is called a "Calvary cross." The steps are generally three in number, and are said to typify faith, hope, and charity, the great Christian virtues.

Calvary cross

When all four arms are of equal length it is a Greek Cross, the cross in most frequent use among Eastern Christians. "The Latin cross suggests the actual form, while the Greek cross is idealized, the Greeks being essentially an artistic and poetic race." "The Greek cross is a symbol of the spread of the Gospel and of its triumphs in the four quarters of the world. It is the usual form wherever it is intended to express victory or is used as an ornament."

Greek cross

Another interesting form of the cross is the Tau-cross, so called because shaped like the Greek letter tau (T). The figure found in the tau-cross was the symbol of eternal life with the ancient Egyptians. The early Christians of Egypt adopted it and at first used it instead of other forms of the cross. It is yet seen in the early Christian sepulchers of that country. "It has been urged, with at least great probability, that this symbol of life was the form made by the children of Israel in blood upon their door-posts when the angel of death passed through the land of Egypt to smite the first-born, and it was perhaps the form of the cross on which the brazen serpent in the wilderness was lifted up."

Tau-cross

It is known, from these associations, as the cross of the Old Testament and as the "anticipatory cross"; also as the "cross of St. Anthony," the great hermit of Egypt and the father of monasticism.

It is sometimes called the "cross potent" from its shape, "potent" being an old English word for a crutch. It is then said to signify the Cross as the sure support of all who trust in it.

Four tau-crosses joined foot to foot form a "Jerusalem cross." Such a cross was part of the armorial bearing of the first Christian king of Jerusalem. The four conjoined tau-crosses, forming a Greek cross, are said to be symbolical of the displacement of the Old Testament by the New, the Law by the Gospel.

Jerusalem cross

Many forms of the cross originated in the wars of the Cross, the crusaders in their eastward wanderings engrafting many variations upon the original Greek cross. Many of these heraldic crosses tell some story of religious feeling. In their varied and fanciful forms the simple faith and holy purpose out of which they sprang may yet be traced.

The "cross moline" is so named from resemblance to the moline, or crossed iron, in the center of the upper millstone. Its ends are divided and curved backward. As they are turned in all directions, they are said to express the universal diffusion of the blessings of the Cross; or, as they decline both to the right and the left, they express willingness to do exact justice and give to all their due.

Cross Moline. Cross Recercelé.

The "cross recercelé" resembles the cross moline, but with its floriations more expanded.

The "cross bottoné" (budded) or "treflé" (like trefoil), the "cross patonce" (like the paw of the ounce, or panther), and the "cross flory" (like the fleur-de-lis), all with limbs ending in threefold figures, have evident reference to the Holy Trinity.

Cross Bottoné, or treflé. Cross Patonce. Cross flory.

The "cross pommée" has ends terminating in circles suggestive of apples, as the name shows. It is said to express the fruitful reward of devotion to the Cross.

Cross pommée. Cross crosslet. Cross fitché.

The "cross crosslet" is formed of four Latin or Passion crosses placed foot to foot.

It is said that the "cross fitché" (sharpened and so fixable in the ground) was carried in pilgrimages so that it might be readily set up while performing devotions.

The "cross patté" (broad-footed) is much like the "Maltese cross," the cross of Knights Templars and Hospitalers, which differs from it simply in having its extremities indented or notched. The eight points thus formed are said to symbolize the eight Beatitudes of our Lord.

Cross patté

The "floriated cross," which is developed in many ornamental forms, as the cross bursting into bloom or adorned with garlands, alludes to the triumph of Christ and to our future triumph and glory through Him. It symbolizes also our holy religion growing with perpetual vitality.

Maltese cross

One of the most singular, as well as most ancient, of the many forms and modifications of the cross is the "fylfot." It is found, probably as a disguised form of the cross, on the tombs in the catacombs. Its use illustrates the adoption by the early Christians, as in the case of the tau-cross, of prechristian symbols. By its employment they simply "diverted to their own purpose a symbol centuries older than the Christian era, a symbol of early Aryan origin, found in Indian and Chinese art, and spreading westward, long before the dawn of Christianity, to Greece and Asia. It was on the terra-cotta objects dug up by Dr. Schliemann at Troy, and conjectured to date from 1000 to 1500 B.C." It is thought to represent in heathen use a revolving wheel, the symbol of the great sun-god, or to stand for the lightning wielded by the omnipotent deity, Manu, Thor, or Zeus. The Christians saw in it a cross concealed from the eyes of their heathen enemies. The fylfot is frequently found in the Greek Church on the vestments of the clergy. The Greek fret or key pattern, with which all are familiar, is a decorative development of the fylfot.

Fylfot

Another interesting form of the cross is that known as the "cross of Iona" or "Irish cross." It is said to be the earliest form known in Great Britain and Ireland. The antique wayside crosses are of this shape. "Because this style of cross partakes more of Greek character than of Latin, it has been contended that it argues an Eastern rather than Western origin for the introduction of Christianity into Great Britain." The circle is the emblem of eternity, as having neither beginning nor end, and when combined with the cross, as in this form, it speaks of the perpetuity of the Christian faith and the eternity of its hope.

Irish cross

The "St. Andrew's cross," in form like the letter X, conveys the idea of humility as well as that of suffering. When St. Andrew was condemned to be crucified, he begged that his cross might be unlike that on which his Lord had died, not deeming himself worthy to die on a cross of the same form as that on which He had suffered.

St. Andrew's cross

There is a cross peculiar in form, and known as the "Canterbury cross." It is in the shape of the letter Y, and is usually seen only upon the vestments of the clergy. The ornamentation of the chasuble is commonly of this form. It is embroidered on the chasuble of St. Thomas of Canterbury, which is still preserved in the Cathedral of Sens, in France. Its shape brings to mind the inclination of our Saviour's arms—the lifting up of His hands—as He offered Himself in sacrifice on Calvary.

Symbols of the Holy Trinity.—The equilateral Triangle is perhaps the most familiar emblem of the Holy Trinity. The equality of the three divine Persons in the Godhead is represented by the equal sides or the equal angles of the triangle.

Triangle

The Trefoil is also an emblem of the Trinity. It is a representation of the common clover, or shamrock, as the Irish call it. The legend of the conversion of Ireland says that St. Patrick was preaching on the hillside, and wishing to illustrate from nature the sublime doctrine of the Trinity to his pagan hearers, he bent down and plucked a piece of shamrock at his feet, and held it up to show how what was three, in one sense, might be one in another.

Trefoil

The unity of the Persons in the one Godhead is sometimes represented by intersected triangles, or by the trefoil placed under a triangle.

The truth of the Trinity is also suggested by any threefold arrangement in the various forms of the ornamentation.

The figure known as the triquetra, made by the interlacing of three portions of circles, is also symbolical of the Holy Trinity. This is a very ancient emblem, and is found with frequency upon the stone crosses erected in the early days of Christianity in Great Britain. It is sometimes used in ornamentation of the dress of our Lord or of the Evangelists.

