Philosophy and Religion
Much attention has been paid in recent years to the religious development of the Romans under the Empire, and to the momentous conflict of religions which was going on from the age of Hadrian until the final triumph of Christianity. Humanly speaking, it was “touch and go” between several religions competing for the vacant place in the faith of the Empire, and at the last the strife was practically narrowed down to a duel between two oriental monotheistic systems, Mithraism[91] and Christianity. The subject is too vast for anything like adequate treatment here. But I would emphasise one point of view which is often overlooked.
The Roman state is too often regarded merely as the enemy and persecutor of the Christian religion. It is forgotten how large a share Rome may claim in its establishment. Not only did the Romans discover Christianity, but they organised it and sent it forth conquering and to conquer in the wake of the legions. It is not a case of a wicked and corrupt people suddenly converted in the midst of its sins. On the contrary it is easy to show that the thinkers of the Roman Empire were tending towards philosophic and religious ideas which made them ready to accept with astonishing rapidity both the ethical teaching and the theological revelations of the Son of God. It is unnecessary to remind the modern reader how large a part the Greek philosophy of Stoicism with its Roman modifications had played in shaping the thoughts of one Roman citizen, Paul of Tarsus. Philo, the Alexandrian Platonist, had developed a doctrine of the Divine Logos, which profoundly influenced the philosophy of the fourth Evangelist, and through him the whole course of Christian teaching.
The Romans may have added little to abstract philosophy or to metaphysics, but they made the somewhat barren abstractions of Zeno the Stoic into something more than a philosophy, into a faith which had a power to influence conduct far beyond the power of the State system of half-Greek Olympian Gods. If the power and the sincerity of a religion may be tested rather by its martyrs than by its proselytes, Stoicism had a worthy record. Men like Thrasea Pætus, Helvidius Priscus, and Barea Soranus were facing the tyrant’s frown for the sake of their Stoic sense of duty, just as truly as Peter and Polycarp.
The attitude of the Roman Government towards Christianity has been too often explained to need more than a brief recapitulation. At first Christianity was confounded with Judaism, which had already begun to make converts at Rome without seeking for them. The Roman government was extraordinarily tolerant towards creed, but it demanded an external compliance with the Cæsar-worship, which it was imposing on the provinces as a test of loyalty. But the Christians did not take the divine command “render unto
Plate LXXXIX—HOUSE OF LIVIA: INTERIOR DECORATION
Cæsar the things that are Cæsar’s” to include scattering incense on his altars. Too many of them had been brought up in the punctilious exclusiveness of the Jewish tradition for them to display on such points the laxity which is sometimes called broad-mindedness. Even in the private intercourse of social life the Christians were unpleasantly apt to insist upon their scruples. The meat in the butchers’ shops had often been slain in sacrifice, and the Christian conscience revolted at “meat offered to idols.” The libation with which the wine-cup started on its rounds was another offence to the tender monotheistic conscience. These things made the Christians unpopular. Their close associations, their secret meetings and love-feasts, the communism which they practised, all aroused the suspicions which are begotten of mystery. Lastly, their conviction that the Second Coming and the Day of Judgment were at hand made them ardent proselytes. It made them utter prognostications of death and damnation to all around them, and to see apocalyptic visions of the fall of the kingdoms of this earth. Such prophecies were sometimes misunderstood as involving treasonable designs. The first persecution under Nero was largely the result of such suspicions.
But the official attitude of the permanent Roman Government is probably revealed in the famous correspondence between Pliny and his emperor, Trajan. Imperial Rome is not to set up an inquisition. No man is to be punished for his faith, but if he is accused to the governor and is obstinate in refusing to pay the obeisance demanded by the state he is to be punished for his contumacy. That is precisely the attitude which the most humane and enlightened Christian states have adopted towards heresy. Later, when the Faith grew in importance, and when it even reached the point of soldiers refusing the military oaths, occasional emperors, often the better emperors, strove to fight against it. Then there were sometimes inquisitions and wholesale martyrdoms as under Decius and Diocletian. But no martyrdom, however public or agonising, could quench the faith of those who saw the heavens opening and the Angels of God descending with their crowns of glory. The publicity of the scenes and the constancy of the victims increased, as usual, the number of the converts. Foolish magistrates sought to encounter obstinacy with further severity, and the Faith only grew the more abundantly. It was not so much his personal conversion—for that was tardy and half-hearted—as the motive of policy to secure an advantage over Maxentius, which induced Constantine to promulgate the Edict of Milan in 313, by which toleration was extended to the Christian faith throughout the Roman Empire.
We must not be surprised that the best emperors, including the philosopher and saint, Marcus Aurelius, were the most bitterly hostile to Christianity. That is human nature. Stoic philosophers were teaching very much in common with Christian philosophy, but that renders it all the less likely that Stoic philosophers should be among the converts. Nevertheless Christian doctrine, especially in the Græco-Jewish communities of Asia Minor, was falling on prepared soil. The Stoic paradoxes had undoubtedly prepared the way for the Christian paradoxes. The doctrines of humility and asceticism were a commonplace of the Cynics. “No Cross, no Crown,” “He who would save his life must lose it”—such sayings as these would gain immediate assent from thoughtful Romans. Epictetus, a heathen slave of Domitian’s day, wrote his answer to the tyrant: “No man hath power over me. I have been set free by God. I know His Commandments; henceforth no man can lead me captive.” The Stoics were daily teaching that it is hard for a rich man to enter into the Kingdom of God. This is the creed of Marcus Aurelius: “To venerate the gods and bless them, and to do good to men, and to practise tolerance and self-restraint.” The horrors of the amphitheatre are one side of imperial society. But on the other side Musonius Rufus, a Stoic who stood high in the favour of Vespasian and Titus, went among the soldiers to preach against militarism. Slave-drivers as the Romans were, they were beginning to feel a sense of the brotherhood of man.
Plate XC. THE ALDOBRANDINI MARRIAGE: VATICAN, ROME
Seneca was calling the slaves “humble friends.” “Man is a holy thing to man,” he says; and such teaching was reflected even in the legislation of the day. Juvenal pleads passionately for kindness to slaves and for moral purity in the home. Seneca not only feels that men are brothers, but that God is the Father of us all. We have seen how public charity was finding expression in the alimenta and the free schools. “Love them that hate you” would not strike the Romans of the second century as anything more than a strong expression of the truth they had already begun to recognise. Thus the practical side of Christian ethics found its harmonies in the conduct as well as the theory of the more enlightened pagans. Peace and humanitarianism were in the air of the Antonine Age.