Intersected triangles. Trefoil placed under a triangle. Trequetra.

From the thirteenth century we have the symbol of the equal and interlacing Circles. "The three equal circles symbolize the equality of the three Persons in the Trinity, the binding together in one figure the essential unity, while the circular form signifies a never-beginning, never-ending eternity." The word trinitas, used in this symbol, may itself be divided into three syllables. One of these syllables is placed in each circle; but they have no perfect meaning, and will not form any word, unless united. In the space left vacant by the intersection of the circles the word unitas is placed.

Interlacing circles

From the sixteenth century we have another device setting forth the doctrine of the Trinity. This is a triangle terminating at the corners in three circles, and in the center another circle with lines connecting it with the circles at the corners. A legend is combined with the figure, which serves to explain it. The English equivalent of the Latin words is as follows: Deus, God; Pater, the Father; Filius, the Son; Sanctus Spiritus, the Holy Ghost; est, is; non est, is not.

Triangle and circles

Symbols of the father Almighty.—For the first four centuries the only symbol employed to represent God the Father Almighty was a hand issuing from clouds, or reaching down in benediction from heaven.

A symbol of much later origin is a triangle with the word "Jehovah," in Hebrew letters, inscribed within it and placed in the center of a radiating circle, or halo, symbolic of eternity.

Symbols of our Lord.—While the cross was in constant use by the early Christians, no effort was made at direct representation of our Saviour's sufferings. The crucifix was not introduced until five centuries had passed. Resort was had instead to the use of symbols.

The hand of God

The name and the triangle

Several of these were derived from Holy Scripture. The most common was the figure of the Good Shepherd, a picture drawn from our Lord's own description of His loving care and self-sacrifice. Another was derived from the words of St. John the Baptist, "Behold, the Lamb of God!" By this symbol, known as the Agnus Dei, our Lord is represented by the figure of a lamb—often with a nimbus, or glory, about the head—bearing a cross, the symbol of His sacrifice, or a banner, the sign of His triumph.

Agnus Dei, the Lamb of God

The Alpha and Omega, the first and last letters of the Greek alphabet, are used as the emblem of the eternity of our Lord: "I am Alpha and Omega, the beginning and the end, the first and the last."

Alpha and Omega

The Star is a symbol of Christ. It owes its origin to His own words, "I am the root and the offspring of David, and the bright and morning star." It was by the leading of a star that God manifested His only begotten Son to the Gentiles. The five-pointed star commonly represents the star of Bethlehem. It is a Christmas and Epiphany emblem.

Star of Bethlehem

This star is sometimes called the "pentalpha," as the crossing of its lines suggests five A's. It was used in ancient times as a magic talisman against the powers of witchcraft. The Greek Christians at one time placed it, instead of the cross, at the beginning of inscriptions.

The six-pointed star is said to symbolize the Creator, as, according to the old alchemists, the double triangle of which it is composed represents the elements of fire and water.

The seven-pointed star has reference, it is said, to St. John's words in the Revelation: "I beheld, and, lo, in the midst of the throne and of the four beasts, and in the midst of the elders, stood a Lamb as it had been slain, having seven horns and seven eyes, which are the seven Spirits of God sent forth into all the earth."

A star of nine points has allusion to St. Paul's enumeration of the fruits of the Holy Spirit: "The fruit of the Spirit is love, joy, peace, long-suffering, gentleness, goodness, faith, meekness, temperance."

An interesting symbol of our Saviour is that of the Pelican, which, the old naturalists said, was accustomed to tear open its breast in order to feed its young with its own blood. So the blood shed on Calvary gives life to the Church.

The pelican

The fish was also a very early symbol of our Lord. It was observed that the five letters of the Greek word for a fish were, taken separately, the initials in Greek of the words "Jesus Christ, Son of God, Saviour." In this way the fish became a symbol of our Saviour.

The pointed oval, or vesica, is the conventionalized form of the fish. Ecclesiastical seals are commonly made in this form. It represents in rude outline a fish before the fins and tail are added.

Vesica

It is thought by some that the Gothic or pointed arch is derived from this symbol, being simply the upper half of a vesica.

Other symbols of our Lord are formed from monograms of the sacred name, Jesus, and of His official title, Christ. These are used separately and also together. The earliest form of monogram of the sacred name, that often found on tombs of early Christians, is the symbol which is said to have appeared in a vision to the Emperor Constantine.

The story is related by Eusebius, the Bishop of Caesarea, who asserts that it was communicated to him by Constantine himself, who confirmed it with an oath. The story is this: Constantine, whose mind was wavering between Christianity and paganism, was on the eve of a great battle. Knowing that Maxentius, his enemy, was seeking the aid of magic and supernatural rites, and remembering also that his father, who had been well disposed to the Christians, had always prospered, while their persecutors failed, he determined to pray to Christ. While engaged with such thoughts he saw at mid-day a luminous figure in the heavens, with the words, "By this conquer." Both he and the whole army were struck with awe at the sight. At night Christ appeared to him in a dream, holding in His hand the same symbol, which He admonished him to place upon his standard, and assuring him of victory. This symbol Constantine substituted the next day for the old Roman eagle upon the standards and shields of his legions.

What the emperor saw, or fancied he saw, for it cannot be doubted that Constantine believed what he stated, was a symbol already in use among the Christians, and whose meaning he doubtless already knew. It is formed of the first two letters of the Greek word for Christ, CHRISTOS (Christos); the X (Chi) being equivalent to our Ch, and the P (Rho) the same as our R.

Christos monogram

Sometimes the monogram is contracted and its lines economized, the X becoming a true cross, and its vertical shaft—the curved part of the letter being added—becoming P.

Contracted Christos monogram

This monogram, with the Latin N, standing for the word noster (our), added to it, means Christos noster (our Christ).

Christos noster monogram

Another monogram for our Lord's title, Christ, is composed of the first two and the last capital letters of the Greek word CHRISTOS. The horizontal mark over the top is the sign that some letters have been omitted.

Lord's title monogram

The more familiar monogram IHS (IHS) is the abbreviated form of the Greek word for our Saviour's human name, Jesus, IESOUS. The first two and the last letters are those used. Sometimes this is written "IHC." The two forms are synonymous, the C being simply another form of the Greek S. Sometimes the letters are intertwined, the I being lengthened and formed into a cross by a bar at the top.

IHS monogram

These three letters are often read as signifying the Latin words, Jesus hominum Salvator, that is, "Jesus the Saviour of men"; but appropriate and beautiful as this reading is, it is not the original meaning, but an afterthought, and is said to have been first suggested about the year 1380.

Another monogram contains the initial letters, IX, of our Lord's full name, Jesus Christ, in Greek. The X (Chi) is combined with the I (Iota). Sometimes a horizontal bar is placed through the middle of the figure, thus giving the initials of our Lord's full name, united with the cross.

Full name monograms

Another form of monogram for our Lord's full name, Jesus Christ, is made by taking the first and the last letters of each of the Greek words. The lines above are the signs of contraction.

Contracted monogram

I. N. R. I. These letters stand for the Latin form of the title placed on our Saviour's cross, Jesus Nazarenus Rex Judaeorum, JESUS OF NAZARETH, THE KING OF THE JEWS.

Symbols of the Holy Ghost.—The seven-branched Candlestick of the tabernacle, and the Seven Burning Lamps which St. John saw before the throne of God, and which he declares to be the seven Spirits of God, that is, the Holy Spirit in His sevenfold manifestations of grace, are often used as symbols of the Holy Spirit, the source of all true illumination for men.

Seven-branched candlestick

The most familiar emblem, however, is the Dove, which from the early centuries to the present day has constantly symbolized the third Person of the Holy Trinity. Its warrant and justification are based on the account in the Gospel of our Lord's baptism and the descent upon Him of the Spirit "in bodily shape like a dove."

Dove

The picture of the holy dove in the decorations of the church tells of the coming of the same Spirit as the fruit of the intercession of our ascended Lord and according to His most true promise, "I will pray the Father, and He shall give you another Comforter, that He may abide with you forever; even the Spirit of truth." It reminds of that abiding presence of the Holy Ghost in the Church, making it the "habitation of God through the Spirit," and giving living power to its sacraments as channels of saving and sanctifying grace.

Other symbols in frequent use are the following:

The Crown of Thorns and the Nails of crucifixion are symbols of our Saviour's passion.

Crown of thorns and nails

The three Interlaced fishes and the Escallop Shell, the badge of a pilgrim, are both emblems of Holy Baptism: the one, as Baptism is in the Name of the Holy Trinity; the other, as we therein confess that we are pilgrims and strangers on earth, who seek "a better country, that is, an heavenly."

Interlaced fishes. Escallop.

The phoenix is the symbol of immortality and the resurrection. The phoenix was a fabulous bird of the ancients. It was believed that, "after living a thousand years or so, it committed itself to the flames that burst, at the fanning of its wings, from the funeral pyre of costly spices which it had itself constructed, and that from its ashes a new phoenix arose to life."

Phoenix

The Anchor is the symbol of steadfastness and hope. "A strong consolation,... which hope we have as an anchor of the soul, both sure and steadfast."

Anchor

The Crown is the symbol of victory and sovereignty.

The Wreath, commonly of laurel, is another symbol of victory. As an expression of triumph won, it is one of the commonest of symbols in the catacombs—the underground and secret burying-places of the early Christians in times of persecution.

In this connection we may note the symbolism attached to certain plants and flowers. In the ornamentation of God's house we reproduce, as far as the art of man can, the forms and colors with which the love of God has arrayed the earth with so much beauty. We also use the natural plant and flower to beautify the church on the great Christian days of gladness and rejoicing. They mark such days as festival days. In a special way they tell at Easter, by their fresh, pure life out of the death of winter, the story of the resurrection.

Crown

But, besides this, an emblematic meaning is also attached to particular flowers and plants. The use by the early Christians of plants and flowers in an emblematic way was simply a matter of reverent memory and the carrying over of past associations. Their remembrance of the words of the Lord Jesus would make the Vine, His own similitude of Himself in relation to them,—"I am the vine, ye are the branches,"—a symbol of frequent use to represent the Saviour.

The Wheat and the Grapes would not only be the emblems of abundance and rejoicing, but would be enriched with suggestions of the Holy Eucharist.

The Olive-branch, borne by the dove, recalling the story of the flood, would stand for the thought of security and peace.

Olive-branch

The Almond, with name derived from a word meaning haste, in allusion to its hasty growth and early maturity, was the symbol of hopefulness even in the days of Jeremiah. "The word of the Lord came unto me, saying, Jeremiah, what seest thou? And I said, I see a rod of an almond-tree. Then said the Lord unto me, Thou hast well seen: for I will hasten My word to perform it."

The Palm is the emblem of victory. This symbolism attached to it not only from the familiar associations of its pagan use as such, but from a very early period, as seen on ancient mosaics, a reference to the palm was recognized in St. John's description of the Tree of Life, "which bare twelve manner of fruits, and yielded her fruit every month." "Thus the palm-branch of Christian martyrs was not only the emblem of victory adopted from the well-known heathen use of it, but typified still more strikingly their connection with the tree of divine life, 'whose leaves were for the healing of the nations.'"

The palm, however, was not the only instance of such adoption into Christian symbolism from pagan use. The influence of Christianity was felt in many like cases. Trees and plants held sacred to heathen gods became associated with holier names and ideas.

Thus the Laurel, "the meed of mighty conquerors and poets sage," became for the humble Christian who had "fought a good fight, and finished his course," the emblem of triumph and glory.

The Pomegranate, with mystic association from remote antiquity with the idea of life, became the symbol of a hopeful future, the emblem of immortality.

The Oak is the representative of supernatural strength and power. In pagan antiquity it was especially dedicated in the West to Thor, the thunder-god. The familiar story of St. Boniface, the apostle of Germany, relates how he found in the country of the Hessians an enormous tree, called the Oak of Thor, greatly revered by the people and held inviolably sacred. St. Boniface cut it down in token of the triumph of Christ. When it fell with a mighty crash, and Thor gave no sign, the heathen folk, who stood about in awe, accepted the token and were converted. The stroke of St. Boniface's ax overthrew Thor, but could not altogether destroy the associations of the ancient belief. The reverence for the oak long survived; and the veneration for it, Christianized in meaning, led to its reproduction, with symbolic reference to the power of the God of gods, in many beautiful forms of leaf and spray and clustered acorn, in church decoration.

In like manner, we find flowers held sacred to heathen goddesses lifted out of that association and invested with higher and purer emblematic meaning.

The Lily, the flower of Juno, became the flower of the holy Virgin, and its snowy whiteness the symbol of Christian purity. It is often seen in the conventional form of the fleur-de-lis.

The Rose before the coming of Christianity was a mystic flower among Northern races. Among the Greeks and Romans it was the flower of Venus and the symbol of earthly love. Its symbolism felt also the redeeming touch of Christian sentiment. The love of which it is the emblem became not an earthly, but a heavenly love. As the lily tells of her purity, so the rose tells of the love that was in the heart of the Blessed Virgin. But this was but the reflection of a higher and a divine love, of which the rose was also the symbol.

How that thought of the love of heaven coming down to earth was expressed emblematically by the rose, we may see in the story of its origin which the Christian fancy of the middle ages invented. It was said that a holy maiden of Bethlehem, "blamed with wrong and slandered, was doomed to the death; and as the fire began to burn about her she made her prayers to our Lord that, as she was not guilty of that sin, He would help her and make it to be known to all men, of His merciful grace. And when she had thus said, anon was the fire quenched and out, and the brands that were burning became red roseries, and the brands that were not kindled became white roseries, full of roses. And these were the first roseries and roses, both white and red, that ever any man saw."