As for religious dogma the whole tendency of thought was towards monotheism. “God is a Spirit” would find an instant acquiescence among educated Romans, even though they frequented the temples of a hundred different gods. Philosophy among Greeks and Romans alike had always been monotheistic. On the subject of immortality the philosophers were divided. Marcus Aurelius and Seneca are on the whole not hopeful. Probably the beliefs of the common folk—as testified in the epitaphs of their cemeteries—were equally divided. The laconic epitaph: “I was not, I was: I am not, I care not,” is common. But other epitaphs equally common express the hope of reunions in the other world or even of being “received among the number of the gods.” But on the whole the commonest view of Death was as a happy release and an unending sleep. It was the immediate hope of eternal bliss, which was the greatest thing that Christianity had to offer to the pagan world.
Rome, then, was in many ways prepared for the reception of Christianity, whose doctrines found an echo in the aspirations of the day. She did much to give to Christian theology its Western form, and of course the ritual and practice of the Roman Church was in many ways merely a continuation of old pagan rites and ceremonies. Ancient deities became Christian saints without change of rite or cult; images were often adapted and even names scarcely altered. But, in fact, the whole conception of that mighty Church which conquered the world, including the barbarian invaders, was the offspring of the Roman political system. It was her genius for statecraft which made Rome the Eternal City. In one form or another she has governed the world for twenty centuries.
Plate XCI. BRONZE SACRIFICIAL TRIPOD
EPILOGUE
Musæ quid facimus? τὶ κεναῖσιν ἐν ἐλπίσιν αὔτως
ludimus ἀϕραδίῃσιν ἐν ἤματι γηράσκοντες;
Σαντονικοῖς camp οισν, ὄπῃ κρύος ἄσπετον ἐστίν,
erramus gelido-τρομεροὶ rigidique poetæ.
Ausonius
SHOULD have preferred to leave the Roman world at the height of its grandeur, when the whole vast territory was enjoying prosperity, if not peace, under the virtuous and benevolent Antonines. In that way this book would best create the true impression of Rome, not as a lamentable failure, but as the conspicuous success which it assuredly was. But as the reader will probably follow the old Greek maxim and desire to see the end before recording a judgment, a few pages are added containing a very brief summary of the closing scenes. It is necessary to notice that even the closing scenes cover a period of two hundred years, and that this progress is not even yet entirely downhill. They include good and bad reigns, periods of prosperity as well as disaster.
Here again the impression of pessimism which we get from reading the account of the Empire is due to the historians as much as to the history. Lampridius and the other writers of the Augustan History are small-minded writers who label the various princes as good or bad largely according to their treatment of the senate. The Augustan historians are trained in the school of Suetonius, they dwell upon gossip and can form no large political judgments. Very little of the gossip is authentic. If they have decided to revile an emperor they repeat the scandals narrated by Suetonius about Tiberius or Nero. It is only in their accounts of military action that they can be trusted, and this fact creates a false preponderance of warfare in the annals of the period.
The succession to the imperial throne continued to be the weak point of the whole system. The throne itself passed through unspeakable degradations. The guards who murdered Pertinax formally put the succession up to auction in the prætorian camp. Septimius Severus (193-198) gave a brief respite of strong government which almost destroyed the fiction of senatorial authority, for Severus held the proconsular power even over Rome and Italy. Caracalla was probably the worst of all the emperors in personal vice and brutality, but he was the author of that famous decree which conferred the citizenship on all the western provinces. In Elagabalus (218-222) Rome had for master the vile and effeminate priest of the Sungod, who brought the fetish-stone of Emesa into the city and attempted to make all the gods bow down to it. Alexander Severus was a blameless prince, and Maximin the Thracian drove the barbarians back behind the limites of the Rhine and Danube. After the Gordians the senate enjoyed for a brief space the opportunity of governing Rome through their nominee Pupienus, but the disorders of the period may be gauged from the fact that in the eighteen years following Alexander Severus, who died in 235, twelve persons wore the purple. Then Gallienus assumed it, having for his colleague that Valerian who was the first of Roman emperors to be taken prisoner by the enemy. Strange and horrible tales hung about his mysterious fate when taken captive by Shapur, the Persian king. In the latter years of Gallienus the Empire was practically divided, for his rebellious general Postumus was recognised as emperor throughout Gaul, Spain, and Britain. In this period, too, Palmyra rose into independent power as the meeting-place of the caravan routes across the Syrian plains. Under the famous Queen Zenobia it practically ruled over the eastern parts of the Empire, and its splendid ruins prove its wealth and magnificence. Gallienus then almost allowed the Empire to disintegrate under his feeble grasp, but his successor Claudius Gothicus (268) was a man and a soldier. He smote the Goths and would have restored the Empire in full, but the plague, which had never wholly disappeared since the time of Marcus Aurelius, carried him off in the third year of his reign. The task was left for Aurelian, that Pannonian peasant whose brilliant generalship hurled back the enemy on every side, while his statesmanship restored the authority of the emperor and even the financial credit of the Empire. The mighty wall with which he surrounded Rome is, however, a sad testimony of the dark days upon which the imperial city had fallen. The Palmyrene kingdom was defeated and the rich city plundered. The rebel Empire of the Gauls was destroyed for ever. The grandest triumph ever witnessed in Rome was that of Aurelian in 274. It is thus described by Vopiscus:
“There were three royal chariots. One was that of Odenathus, brilliant with jewellery in gold, silver, and gems; the second, similarly constructed, was the gift of the Persian king to Aurelian; the third was the design of Zenobia herself, who hoped to visit Rome in it. Wherein she was not deceived, for she entered the city in it after her defeat. There was another chariot yoked to four stags, which is said to have belonged to the king of the Goths. On this Aurelian rode to the Capitol, there to sacrifice the stags which he had vowed to Jupiter the Highest and Mightiest. Twenty elephants went before, tamed beasts of Libya and two hundred different beasts from Palestine, which Aurelian immediately presented to private individuals in order that the treasury might not be burdened with their maintenance. Four tigers, giraffes, elks, and other creatures were led in procession. Eight hundred pairs of gladiators, as well as captives from the barbarian tribes, Blemyes, Axiomitæ, Arabs, Eudæmones, Ludians, Bactrians, Hiberi, Saracens, Persians, all with their various treasures; Goths, Alani, Roxolani, Sarmatians, Franks, Suevi, Vandals, Germans advanced as captives with their hands bound. Among them also were the Palmyrene chiefs, who survived, and the Egyptian rebels. Ten women whom Aurelian had taken fighting in male attire among the Goths were in the procession, while many of these ‘Amazons’ had been slain. In front of each contingent a placard bearing the name of the tribe was carried. Among them was Tetricus (the ‘emperor’ of the Gallic Empire) in a scarlet cloak, a yellow tunic, and Gallic breeches. There walked Zenobia too, laden with jewels and chained with gold chains which others carried. In front of the conquered princes their crowns were borne along labelled with their names. And next the Roman People followed, the banners of the guilds and camps, the mailed soldiers, the royal spoils, the whole army and the senate (although it was saddened to see that some members of its body were among the captives) added much to the splendour of the show. It was not until the ninth hour that the Capitol was reached, and the palace much later.”