So the rose became the flower of martyrs, the presage of the beauty and joy of Paradise. With the same thought, the early Christians decorated with roses the graves of martyrs and confessors on the anniversary of their death. It has been conjectured that it is from this connection of the rose with Paradise, and with the thought of the love which accomplished our salvation, that the rite of the "golden rose" has been derived—the rite in which the Pope, on the Fourth Sunday in Lent, blesses a golden rose adorned with jewels, which he afterward bestows upon some person he desires especially to honor. In the prayers which are used in this rite, our Lord is alluded to as the "eternal Rose that has gladdened the heart of the world."

The interesting plant known as the Passion-flower, although of comparatively modern origin, is now freely used to symbolize the passion of our Lord. The ten faithful apostles,—omitting St. Peter who denied and Judas who betrayed our Lord,—the hammer and the nails, the cross, the five sacred wounds, the crown of thorns, the cords which bound Him, are all, by an exaggerated symbolism and straining after analogy, supposed to be represented by its various parts. It was discovered by early Spanish settlers in America, and was welcomed by them as useful in teaching Christianity to the Indians. It is the one contribution of the new continent to the ecclesiastical symbolism of flowers.

Symbols of the Evangelists and Apostles.—The Evangelists are often represented by four scrolls, four open books, or four streams of water issuing from Christ the Rock; but most commonly the Evangelistic symbols are the Man, the Lion, the Ox, and the Eagle. These figures refer to the mysterious creatures described by the prophet Ezekiel, and afterward by St. John, as adoring ceaselessly before the throne of God. "They rest not day and night, saying, Holy, holy, holy, Lord God Almighty, which was, and is, and is to come." The man is assigned to St. Matthew and his Gospel, because of the manner in which the manhood of our Lord is set forth, the lion to St. Mark, because he shows His royal dignity and power; the ox to St. Luke, because his is the sacrificial Gospel and dwells on the Atonement; and the eagle to St. John, because his Gospel rises to the contemplation of the sublimest mysteries of the Christian faith.

Man, Lion, Ox, Eagle symbols

All these symbols are winged, as showing that the message of the Gospels is to go to all the earth as the concern of all men everywhere.

All four symbols are sometimes combined into one, called a Tetramorph.

Each Apostle has also his own appropriate symbol.

St. James the Greater has the escallop shell and staff of the pilgrim. His shrine in Spain was one of the great centers to which pilgrims came from all lands.

Apostle symbols—S. Peter, S. Andrew, S. James ye more,
S. Johan, S. Thomas, S. James ye less.

St. John, as an Apostle, has a cup with a winged serpent rising from it, in reference to the tradition that St. John once drank with impunity from a poisoned chalice after having made the sign of the Cross over it.

St. Thomas bears the spear with which he was slain, or the carpenter's rule, from a legend that he was sent to the king of the Indies to build him a palace. St. Thomas gave to the poor the money intrusted to him by the king. He was cast into prison, but the king had a vision of a marvelous palace in Paradise built for him by the money given in charity. St. Thomas was released, and the king became a Christian.

St. Peter has the keys, in reference to our Lord's words to him, and to his opening of the door of the Church to Jews and to Gentiles.

St. Matthew, as an Apostle, has sometimes a purse, in allusion to his having been a publican, or tax-gatherer, and sometimes the hatchet with which he was killed.

The other Apostles have, for symbols, the traditional instruments of their martyrdom: St. Andrew bears the cross peculiar to him; St. Bartholomew the knife with which he was flayed alive; St. James the Less has the fuller's club with which he was beaten to death; St. Philip has the cross on which he was crucified, St. Matthias bears a battle-ax: St. Jade a halberd, or a knotted club, sometimes fashioned like a cross, with which he was slain; St. Simon the saw with which he was cut asunder.

Apostle symbols—S. Phylyppa, S. Barthylimew, S. Matthew,
S. Jude, S. Symon, S. Mathyas.

The symbol of St. Paul is the sword with which he was beheaded, and a closed book, in reference to his Epistles. St. Stephen, the first martyr, bears the stones with which he was killed while he prayed for those who hurled them.

Of Angelic figures.—It is not surprising, in view of the references of Holy Scripture, that representations of angels should have place in the decoration of Christian churches. "The religion of heaven is Christianity." "I beheld, and I heard the voice of many angels round about the throne, and the beasts, and the elders: and the number of them was ten thousand times ten thousand, and thousands of thousands; saying with a loud voice, Worthy is the Lamb that was slain to receive power, and riches, and wisdom, and strength, and honor, and glory, and blessing."

Angels are included in the Communion of Saints. "Ye are come ... unto the city of the living God, the heavenly Jerusalem, and to an innumerable company of angels, to the general assembly and church of the first-born, which are written in heaven."

It is the constant tradition of the Church that the holy angels attend at Christian worship. It is one of the highest privileges of that worship that we have such communion with them as to be able to say, "Therefore with Angels and Archangels, and with all the company of heaven, we laud and magnify Thy glorious Name; evermore praising Thee, and saying, Holy, Holy, Holy, Lord God of hosts, Heaven and earth are full of Thy glory: Glory be to Thee, O Lord Most High. Amen."

The Symbolism of Colors.—In the ornamentation of vestments and of the hangings of the Altar, as also in the general decoration of churches, all colors are employed as good taste may dictate. They are thus properly used "for the glory of God, who created the many hues of nature and gave to man the power of deriving pleasure from them." Certain colors, however, are known as "liturgical" or "ecclesiastical" colors, and are, in accordance with ancient practice, employed for symbolical purposes about the Altar and chancel of our churches, or the dress of Ministers, during the different seasons of the Church Year. They serve to impress upon our minds, through the outward senses, certain great truths of the Gospel, and give honor and dignity to the celebration of its sacred mysteries.

The colors most commonly used are white, red, violet, black, and green.

White, signifying purity and joy, is used on the Feasts of the great mysteries of our Faith and at all seasons relating to our Lord, on days relating to the Blessed Virgin and to those saints who were not also martyrs, and on festival occasions, such as Confirmations, Ordinations, Dedications, Weddings, etc.

Red, the emblem of blood and fire, is used on the Feasts of martyrs, typifying the blood which was shed for Christ, and at Whitsuntide, when it tells of the tongues of fire which came upon the Apostles.

Violet, the emblem of penitence, is used in Advent, in the season from Septuagesima to Lent, in Lent, and also on Ember and Rogation days.

Black signifies mourning, and is used on Good Friday and at Burials.

Green, the ordinary color of nature, is used on all days which are not Feasts or Fasts and when no special truth or doctrine is to be emphasized.

The Symbolism of Lights.—The symbolic use of lights in divine worship seems to have been handed on from the Jewish Temple to the Christian Church. The candles upon the Altar, as in use in many churches, whether the two Eucharistic lights or the vesper lights, not only give beauty and festival character to the service, but are an expressive sign of spiritual gladness and joy, and a symbol, suggested by His own words, of Christ as the true "light of the world." They remind us of the gladness and spiritual illumination which the Gospel brings.