Aurelian endeavoured to establish Mithraism as the state religion, and earned the gratitude of the vulgar by supplementing the free supply of corn with a daily ration of pork. Oil and salt were given gratuitously, and he even prepared to supply free wine. The three emperors who succeeded Aurelian, Tacitus, Probus, and Carus, were men of good character, and the first two were, once more, the nominees of the senate.
Throughout this troubled age the causes of confusion were twofold. On the one hand the Empire itself was so vast and scattered that it tended now to fall to pieces of its own momentum, as the seedbox opens to scatter its seeds. Britain, Gaul, Germany, Palmyra—each in its turn began to feel a unity of its own. Rome was far away, and the government was often weak and negligent. Here was an opportunity for the local generals to carve out thrones for themselves. While the emperor hurried this way and that fresh rebellions broke out in his rear. It was no one’s fault in particular. The world-state was impossible in theory as in practice. It was only possible while the provinces were barbarian. When they became civilised and self-conscious they were bound to feel their natural unity.
Plate XCII. MITHRAS AND BULL
In the second place, the barbarians were now grown to full stature. They were no longer quarrelsome tribes which could be turned against one another by adroit statecraft, but nations much less barbarous than of old, with some organisation and a purpose above that of mere plunder. No artificial ramparts could hold them. It is very doubtful whether even the legions of Rome at their best could have resisted these repeated assaults on all sides. The first great inroad across the Danube took place in the reign of M. Aurelius. It was crushed, as the column of that emperor depicts, and Sarmatia and Marcomannia were added as short-lived provinces. It is in the third century that we begin to hear of the greater barbarian nations, or groups of tribes, of the Alemanni and the Suevi, the Franks, the Saxons, the Goths, and the Vandals. Battle after battle was fought and triumph after triumph won against them, but they still pressed on. The weaker emperors essayed to buy them with gold, the wiser with land, the craftier set them to slay one another, but still they moved forward resistlessly, wave after wave, like the sea. This again was nobody’s fault. It may have been the movement of Tartar savages in the Far East which set the Wandering of the Nations in motion. Whatever it was, all eastern and northern Europe was seething with restless movement and the tide rolled on irresistibly against the bulwarks of civilisation. Triumphs as great and glorious as those of Scipio and Marius were gained by Roman armies even in the fourth century. But the enemy was ubiquitous, the task impossible.
It is, however, true that those bulwarks were weaker than they should have been, partly by reason of the internal disorganisation caused by perpetual struggles for the succession, and partly through certain visible errors in Roman statesmanship. For one thing, the spirit of peace and humanity which was ripening in the securer central parts of the Empire had probably impaired its instincts of defence. The modern world is trying just now to believe that you can retain the power of defence when you have given up all thoughts of aggression. It may be so. The Roman world failed in the attempt. Rome’s statesmen were now no longer soldiers, but lawyers and financiers. Even the prefects of the prætorian guard were lawyers. The army was a profession apart. Moreover, even the army had become so civilised that it had lost many of its martial qualities. Hadrian more than any other ruler is responsible for allowing the cannabæ or “booths” which had sprung up around the camps to grow into towns and even cities. The legions were now permanently established in their quarters, the soldiers married wives and occupied their leisure in business or husbandry. Hadrian it was, too, who in his large cosmopolitan spirit had introduced many and doubtless useful barbarian methods of fighting, so that the old Roman military traditions had fallen into desuetude. A legion was now no better than its auxiliaries. The auxiliaries were often barbarians and soon the legions themselves became completely barbarised. It was only a step further when barbarians were recruited in tribes to fight Rome’s battles under their own commanders.
Secondly, the whole Roman world was being slowly strangled with good intentions. The bureaucracy had grown so highly organised and efficient, so nicely ordered through its various grades of official life, that everybody walked in leading-strings to the music of official proclamations. Paternalism regulated everything with its watchful and benignant eye. The triumph of the system may be seen in the famous Edict of Prices issued by Diocletian in A.D. 301. Here we find scheduled a maximum price for every possible commodity of trade and a maximum wage for every kind of service. Death is the penalty for any trader who asks, or any purchaser who pays a higher price. No difference of locality or season is permitted. Trade is forbidden to fluctuate under penalty of death. This delightful scheme, which was engraved on stone in every market in Europe, was evidently the product of a highly efficient Board of Trade, which had sat late of nights over the study of statistics and political economy. Benevolent officials of this type swarmed all over the empire, spying and reporting on one another as well as on the general public.
The same system of blear-eyed officialism had found a still more ingenious method of throttling the society which it was endeavouring to nurse back into infancy. It was under Severus Alexander (about A.D. 230) that the various collegia or guilds were incorporated by charter, so that every industry whatever became a close corporation. This rendered the task of administration much simpler. It meant that every human occupation became hereditary. There was, for example, a guild of the coloni or tillers of the soil. The most benevolent of the emperors, Marcus Aurelius and the two Severi, had planted barbarians on Roman soil under condition of military service in lieu of rent. This service became hereditary also. Before long each piece of ground had to supply a recruit. The decuriones, moreover, or municipal senators, who had once been the honoured magistrates of their townships, also became a caste. As they were made responsible for the collection of property tax in their boroughs, and as wealth began to decline and taxation to increase, they were reduced to a condition of penury and misery. The exemption from taxation of whole classes of society, such as the soldiers and eventually the Christian clergy, added to their burdens. Then, since many of them attempted to evade the distresses entailed upon their rank by joining the army or even selling themselves into slavery, a decree was issued which made their office hereditary. It became a form of punishment to enrol an offender among these curiales. A decree of Constantine bound all the tillers of the soil in hereditary bondage for ever. In these ways Roman society fell into stagnation. Since the progress of the Manchurian Empire in China proceeded on very similar lines, it looks as if the benevolent despotism engendered by highly centralised government of very large areas was one of the methods by which Providence is accustomed to bring great empires low.