The Symbolism of Incense.—Where incense is employed as an adjunct of worship, its symbolism is the same as that which it had in the worship of the Temple. It is the symbol of prayer, of the intercession of our great High Priest, and of the prayers of the saints. So the Psalmist prays, "Let my prayer be set forth in Thy sight as the incense"; and so again, St. John, describing the ceremonial of the worship of heaven as seen in his vision, says, "Another angel came and stood at the altar, having a golden censer, and there was given unto him much incense, that he should offer it with the prayers of all saints upon the golden altar which was before the throne. And the smoke of the incense, which came with the prayers of the saints, ascended up before God out of the angel's hand."

How to Use the Prayer-Book[1]

Before the Service.—If possible be in your place a few moments before the appointed hour, that you may collect your thoughts and prepare for the service. On entering, go at once quietly to your seat, kneel down, and say a short prayer for yourself and your fellow-worshipers. The Collect for the Nineteenth or the Twenty-third Sunday after Trinity, or the Collect, "Almighty God, unto whom all hearts are open," at the beginning of the Communion Office, you may find appropriate. When you have said your prayer, find the places for the service for the day, and after this occupy the time till the service begins with reading some portion from the Prayer-Book.

At Morning Prayer.—The following points should have attention:

(1) The several ways in which, after the opening Sentence, the Minister may proceed with the service. See the rubrics at the beginning of MORNING PRAYER.

(2) In the LORD'S PRAYER (as is also the case with other prayers printed in like manner) the capital letters beginning the several short clauses are intended to indicate the portions into which the prayer is to be broken for common recitation. There should be a slight pause after each clause, that all may join in saying the prayer.

(3) On the nineteenth day of the month the Venite is not used before the PSALTER, as it occurs in the portion for that day. It is omitted on Easter Day and Thanksgiving Day, as other anthems are appointed for these days (pages 6, 125, 319).

(4) After the Venite follows (page 6) the PSALTER (page 329) for the day of the month, or one of the SELECTIONS, or the PROPER PSALMS for the day. See HOW THE PSALTER IS APPOINTED TO BE READ (page vii). Note what is to be done, in using the PSALTER, when a month has thirty-one days. Observe also the tables of SELECTIONS and PROPER PSALMS (pages vii, viii, 328).

(5) Study the use of the COLLECT FOR THE DAY—where found (pages 52-188, 188-220), how used: "Except when the Communion Service is read" (page 13). "The Collect shall serve all the Week after, where not otherwise ordered." "The Collect for any Sunday or other Feast may be used at the Evening Service of the day before" (page 52). Note the use throughout the season of the COLLECT FOR THE FIRST SUNDAY IN ADVENT. Throughout Lent is used, in like manner, the COLLECT FOR ASH-WEDNESDAY (page 86). Observe the use of the COLLECT FOR CHRISTMAS DAY (page 62), and that the Collect, Epistle, and Gospel for St. Stephen's Day, St. John the Evangelist's Day, the Innocents' Day, and for the Circumcision, are not among those for the Saints'-days, but placed in connection with those for Christmas Day and the Sunday after. Note rubrics (pages 66, 69, 71, 87, 141).

(6) When two Feasts or Holy-days fall upon the same day, the usual custom is to make a "commemoration" of the day omitted by using the COLLECT of that day immediately after the COLLECT of the Feast or Holy-day that is observed.

"If there be more than twenty-five Sundays after Trinity, the service of some of those Sundays that were omitted after the Epiphany shall be taken in to supply so many as are wanting. And if there be fewer than twenty-five Sundays, the overplus shall be omitted" (page 188).

(7) Observe the use of the OCCASIONAL PRAYERS, and the place in the service where they are to be said, if used. Note that some must be used at specified times (page 37).

(8) Observe the use of the THANKSGIVINGS—where to be said in the service, if used (page 44).

(9) There are several ways in which the Minister may end the MORNING PRAYER: "On any day not a Sunday, he may end the MORNING PRAYER with the COLLECT FOR GRACE and 2 COR. XIII. 14." The prayers following that "for the President of the United States" "shall be omitted when the LITANY is said, and may be omitted when the HOLY COMMUNION is immediately to follow" (pages 1, 14).

At Morning Prayer on Certain Days.—(1) For Ash-Wednesday a PENITENTIAL OFFICE is provided (page 48), and must be read immediately after the prayer, "We humbly beseech Thee, O Father," in the LITANY.

(2) For Thanksgiving Day a special FORM OF PRAYER AND THANKSGIVING TO ALMIGHTY GOD is appointed (page 319).

After the Service.—When the service is ended, after the procession has gone out, kneel down and say a prayer. Do not omit this if for any cause you are obliged to leave before the conclusion of the service. You will find many of the Collects—such as that for the First Sunday after Epiphany, or the Second Sunday after Easter, or the Thirteenth Sunday after Trinity, or those at the end of the Communion Office—in every way appropriate.

At evening Prayer.—(1) Note the several ways in which the Minister may proceed after the opening Sentence. On Sundays, he may say, "Let us humbly confess our sins unto Almighty God," and pass to the GENERAL CONFESSION. Or else he may say, "Dearly beloved brethren, the Scripture," etc. "On days other than the Lord's Day, he may, at his discretion, pass at once to the LORD'S PRAYER" (pages 16, 19).

(2) Note that the COLLECT FOR THE DAY must be said (page 27).

(3) EVENING PRAYER is said in full or may be ended after the COLLECT FOR AID (page 27).

(4) What has been said of the use of the OCCASIONAL PRAYERS and of the THANKSGIVINGS in MORNING PRAYER is equally applicable to EVENING PRAYER.

At the Litany.—(1) The LITANY is said ordinarily after MORNING PRAYER on Sundays, Wednesdays, and Fridays (page 30). A part may be omitted (page 33).

(2) It may also be said after the COLLECT FOR AID in EVENING PRAYER, or it may be used separately. See first and second paragraphs in CONCERNING THE SERVICE OF THE CHURCH (page vii).

At the Holy Communion.—(1) The Communion Office follows immediately after the Collects, Epistles, and Gospels (page 221).

It is the common custom that the LORD'S PRAYER at the beginning of the service is said by the Priest alone, and not, as in other services, by all the people with him. This is due to the fact that this prayer and the following COLLECT FOR PURITY anciently formed part of the office for the Priest's private preparation before entering the sanctuary. The LORD'S PRAYER may be omitted if MORNING PRAYER has been said immediately before (page 221).

(2) Observe that the DECALOGUE may be omitted if said once on each Sunday, and what is to be done in that case (pages 222, 224).

(3) The COLLECT OF THE DAY, while used in other Services, belongs properly to the Communion Office. It must be said. It is called in the Communion Service the Collect "of" the Day, elsewhere the Collect "for" the Day. The EPISTLE and the GOSPEL for the day are found in the same place as the COLLECT OF THE DAY (page 52).

(4) Observe that preference is given to the NICENE CREED, and that it must be said at certain times, on Christmas Day, Easter Day, Ascension Day, Whitsunday, and Trinity Sunday (page 224).

(5) When the Minister gives notice of the Holy Communion the EXHORTATION read, in whole or part, is that beginning, "Dearly beloved, on —— day next I purpose," or that beginning, "Dearly beloved brethren, on —— I intend, by God's grace" (pages 240, 242).

(6) Note that the EXHORTATION, "Dearly beloved in the Lord," may be omitted, provided it is said once, on a Sunday, in that same month (page 229).

(7) Note the use of the PROPER PREFACES which emphasize the special teaching of the great festivals (page 233).

(8) Note the direction (page 237) that in the administration to the communicants the Sacrament is to be delivered "into their hands." That can be best done, with reverence and care, if, when the Bread is delivered, the person receiving will place the open right hand upon the left, the palm being slightly hollowed to receive the consecrated Bread, and, when the Cup is delivered, will take firm hold of the chalice with both hands—of the bowl, or stem immediately under it, with the right hand, and of the pedestal with the left. Of course gloves should be removed.

(9) Observe what is done when a second CONSECRATION is necessary (page 237).

(10) Note that a hymn may be substituted for the Gloria in excelsis. This is commonly done in penitential seasons (page 238).

(11) Direction is given (page 240) that the consecrated Bread and Wine remaining after the Communion shall be reverently consumed. Small crumbs which cannot be taken otherwise are poured into the chalice, and the chalice rinsed two or three times with a little wine and water, the Priest drinking the same. This is called "The ablutions."

At the Baptism of Infants.—(1) Note that the general congregation and the company at the Font are all to stand until the LORD'S PRAYER.

(2) Note the permission given to shorten the service. The Minister shall say, "Hear the words of the Gospel," etc., or else pass immediately to the questions addressed to the sponsors, provided that "in every church the intermediate parts of the Service shall be used, once at least in every month, (if there be a baptism,) for the better instructing of the People in the grounds of Infant Baptism."

(3) Observe that the THANKSGIVING following the EXHORTATION upon the words of the GOSPEL is to be said by all, the people joining with the Minister.

At Private Baptism of Children.—(1) Observe what the service is. See the third rubric at the beginning of the Office, and what follows (page 251).

(2) Note what is directed, after the FORM OF BAPTISM, as to the public reception of the child privately baptized (page 252).

(3) Note the conditional FORM provided for use in cases of doubt (page 256).

(4) Observe that the MINISTRATION OF BAPTISM and the receiving into the Church may be combined (page 257).

At the Baptism of Adults.—(1) What has been pointed out, in connection with the BAPTISM OF INFANTS, in reference to the people standing until the LORD'S PRAYER, the saying of the THANKSGIVING after the EXHORTATION, and the use of a conditional FORM (page 265) in cases of reasonable doubt, applies also to the BAPTISM OF ADULTS.

(2) Observe what may be done when necessity may require the baptizing of adults in private houses. See the second rubric at the end of the Office (page 265).

(3) Observe that the Office of Infant Baptism and that of Adults may be conjoined. The service, however, involves so much difficulty and repetition that it is not often used. Third rubric (page 265).

At Confirmation.—Observe that the congregation are to stand until the LORD'S PRAYER.

At Marriages.—(1) Note that the Prayer-Book calls the service the "Solemnization" of Matrimony. The company present are there as witnesses and to ask God's blessing upon the marriage. While, therefore, they may bring into the church gladsome hearts on such an occasion, they should guard against levity. They should behave with reverence, attend to the service, say the Amens to the prayers, and conduct themselves with the same regard for the place, and for the sacredness of the act, as they would at any other service.

(2) The congregation should stand throughout the service, the bride and bridegroom only kneeling for the prayers and the BLESSING.

At the Communion of the Sick.—(1) Note the order of the service. See the latter part of the rubric at the beginning of the service, and the first and third rubrics following the GOSPEL (page 293).

(2) Note permission given in the last rubric following the GOSPEL.

At Burials.—(1) Note that one or both of the SELECTIONS OF PSALMS may be used (page 294).

(2) Note the permission given for additions to the service (page 298).

(3) Observe that the response, "Christ, have mercy upon us," is to be said by the people in the Kyrie preceding the LORD'S PRAYER (page 300).

(4) Note the permission given in the rubric following the ADDITIONAL PRAYERS at the close of the Office.

[1] The page references are to the Prayer-Book, to editions larger than the small duodecimo; which larger editions are all paged alike.

Devout Customs and Usages

Some of the customs here referred to are matters of rubrical direction in the Prayer-Book; others stand merely upon the ground of usage and the devout practice of the Church from ancient times. The object here in view is not to discuss their obligation, but simply to tell what they are and why they are observed, whether that observance is in obedience to an express direction of the Church or is a voluntary act of reverence. Since, as a matter of fact, such customs are used by some Churchmen, every well-instructed person should know their meaning and the reason for their use. His personal observance of them, where they have been left by the Church as voluntary acts, must depend upon his own feeling and their helpfulness or otherwise to his own worship and right living.

Kneeling.—The changes of posture in the course of a service have value in relieving weariness and in sustaining attention, but their chief significance is, of course, in the expression of different states of devotion. Thus kneeling is the fit posture in prayer for humble penitents—the only state in which we may presume to come before God. It is a mark of reverence, and testifies outwardly of our inward humility; and "a devout manner helps to create devout feelings."

Standing.—To show readiness to engage in worship and to receive instruction, the people stand when addressed at the opening of Morning and Evening Prayer, or at the Exhortations in the Communion Office. As expressive of earnestness and determination to defend the Faith, they stand for the recitation of the Creeds. They stand at the reading of the Gospel in the Communion Service to "show reverent regard for the Son of God above all other messengers, although speaking as from God also." They rise at the presentation of the alms and oblations, because the offering is their gift to God and to show their participation in the act. They stand as the clergy enter or leave the church in token of respect for their sacred office.

Bowing.—The head is bowed at the name of Jesus in the Creeds to "testify by this outward ceremony and gesture a due acknowledgment that the Lord Jesus Christ, the true and eternal Son of God, is the only Saviour of the world." This act of reverence is not restricted to the Creeds, but the same honor is shown to the Holy Name at its mention also in the Gloria in excelsis, and in hymns, in lessons, and in sermons.

At the words, "And was incarnate," in the Nicene Creed, the head and body are inclined (or the knee is bent) "to show humble and grateful recognition of the stupendous mystery of the Incarnation," and at the words "Worshiped and glorified," to signify belief in the divinity of the Holy Ghost. The head is bowed also at the name of the Blessed Trinity. This sign of reverence and honor is made at the Gloria Patri, at "Holy, Holy, Holy" in the Sanctus of the Communion Office, at the same words in the Te Deum, and at the various forms of the doxology, thus "recognizing the divine glory of each of the three Persons, and in imitation of the angels, who veil their faces with their wings when singing the glory of the Holy Trinity." Bowing at the Gloria came into use about the year 325, as a protest against the heresy which denied the divinity of our Lord.

The head is reverently bowed toward the Altar on coming in and going out of the church or chancel, in accordance with what one of the canons of the English Church says was "the most ancient custom of the primitive Church in the purest times." It is an act of honor and reverence for the house of God, and for the Altar as the place of such holy associations as attach to it from the celebration there of the Holy Eucharist.