At the close of the third century Diocletian endeavoured to save the state by a bold revolution. He swept away the hollow pretence of republicanism and frankly surrounded the throne with every circumstance of majesty and ceremony. The free access which had generally been granted by the most despotic princes was replaced by an elaborate system of intermediaries. To meet the obvious needs of devolution in government, as well as to stop the incessant struggles for the succession, he invented an ingenious division of responsibility. Henceforth there were to be two Augusti, one taking the East and one the West. The Empire was not actually divided, for the joint writ of the two colleagues was to run all over it. Moreover each Augustus was to have a junior colleague, a “Cæsar,” acting as his lieutenant and prepared to step into his place. Ties of marriage were to unite all four into one close family alliance. There were now one hundred and sixteen provinces and Diocletian grouped them into thirteen “dioceses” each under a “vicar,” directly responsible to one of four “prætorian prefects,” who shared the administration of the whole. The troops were no longer subject to the provincial governors, but each army had a “Duke” (dux) of its own. Each frontier—and these were still further fortified—was under its own “Duke.” At the same time steps were taken to organise a central striking force—the comitatus of the emperors. The four Prefectures and thirteen Dioceses were as follows:
| Oriens— | Egypt | Illyricum— | Macedonia | Italia— | Italia |
| Oriens | Dacia | Illyricum (after Theodosius) | |||
| Pontus | Galliarum— | Gallia | Africa | ||
| Asia | Hispania | ||||
| Thracia | Britannia |
Italy, it will be observed, has now definitely declined into the status of a province among many, and Rome itself was not sufficiently near the frontier armies to be a convenient capital. Diocletian preferred to make his residence at Nicomedia. The senate, as a necessary consequence, receded into the background, and remained little more than a title of dignity. The emperor’s Consistory, a privy council composed of the heads of departments, took its place for practical purposes. The new hierarchy of officials rejoiced in barbaric titles which would have shocked the ears of a genuine Roman.
Plate XCIII. MAUSOLEUM OF PLACIDIA, RAVENNA
Naturally these advances in the direction of more and stronger government proved no alleviation of the woes which sprang from too much supervision. The most visible sign of decay was the decline of population which began to lay the central parts of the Empire desolate, and this sprang not only from economic burdens, but from racial decline. Money became so debased and worthless that the world actually went back to the system of barter.
Constantine signalised Diocletian’s plan of dividing the responsibility of government by founding a new capital at Byzantium. His motives were probably mixed. In the first place he would be free of the awkward republican traditions which still kept reasserting themselves, and in the second place Constantinople was a more central and a much more defensible situation. But, more than all, in this new Rome he could break away from the old religion. Constantine’s plan for restoring the tired and afflicted world was the adoption of Christianity. The Decree of Milan (313) made Christianity the official religion, though not the only religion, of the Empire. It was already the religion of the court—ever since Constantine had seen his famous vision of the Angel descending from Heaven with the sign of the Cross and uttering the words ἐν τούτω νίκα—“Hoc signo vinces.” Still half-pagan, the emperor had made the Cross his mascot, and in the strength of it had defeated his rival at the Milvian Bridge just outside Rome.[92] Constantine himself was by no means a saint; in murdering kinsmen he was, in fact, among the worst of the emperors, but unwittingly he saved the world by his conversion. Meanwhile the extravagance with which he adorned his new city afflicted the whole Empire with the burdens of fresh taxations.
The scheme of a divided Empire failed. After Theodosius (395) the division became permanent. The Eastern throne remained secure for another thousand years, protected by the admirable strategic position of Constantinople. The contempt with which it has hitherto been treated by historians is now beginning to break down, and it is seen that the Byzantine Empire not only stood as the bulwark for the West against the East but preserved for us the inestimable treasures of Greek intellect. The Roman tradition, now inextricably mingled with the Greek, lingered on there unchanged, even to the very chariot-races which still threw society into a ferment. To this day the inhabitants of Greece and Roumania distinguish themselves from their oriental neighbours by the proud title of “Romans.”
But in the West a series of phantoms succeeded one another upon the throne. The floodgates of the Rhine and Danube frontiers broke down completely and the new nations streamed into their heritage. Then it was found how truly Constantine’s policy had saved the world. Though the Goths took and plundered Rome (410), they came in not as pagan destroyers, but as Christian immigrants, and it was Gothic generals and Gothic armies who saved Europe from destruction. About 447 the Mongolian Huns under their terrible Attila came riding into western Europe from the steppes of Russia. They crossed the Rhine half a million strong, destroying and burning as they came. The Roman emperor’s sister Honoria proposed marriage to Attila, and the proud barbarian offered her a place in his harem if she would bring half the Western Empire as her dowry. The Roman general Aetius with a half-barbarian army in alliance with the Visigoths checked them at “The Battle of Chalons” and the peril drifted away. Aetius who had saved Rome was stabbed by his ungrateful emperor.
The Vandals had already overrun Spain and streamed across to Africa, whence they issued forth to make a second sack of Rome. Britain had been deserted rather by the choice of its army than by command of any emperor, and left a prey to the pagans of the north in 406. Italy itself was wholly in the hands of the barbarians, who lived on terms of apparent
Plate XCIV. THE BARBERINI IVORY
equality with the Romans. Puppets wore the imperial purple and did the behests of barbarian “Patricians,” Ricimer the Suevian, Gundobald his nephew, and finally Odoacer, a tribeless barbarian from the north. By this time the Western Empire was dismembered for ever, and western Europe was merely a series of barbarian principalities. In 476 Odoacer removed the last puppet-emperor of Rome, who bore the significant name of Romulus Augustulus. The seat of the Western Empire had long been removed from the twice-sacked city of Rome, and the later princes had ruled from Ravenna, where the little mausoleum of the Empress Placidia, sister of Honorius, still stands as a type of the shrunken glories of the last successors of Augustus.[93]
In theory the Western Empire did not come to an end in 476. The Eastern emperors now claimed authority over the whole Roman world and exercised it so far as they could obtain obedience. Strong Cæsars like Justinian made their rule respected far and wide. Geographically and politically, the West had now begun its mediæval existence as a congeries of small kingdoms generally of uncertain extent.
But in a far truer sense Rome continued to rule the world as before. Her two great legacies, the Roman Law and the Roman Church, ruled it as completely as ever the legions had done. Even in politics, the grand conception of the Christian Republic, Church and State in one, with the Pope as the successor of St. Peter bearing the keys of Heaven and Hell, while the emperor as the successor of Augustus wielded its sword, continued for another thousand years to dominate Europe. It was under the ægis of this great idea that the young nations grew up and came into their own.