Turning to the East.—The practice of turning to the east, or to the Altar, at the Creed and at every Gloria (as a brief form of Creed) "probably originated in an old custom at Baptism. The catechumen turned his face toward the west in renouncing the devil and all his works, and to the east in making profession of his Faith. The early Christians were accustomed to turn to the east in their devotions, just as the Jews turned their faces toward Jerusalem when they prayed." Many churches, whenever it is possible, are built for this reason "east and west," as was the ancient custom. When not so placed, the chancel is considered to be constructively, if not in fact, "the east," and the clergy and choir turn toward the Altar. It is an act expressive of faith in Christ "as the light of the world," "the Sun of righteousness," and recalls how ancient tradition, following a seeming intimation of Holy Scripture, says that our Lord will come from the east at His second advent: "As the lightning cometh out of the east, and shineth even unto the west; so shall also the coming of the Son of man be."

Vestments.—Much may be said for the use of a distinctive dress in the holy offices of the Church. It is in accordance with ancient usage; it marks the action of the Minister as not personal, but official; it secures dignity and uniformity, and it is also, like the dress of the priests in the old Jewish Church, "for glory and for beauty."

The American Church has no law upon the subject of vestments. Their use is simply a matter of traditional custom. Those here described have come down to us from our mother Church of England. Not all here mentioned are in use in all places, nor need it be assumed that all are equally desirable.

"The Cassock is a long coat, close-fitting, reaching to the feet, and buttoned down the front. It is generally of black, except in cathedral churches and for Bishops and cathedral dignitaries, when the episcopal purple may appropriately be used. A cincture, or broad sash, sometimes confines the cassock at the waist.

"The Surplice is of linen, generally with no opening in front, but with sufficient aperture in the neck to allow it to be easily passed over the head. It should fall somewhat below the knees. The sleeves are flowing and of considerable width at the wrist."

The surplice

"The Stole is a strip of silk about three inches wide and eight and a half feet long, with ends ornamented by embroidery and fringed. The Priest wears it around his neck, the ends hanging down over the front of the surplice. Deacons wear the stole suspended over the left shoulder, except at the Holy Communion, when it may be brought across the back and breast and be fastened at the right side."

The vestments for the celebrant at the Holy Communion are as follows:

The Alb, which may be described as a long linen garment somewhat like a surplice, with close-fitting sleeves, reaching nearly to the ground. It is frequently embroidered at the foot before and behind and at the end of the sleeves. These pieces of embroidery are called "apparels." The alb is confined at the waist by a white cord called the girdle.

The Alb

Around the neck is worn the Amice—an oblong piece of linen, a part of which is folded over and forms a large collar. This is often embroidered.

The Chasuble, sometimes called "the vestment" by way of distinction, is worn only at the celebration of the Holy Communion. It is oval in shape, without sleeves, with an opening in the middle through which the head may be passed. In front and behind it extends nearly to the ground, and on the sides to the hands. It is usually ornamented with a Y-shaped cross, which is often embroidered. The chasuble is sometimes ornamented with very rich needlework. The stole is worn under the chasuble, crossed on the breast, and passed under the girdle.

The Chasuble

Sometimes the Maniple is also worn. It is shaped like a stole, but smaller, and is fastened with a loop over the left arm near the wrist.

This dress, with local differences, is worn in all the ancient Churches of Christendom. It has come down to us with the Church itself. It is, in fact, simply the dignified dress of primitive days, enriched and ornamented. Times and customs have changed, but the dress of the Priest, made sacred by association with his holy work, has remained unaltered.

In churches where the Holy Eucharist is celebrated with very full ceremonial, the two clergy-men who assist the celebrant, called the "deacon" and "subdeacon," sometimes on festival occasions wear respectively a Dalmatic and a Tunicle. These garments are very similar, being a kind of loose coat or frock reaching below the knees, open partially at the lower part of the sides, and having full, though not large, sleeves. The dalmatic is usually somewhat more ornamented. These are festival garments. On other occasions the girded alb and the amice are often worn by the deacon and subdeacon.

Dalmatic

The chasuble, and also the dalmatic and tunicle, are often of silk, of the color of the season; but the custom of wearing only white linen vestments prevails in many churches.

"The following somewhat fanciful meanings, among various others, have been applied to the vestments: the alb is said to signify the white robe which Herod placed upon our Saviour; the amice, the cloth with which He was blindfolded by the Jews; the stole, maniple, and girdle, the cords which bound Him, and the chasuble, the purple robe of scorn.

"They are also said to represent certain Christian graces. The amice, passed over the head, signifies hope, the helmet of salvation; the alb, purity; the maniple, patience in the bonds of suffering; the stole, submission to the yoke of Christ, the chasuble, charity."

"The Cope is a large semicircular cloak of silk or other stuff, fastened in front by a clasp called a 'morse.' It is generally richly embroidered. The length extends in the back to the feet, but it is open in front, leaving the arms free. The cope is worn by priests in solemn processions. It is not a Eucharistic vestment and does not displace the chasuble at Celebrations. It is a symbol of rule, and is appropriate to Bishops and others in authority. It is worn over the alb or surplice."

The Episcopal habit generally worn seems to have come into use in the time of Queen Elizabeth. Its use rests only upon custom. It consists of "Rochet" and "Chimere." The rochet resembles an alb, but is shorter and without sleeves. It is of lawn or fine linen. The chimere is a dress of black satin, with white lawn sleeves.

The Bishop's Staff is in shape like a shepherd's crook. It is often highly ornamented, and may be adorned on the crook or top with jewels.

The Mitre is a head-covering generally worn by Bishops with the cope.

The Biretta is a square cap of black silk, or other stuff, worn by the clergy in out-of-door functions.

Hoods are symbols of university degrees attained by the wearer. They are not strictly ecclesiastical. Each college or university has its own hood for each degree conferred.

The Sign of the Cross.—At the Ministration of Baptism the Church directs that the sign of the Cross shall be made upon the forehead of the baptized person, and declares that it knows "no worthy cause of scruple concerning the same." In this it follows the mind of the primitive Church, in which there was, "even in apostolic times, a reverend estimation of the sign of the Cross, which the Christians shortly after used in all their actions," as a sign that "they were not ashamed to acknowledge Him for their Lord and Saviour who died for them upon the Cross." With the same "reverend estimation," "in token that they are not ashamed to confess the faith of Christ crucified," and in remembrance that all blessings have been purchased by the "death of the Cross," it is also used by many persons at various parts of the public service, as, for instance, at the beginning and close of the service, at the end of the Creed, at a Blessing, or at an Absolution.

Sponsors in Baptism.—The Church requires that "there shall be for every Male-child to be baptized, when they can be had, two Godfathers and one Godmother; and for every Female, one Godfather and two Godmothers." The origin of this office is obscure. It may have been adopted from a Jewish custom connected with the admission of heathen children, or it may have arisen spontaneously out of the social conditions of the Church.