Thus the true history of Rome from this point is the history of the Church, and this is no place to relate it. But it may be contended here that the visible Church was as truly a creation of the Roman spirit as was the Empire itself. Rome had seized upon the teaching of One who lived in poverty and obscurity among slaves and outcasts, who preached against worldliness, formality, and ambition, who sent out His disciples to beg their way, and out of this, with her wonderful genius for government, she had created a powerful monarchy which could humble kings, and an organised ecclesiastical state which spread like a network over the earth and tamed the fury of the barbarians.
In the same way the culture of these latter days is to be found in Church History. Augustine, St. John Chrysostom, and Tertullian are its representative writers and thinkers more truly than Ausonius or Claudian. Except for the Arch of Constantine,[94] which was mainly compiled out of earlier remains, its Art is to be found in the sacred mosaics of Constantinople or Torcello, or in the Byzantine ivories such as the famous Barberini panel, showing Constantine as the establisher of the Christian Faith.[95] Architecture continues to show remarkable developments, and in the wonderful palace which Diocletian constructed for his retirement at Spalato on the Dalmatian coast there are new combinations of the Roman arch with the Greek columns which are full of promise for the birth of Gothic art.[96] The earliest Christian churches designed on the plan of a Greek cross, with a dome covering the intersection of nave and transepts, is derived from Asia Minor and bears traces of the oriental influence which is so powerful in Byzantine Art.
FIG. 1.
THE PALACE OF DIOCLETIAN, SPALATO
FIG. 2.
RELIEF FROM THE ARCH OF CONSTANTINE: THE BATTLE OF THE MILVIAN BRIDGE
Plate XCV.
CHRONOLOGICAL SUMMARY
BIBLIOGRAPHY
[The following list of books will serve two purposes, as a guide to the reader who wishes to inquire further on any special point, and as an acknowledgment of some of the obligations of the writer. Only works available in English are here included, and the list is selected rather than exhaustive.]
General Histories of Rome
Pelham. Outlines of Roman History. Rivingtons.
Warde Fowler. Rome. (Home University Library.) Williams and Norgate.
General Histories of the Republic
Mommsen. A History of Rome. 5 vols. Bentley.
Heitland. The Roman Republic, 3 vols. Cambridge University Press.
Myres. A History of Rome. Rivingtons.
How and Leigh. A History of Rome to the Death of Cæsar. Longmans.
General Histories of the Empire
Gibbon. Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire. Ed. Bury. Methuen. 7 vols.
Bury. The Student’s Roman Empire (to the Death of Marcus Aurelius). Murray.
Stuart Jones. Roman Empire. Story of the Nations. Fisher Unwin.
Special Periods and Biographies
Straciian-Davidson. Cicero. Heroes of the Nations. Putnams.
Warde Fowler. Cæsar. Heroes of the Nations. Putnams.
Boissier. Cicero and his Friends. Innes.
Oman. Seven Roman Statesmen. Arnold.
Mommsen. The Provinces of the Roman Empire. 2 vols. Macmillan.
Dill. Roman Society from Nero to Marcus Aurelius. Macmillan.
—— Roman Society in the last Century of the Western Empire. Macmillan.
Rice Holmes. Cæsar’s Conquest of Gaul. Macmillan, and Clarendon Press.
Pais. Ancient Legends of Roman History. Sonnenschein.
Ferrero. Greatness and Decline of Rome. 5 vols. Heinemann.
Tarver. Tiberius the Tyrant. Constable.
Haverfield. The Romanisation of Roman Britain. Clarendon Press.
Politics
Greenidge. Roman Public Life. Macmillan.
Arnold. Roman Provincial Administration. Macmillan.
Morals and Religion
Friedlander. Roman Life and Manners. Routledge.
Warde Fowler. The Religious Experiences of the Roman People. Macmillan.
—— The Roman Festivals. Macmillan.
Glover. Conflict of Religions under the Roman Empire. Methuen.
Ramsay. The Church in the Roman Empire before A.D. 170. Putnams.
Lecky. History of European Morals. Longmans.
Economics
Cunningham. Western Civilisation in its Economic Aspects. Vol. I. Cambridge University Press.
Literature
Sellar. Roman Poets of the Augustan Age. Clarendon Press.
Cruttwell. History of Roman Literature. Griffin.
Mackail. Latin Literature. Murray.
Rushforth. Latin Historical Inscriptions. Clarendon Press.
Art and Archœology
Mrs. Strong. Roman Sculpture. Duckworth.
Walters. The Art of the Romans. Methuen.
Wickhoff. Roman Art. Macmillan.
Mau. Pompeii, its Life and Art. Macmillan.
Hill. Handbook of Greek and Roman Coins. Macmillan.
Topography.
Burn. Rome and the Campagna.
Middleton. Remains of Ancient Rome. 2 vols. 1872.
Murray’s Handbooks.
Baedeker’s Guides.
Lanciani. Ancient Rome in the Light of Recent Discoveries. Macmillan.
Law
Buckland. Roman Law of Slavery. 1908. Cambridge University Press.
Roby. Roman Private Law. 1902. Cambridge University Press.
INDEX
[A], [B], [C], [D], [E], [F], [G], [H], [I], [J], [K], [L], [M], [N], [O], [P], [Q], [R], [S], [T], [V], [W], [X], [Y], [Z]
[Abitene], [194]
Accomplishments, early Roman, [34]
“Accountants,” [276]
Achæan League, [55], [202]
Achaia, [193], [202]
Actium, Battle of, [129], [166], [184], [188], [202], [240]
Actors, [137]
Acts of the Apostles, [200]
Aden, [204]
Adherbal, [91]
Adiabene, [267]
Adige, [220]
Admirals, [187]
Adriatic fleet, [186], [187]
Adultery, law against, [226]
Advertisements, [285]
Ædiles, [30], [32], [134]
Ædui, [262]
Æsopus (actor), [132]
Aetius, [314]
Ætolian cavalry, [55]
Afranius, [123]
Africa, province of, [59], [193], [208], [283];
diocese, [312]
Agathocles, [45], [61]
Agedincum, [212]
Agri Decumates, [264]
Agricola, Julius, [260], [261]
Agriculture, early Roman, [36], [70]
Agrippa, General under Augustus, [165];
intended successor to Augustus, [174], [175],
disciplinarian, [183],
overlord in Asia, [195],
Herod and, [205];
and the worship of Jehovah, [207];
and the conquest of Spain, [221];
married to Julia, [227], [228],
temple erected by, [251]
Agrippa, Marcus Vipsanius, [129]
Agrippa Postumus, [229]
Agrippina, [224]
Agrippina, (mother of Nero), [256], [272]
Alani, [307]
Alba Longa, [25]
Albinus, Spurius, [92]
Alcamenes, [156]
Alcantara, Bridge of, [294]
Alemanni, [309]
Alesia, [116]
Alexander the Great, [1], [6]
Alexandria, Cæsar at, [122],
and convention in literature, [151];
rivalry with Rome, [202], [282],
Jews in, [268]
“Alimenta,” [276]
Aliso, [216]
“Allies and friends,” [28], [60]
Alme, [216]
Alpes Cottiæ, [194]
Alpes Maritimæ, [194]
Alpine tribes, [220]
Alps, the, Hannibal’s march, [50],
roads over, [220]
Amazons, [258], [307]
Amphitheatre, the Grand, [282]
Amphitheatre displays, [74];
butchery, [137]
Amphitheatres, [243], [279];
in Britain, [261]
Ampsaga, river, [208]
Amusements, [136], [279]
“Analecta,” [137]
Anchises, [224]
Ancus Martius, [19]
Ancyra, [199]
Ancyran monument, [188]
Andernach, [264]
Andronikos, [74]
Anglesey, [259], [260]
Anna Perenna, [36], [39]
Antinous, [293]
Antioch, [247], [267], [268], [282]
Antiochus of Syria, [54], [55]
Antium, [134]
Antonine Constitution, [299]
Antonine Wall, [261]
Antonines, the, [277]
Antoninus Pius, [262], [271], [277],
column of, [292]
Antonius (orator), [104]
Antonius, L, [164]
Antony, Mark, and Cæsar, [124],
and the succession, [126], [127],
and Octavian (Augustus), [127], [128], [163], [164],
the Triumvirate, [128],
victories, [128],
and Cleopatra, [128], [129], [164], [203],
and Actium, [130],
marriages, [138],
and Cicero, [148]
Antony and Cleopatra, coins of, [155]
Aosta, [220]
Apelles, [296]
Apennines, slave refugees, [106]
Apicius, [279]
Apollo as a Roman god, [79],
temple to, [168]
Apollodorus, [266]
Apollonia, [201], [202]
Apollonius, [290]
Appian Way, [34]
Appius Claudius, [85]
Appius Claudius (censor), [34], [42], [46]
Appuleian Laws, [95], [99]
Apuleius, [290]
Aquæ Mattiacæ (Wiesbaden), [264]
Aquæ Sextiæ, [94]
Aqueducts, [179], [280], [283], [293]
Aquilegia, [220]
Aquitania, [210]
Arabia, [194], [204], [267]
Arabs, [307]
Aratus, [234]
Arausio (Orange), [94]
Arcesilaus, [156], [249]
Arch, the, [153], [294]
Arch, triumphal, [196]
Archelaus, [206]
Architecture of the Republic, [151-154],
of the Augustan period, [250-252],
of the Empire, [293-297],
later Roman and early Christian, [316]
Arena. See Amphitheatre
Aretine pottery, [159]
Areus, [209]
Arezzo, [120]
Argos, [202]
Aristocracy, government by, [71], [72],
debased, [81],
wealth, [132],
Augustus and, [224];
under the Empire, [254]
Domitian and the, [274].
See also Patricians
Aristotle, [290]
Armenia, [194], [198], [199], [200], [267], [268]
Arminius, [218], [219], [263]
Armour of soldiers, [29], [98]
Army, professional, as constituted by Marius, [96-99],
and government, [99],
under Augustus, [182],
soldiering becomes a profession, [184],
how constituted, [184],
rate of pay, [185];
distribution of the legions, [185];
pay (finance), [188],
bounties to veterans, [189]
Arpinum, [134]
Art, Etruscan, [20];
early Roman, [22], [34], [66],
of the Republic, [151-159],
of the Augustan period, [243-252],
of the Empire, Greek influence, [291],
sculpture, [292],
history of, [293],
influence of Antinous, [293],
architecture, [294-297],
painting, [296],
minor arts, [297],
Byzantine, [316]
“Art, Roman,” [151], [245]
Art collectors under the Republic, [155]
Artillery, [280]
Artists, [248]
Arts, the, and politics, [231]
Arusine Plain, [46]
“Aryan,” [2]
As, the copper (coin), [17], [34], [154]
Aschaffenburg, [264]
Ashtaroth, [39]
Asia Minor, coins of, [249],
Jews in, [268],
Christianity in, [302]
Asia, province of, [59];
wealth, [61], [64];
taxes, [88],
control by Augustus, [178];
senatorial province, [193],
security in, [200],
diocese, [312]
“Asiarchs,” [201]
Assassins, [268]
Assessments for taxes, [276]
Assyria, [267]
Asturians, [220]
Asturica Augusta (Astorga), [221]
Athens and Rome, contrast between, [2],
allied with Rome, [55],
Sulla and, [101],
and education, [133],
an allied state, [194],
position of, under Rome, [201],
new quarter, [284]
Athletics, [286]
Atrium, the, [135]
Attalids, the, of Pergamum, [246]
Attalus, [55]
Attalus III., [59]
Attica, [201]
Atticus, [131], [233]
Attila, [314]
Attius, [138]
Augsburg, [220]
Augurs, [133]
Augusta Emerita (Merida), [221]
Augusta (legion), [183]
“Augustals,” [181]