The object in view is "to insure the subsequent education and training in Christian truth and duty which is necessary to the full benefit of the grace conferred in this holy Sacrament."

Sponsors are so called "because they respond or answer for the child to be baptized. They are called 'sureties' because they give security to the Church that the child shall be virtuously brought up; 'godfathers,' and 'godmothers,' because of the spiritual relationship into which they are brought with one another, with the parents, and with the child."

"Formerly parents were not admitted as sponsors, since they are sponsors in fact and by nature, and therefore no vow can increase their obligation of duty toward the child. But while the Church prefers that there should be three sponsors for every child, in addition to the parents, in order to insure by a fivefold promise the future guardianship of the infant soul, she yet permits parents to stand as sponsors in order to accommodate every variety of circumstance and need, and to save the office of sponsor from ever being merely a formal or perfunctory thing."

The Ring in Marriage.—"The use of the wedding-ring was probably adopted by the early Church from the marriage customs which were familiar to Christians in their previous life as Jews or heathen." A ring, or something equivalent, seems to have been given at marriage by the man to the woman from patriarchal days. The ancient custom of the Church was for the bridegroom to place the ring upon the thumb of the bride, saying, "In the Name of the Father"; then upon the second finger, saying, "and of the Son"; then upon the third finger, saying, "and of the Holy Ghost"; and then upon the fourth finger, saying, "Amen." "It was an old belief that a particular vein proceeded from the fourth finger to the heart." The ring, being of gold, and having neither beginning nor end, is not only a "token and pledge" of the vow and covenant made in marriage, but is also a symbol of the purity and unbroken constancy with which they should be "surely performed and kept."

Observance of the Church Year.—The Church Year was a very natural development for the early Christians, familiar with the great annual festivals of the ancient Jewish Church. By a series of anniversaries and holy-days, with suitable services, the different seasons of the year were in like manner made to serve a Christian purpose. Time as it passes thus becomes a perpetual memorial of the events of our Saviour's life, and of the work and virtue of the Apostles and other saints.

The year is divided into eight great seasons: Advent, Christmas-tide, Epiphany-tide, Lent, Easter-tide, Ascension-tide, Whitsuntide, and the Trinity season. Of these Whitsuntide is the shortest, lasting but one week. The Trinity season, including from twenty-three to twenty-eight weeks, is the longest. The four greater Festivals are Christmas, Easter, Ascension, and Whitsunday. The penitential seasons are Advent, preceding Christmas, and Lent, preceding Easter. The two great Fasts are Ash-Wednesday, at the beginning of Lent, and Good Friday, the day of our Lord's crucifixion. Other days of fasting and abstinence are the forty days of Lent, all the Fridays in the year, the Ember-days (the Wednesday, Friday, and Saturday before the four stated Times of Ordination to the holy ministry), and the Rogation-days (the Monday, Tuesday, and Wednesday before Ascension Day).

From Advent, with which the Church Year begins, to Trinity, our Lord is set before us in His life and His work. "We live over again, year by year, the time of the Incarnation from Bethlehem to Bethany." The design is to "bring out, and to bring home to the minds and hearts of all who shall reverently use these holy festivals and fasts, the great representative facts of Christ's life—to exhibit and to glorify Him. And that not in a vague, mystic, or one-sided way, but by setting Him before us in all the majesty and beauty and completeness of His character, from the manger to the Cross, and from the Cross up to the mediatorial throne. Thus a complete Christ, if one may so speak, is set before us. All the great facts of His life are marshaled into line and proportion; every feature and lineament of His character is revealed and illuminated; every office He sustained in the work of redemption is affirmed and emphasized."

In the long season from Trinity to Advent we are taught to use practically the Faith in which we have thus been instructed, and "to follow the blessed steps of His most holy life."

In conjunction with this teaching there is also the thankful commemoration of "the wonderful grace and virtue declared in the saints who have been the choice vessels of God's grace and the lights of the world in their several generations." By a series of Saints'-days distributed throughout the year, and falling one or two in each month, we are kept in mind of how we are "knit together" with the blessed saints "in one communion and fellowship in the mystical body of Christ our Lord," and are called to follow "the example of their steadfastness in the faith and obedience to God's holy commandments." There are days dedicated to the memory of the Blessed Virgin; the Apostles; the Baptist as the precursor, and St. Stephen as the protomartyr; to St. Mark and St. Luke as Evangelists; to St. Paul and St. Barnabas on account of their extraordinary call; to the Holy Innocents as the earliest who suffered for Christ's sake; to St. Michael and All Angels, to remind us of the benefits received by the ministry of angels; and to All Saints, as the memorial of all those who have died in the faith.

The advantages of thus making days and seasons the ever-recurring memorials of our Saviour, and of the virtue and example of the saints, are evident. Each year brings to mind the facts of our Lord's life and the great doctrines which He taught. Not a single essential truth of the Gospel is allowed to fall into practical neglect or to drift into forgetfulness. We are reminded to continue steadfast in this Faith and to live by it, and are instructed and encouraged in so doing by the example of the saints whose rest is won.

"And when the strife is fierce, the warfare long,
Steals on the ear the distant triumph-song,
And hearts are brave again, and arms are strong.
Alleluia."

List of Books for Reference

"Stones of the Temple." Field.

"Our Parish Church." Baring-Gould.

"The Spiritual House." Huntington.

"Manual of Information." Shinn.

"Hints on Church Furnishing," etc. "The Living Church Quarterly," 1892.

"Symbolism in Christian Art." Hulme.

"Christian Iconography." Didron.

"History of Christian Art." Lindsay.

"Art Teaching of the Primitive Church." Tyrwhit.

"Christian Art and Symbolism." Tyrwhit.

"History of Medieval Art." Reber.

"Signs and Symbols." "The Churchman," 1895.

"Our Mother Church." Mercier.

"Calendar of the Prayer-Book." Parker & Co., London.

"Red-Letter Saints." S. P. C. K.

"Sacred and Legendary Art." Jameson.

"Dictionary of Art." Adelene.

"Pagan and Christian Rome." Lanciani.

"History of the Church Catholic." Hore.

"Handbook of Christian Symbols." Clement.

"Dictionary of Heraldry." Coats.

"English Heraldry." Boutell.

"Handbook of Heraldry." Cussan.

"Church Decoration." French.

"Church Decoration." Frederick Warne & Co., London.

"Folk-Lore of Plants." Dyer.

"Sacred Trees and Flowers." "London Quarterly Review," 1863, vol. cxiv.

"Annotated Book of Common Prayer." Blunt.

"The Prayer-Book." Daniel.

"Parish Lectures on the Prayer-Book." Snively.

"Notes on the Use of the Prayer-Book." Hall.

"The Congregation in Church." Mowbray & Co., London.

"Church Needlework." Lambert.

"Embroidery for Church Guilds." Woodward.

"Church Vestments." Dolby.

"Vestiarum Christianum." Harriott.

"Ecclesiastical Vestments." Macalister.