“Augustan” age, the. See Augustus
Augustan history, [305]
Augusti, [312]
Augustine, [316]
Augustulus, Romulus, [315]
Augustus (Gneius Octavius, Octavianus) adds Egypt to the Empire, [60],
Cæsar’s heir, [124], [127],
takes up his inheritance, [127];
triple alliance, [128],
pursues the tyrannicides, [128]
master of the West, [129],
becomes the Emperor Augustus, [100], [130];
health, [136];
and literature, [151];
and monarchy, [161],
statesmanship, [161], [182],
Suetonius on, [162];
character, [163],
and Cleopatra, [164],
policy, [164], [165],
triumph, [165];
and peace [166],
and the patricians, [167];
takes a census, [167],
strengthens the senate, [167];
improves Rome, [167],
establishes the Empire, [168],
senate names him Augustus, [169],
“restores the Republic,” [168], [169],
constitutional position, [170],
wealth, [172],
as censor, [172],
consulships, [173];
tribunician power, [173],
successors, [174],
age and reign, [175];
and the senate, [175],
pretended abdication, [177],
powers, [177],
patron of the people, [180]
and the laws, [180];
military position, [182],
creates a navy, [186],
and public finance, [188],
his generosity, [188],
his provinces, [194],
account of condition of Italy, [196],
and the Parthians, [197],
cult of himself, [201], [225];
and Egypt, [203],
and the Soudan, [204],
and Herod, [206],
and the Jews, [207];
in Sicily, [209],
and Gaul, [209],
and Germany, [212],
and Spain, [220];
results of his rule, [221],
his work, [223],
aristocracy and, [224],
plots against, [224],
flattery, [224];
and the regeneration of Roman society, [225];
as a father, [226];
marriages, [226];
and the succession, [228],
family, [229],
his habits, [229],
character, [230],
education, [231],
and literature [232];
in Vergil, [234];
in Horace, [239],
and art, [243],
and rebuilding of Rome, [244], [248],
culture, [252],
and the enlargement of the Empire, [259]
Aurelian, [307]
Aurelius, Marcus, Antonine dynasty, [277];
philosophy fashionable under, [279],
Galen, his state physician, [290],
portrait, [292], [294];
hostile to Christianity, [302],
and immortality, [303],
Rome under, [305],
and the barbarians, [309], [311]
Ausonius, [316]
Austria, [217], [220]
Autonomy, local, [284]
Aventine Hill, [280]
Avernus, Lake of, [186]
Axiomitæ, [307]
[Ba’albek], [282], [295]
Bacchic mysteries, [79]
Bacchus, [240]
Bactrians, [307]
Bætica, [221]
Baiæ, [134], [251], [257], [296];
Turner’s picture of, [283]
Bakery account from Pompeii, [285]
Balearic slingers, [98]
Balkans, [220]
Bank rate, [166]
Bankrupts and the senate, [103]
Banks, [64]
Banquets, [133], [136], [196]
Barberini panel, [316]
Barcas, the, [49]
Barea Soranus, [273], [300]
Barristers, [298]
Batanæa, [194]
Batavian cavalry, [184]
Baths, [136], [196], [243], [261], [283]
Baths of Titus, the, [293]
Battle-array, [29]
Beasts for the arena, [133]
Bedriacum, [273]
Beja, [221]
Belgica, [210]
Bestia, [91], [92]
Bibulus, [111]
Bithynia, [60], [193], [200]
“Bithyniarchs,” [201]
Black Sea, [186], [220], [297]
Blemyes, [307]
Boadicea, [219], [260]
Bœotia, [201]
Bohemia, [217]
Books, [131],
Cicero’s books, [134]
Bosco Reale, [249]
Bosphorus, [194]
Brenner Pass, [263]
Brennus, [199]
Brescia, [196]
Bribery and corruption, [79], [133]
Brickwork, [294]
Bridge, marble, [196]
Brigantes, the, [261], [262]
Britain, Cæsar’s expeditions to, [117],
Cæsar on, [150];
Augustus and, [170], [209], [210],
conquest of, [259],
empire-building in, [260];
and Roman civilisation, [261],
roads, [262];
walls, [261], [262],
and the “Latin right,” [299];
and separate unity, [308],
diocese, [312],
deserted, [314]
Britannicus, [272]
Britons, the, [114]
Bronze-work, [297]
Brotherhood of man, [302]
Brundisium, [145]
Bruttium, [45], [47]
Brutus and liberty, [33];
as hero, [112],
against Cæsar, [124],
and the assassination of Cæsar, [126],
and the succession, [127],
fall of, [128],
bust of, [157],
as martyr, [173],
and Horace, [237]
Budgets under Augustus,
[192]
Buffer states, [198], [199], [214]
Building, early, [19],
materials (houses), [135], [153],
principles of, [153];
brickwork, [294];
villas, [295]
Bureaucracy, [171], [181], [270], [272], [276], [278], [310]
Burgundians, [212], [213]
Byzantine (Constantinople), [313]
Byzantine art, [316]
Byzantine Empire, the, [313]
Cadiz, [49]
Cæcilius, [76]
“Cæsar” (Emperor), [112]
“Cæsar and the Roman People,” cult of, [207]
Cæsar Augusta (Saragossa), [221]
Cæsar, Gaius Julius, adds Gaul to the Empire, [60],
and the monarchy, [100],
birth and lineage, [109],
as Pontifex Maximus, [109];
and the conspiracy of Catiline, [110],
prætor to Spain, [110],
the Triumvirate, [110];
becomes Consul, [110];
conquests of Gaul, [111], [116],
honours paid to, by poets and others, [112],
account of the Gallic Wars, [112];
as historian, [113], [150],
his greatness, [113];
his work, [114],
as a soldier, [116];
and Britain, [117], [150],
and Pompeius, [114], [119],
civil war, [120],
devotion of his men, [121],
conquers at Pharsalus, [121], [122],
in Egypt, [122],
and Cleopatra, [122],
conquests, [122], [123],
supporters, [124],
reforms, [125],
kingship, [125],
slain, [126],
his will, [127],
wealth of, [132],
epileptic, [135],
wives, [138],
and Roman history, [145],
as orator, [149],
his Commentaries, [149],
portraits, [157],
and monarchy, [161],
temple to, [166];
The Commentaries and Germany, [214],
deified, [225],
as poet, [232].
Cæsar, L., [104]
Cæsar-worship, [231], [267], [300]
Cæsarea, [206], [268]
Cæsarion, [122]
Cæsars, the, [254]
Calabria, [45]
Caledonians, the, [261], [262]
Caligula (Gaius Cæsar), [253], [268], [269], [271], [272]
Callimachus, [239]
Callipolis, [286]
Calpurnia, [126]
Cameos, [249]
Campagna, the Roman, [12], [25],
shepherds, [37]
Campania, [28], [34], [283]
Campanian Road, [134]
Campus Martius, [36], [153]
Camulodunum (Colchester), [259], [260]
Candace, [205]
Candlestick, the seven-branched golden, [269]
Cannabæ, [310]
Cannæ, [51]
Canon law, [299]
Cantabrians, [220]
Capital punishment, [43]
Capitol, the, [25], [153], [293], [307]
Capitoline Hill, [282]
Cappadocia, [194], [267]
Capri, [229]
Capua, [51]
Caracalla, [292], [299], [306]
Caradoc, [260]
Carbo, [94]
Carducci and Catullus, [144]
Carrhæ, [119], [197]
Carthage, the early Romans and, [13], [17],
Roman treaty with, 348 B.C., [26],
Pyrrhus and the Carthaginians, [46],
Carthaginian Wars, [47],
First Punic War, [48],
Second Punic War, [49],
and Hannibal, [50],
defeated, [53],
Third Punic War, [57],
siege and destruction, [58],
a province, [59],
colony at, [88];
refounded as colony by Augustus, [208],
Carthaginian invaders of Sicily, [209]
Carus, [308]
Carving (food), [137]
Caspian Sea, [213]
Cassius, [112], [126-128], [271]
Castle of St. Angelo, [294]
Catiline, conspiracy of, [110];
Cicero on, [147]
Cato (the Censor), prayer on cutting a grove quoted, [40],
and Carthage, [57],
and slaves, [71];
and luxury, [72],
and prudishness, [80];
policy of, [83]
Cato the younger (of Utica), character, [111],
and the end of the Republic, [108], [118];
death, [123],
wives, [138];
and Stoicism, [139],
and the senate, [147];
austerity, [148]
Catullus, [104], [142], [232], [243]
Caudine Pass, the, [28]
Celibacy, tax on, [190], [226]
Celtic religion, [221]
Celts, the, [115]
Censors, [32], [72], [272]
Censorship of letters, [232]
Census-taking, [32], [167]
Ceres, [38], [39]
Chalons, Battle of, [314]
Chariot-racing, [279], [280], [314]
Charlemagne, [112]
Chastity, [33]
Chatti, [263]
Chauci, [216], [263]
Cheruscia, [216], [217], [218], [219]
Chester, [260]
Christianity and Cæsar worship, [201], [300],
conflict with Mithraism, [299];
Rome and the establishment of, [300],
Stoicism and, [300], [302],
confounded with Judaism, [300],
scruples of Christians, [301],
proselytes, [301],
inquisitions and martyrdoms, [301],
Edict of Milan, [302];
hostility of emperors, [302],
monotheism, [303],
rites and saints taken from paganism, [303],
the Church and the Roman political system, [304],
Constantine and, [313],
Rome and the Church, [315]
Chronological summary of Roman history, [317-324]
Chrysostom, St. John, [316]
Church and state, [315]
Churches, Christian, [316]
Cicero, Latinity of, [9],
the translation of, [10],
and pleading in law, [43],
and Pompeius, [108],
oration on Manilius, [109],
and the conspiracy of Catiline, [110],
policy, [110],
exile, [118], [127],
slain, [128],
his gains as governor of Cilicia, [131],
his wealth, [131], [134],
his houses, [134],
and library, [134],
health, [135],
divorces his wife, [138],
and Plato, [139];
his influence on Latin literature, [144];
his policy and rhetoric, [145],
his character, [145];
creator of Latin prose, [146], [231],
his style, [146],
as a lawyer, [146];
oratory, [147];
political life, [148],
his end, [148],
bust of, [157];
and immortality, [231],
not a client, [232]
Cicero, Quintus, [124], [146]
Cilicia, a province, [59], [193], [200];
pirate-state at, [106],
Cicero’s gains as governor, [131]
Cimbri, the invasion by the, [93];
defeated by Marius, [94]
Cincinnatus, [33]
Cineas, [46]
Cinna (consul), [104]
Circus Maximus, [280]
Circuses, [243]
Cirta, [91]
Citizenship, Roman, [27], [30], [299]
“City Legion,” [184]
City prefect, [182]
City-states, the, [6], [27], [69], [278]
Civic ardour, [284]
Civil law of Rome, [298]
Civil service, the, [276]
Civil War, First, [120-123]
Civil War, Second, [128], [129]
Civil wars, restorations after the, [196]
Civilisation, early Roman, [34],
under the Republic, [130],
under Augustus, [200]
Classical education, [291]
Classical literature, the golden age of, [150]
Classicism, [9]
Claudian, [316]
Claudian house, the, [227]
Claudian law, [132]
Claudian Way, [220]
Claudii, the, [24], [42], [72]
Claudius, Suetonius on, [162],
forbids Druidism, [211],
his character, [254];
best of the Claudian Cæsars, [255],
and Messalina, [255], [256],
and Germany, [263],
and Thrace, [265],
as Cæsar, [271], [272];
death, [272],
building under, [293]
Claudius Gothicus, [307]
Cleopatra and Cæsar, [122];
and Antony, [126], [128], [129], [138], [203],
and Augustus, [164],
and Herod the Great, [205]
Cleopatra’s daughter, [208]
Clergy, Christian, [311]
Clerks, copying, [131]
Client system, [72];
in literature, [232]
Clodia, [138]
Clodius, [108], [111], [118], [119]
Clœlia, [33]
Cohorts, [98];
urban, [186],
of watchmen, [186]
Coinage, early, [17],
copper, [34]
Coins under the Republic, [154],
portraits on, [158];
legionary, [183],
with Parthian suppliant, [198];
for Judæa, [207],
of Asia Minor, [249]
Colchester, [259], [260]
Collecting art objects, [225], [248]
“Collegia,” [284]
Collegial system, [31]
Colline Gate, the, [105]
Coloni (tillers of the soil), [311]
Colonia Agrippinensis (Cologne), [215], [219], [263]
Colonnades, [196], [243], [250]
Colosseum, the, [282], [293]
Columella, [290]
Columns in architectures, [154]
Comedy, [75-77]
Comitatus, the, [312]
Comitia, [25], [30], [36], [86], [174], [179]
Commagene, [194], [199]
Commander of legions, [134]
Commerce, [131]
Commodus, [264], [277]
Como, [283], [296]
Companies, commercial, [131]
Consilium, [176]
Constantine, Arch of, [280], [316],
Basilica of, [282]
Constantine, Emperor, Cæsar and, [112],
and a new senate, [179];
and Christianity, [302], [313],
and tillers of the soil, [311],
founds Constantinople, [313]
Constantinople founded, [313],
mosaics of, [316]
Constitution of ancient Rome, [30]
Consuls, [25], [30], [31], [63], [125], [134], [181], [193]
Copper coinage, [34], [154]
Coptos, [204]
Corduba, [220]
Cordus, Cremutius, [271]
Corinth destroyed, [57], [58];
restored by Julius Cæsar, [302];
and Greek art, [247]
Corinthian column, the, [250]
Corn, duty on, [273]
Corn-supply, [69], [109], [181], [188], [190], [209], [308]
Corn trust, Sicilian, [109]
Cornelia, mother of the Gracchi, [84]
Cornelia, daughter of Scribonia, [240]
Cornelii, the, [72]
Corocota (Gaius Julius Caracuttus), [221]
“Correctors,” [276]
Corsica, [48], [59], [193]
Coryphæus, [280]
Courage an early Roman virtue, [33]
Crassus, Marcus, subdues the rising of the slaves, [106],
defeated at Carrhæ, [107], [119],
his wealth, [107], [132],
and Cæsar, [110], [114], [118],
the conspiracy of Catiline, [110]
Crassus (orator), [84], [104]
Cremera, Battle of, [24]
Cremona, [53]
Cretan archers, [98]
Crete, [38], [60], [193], [208]
Cross, the, Constantine and, [313]
Cruttwell, C. T., on Ovid, [240]
Ctesiphon, [267]
Culture and religion, [35]
Cumæ, [134]
Cura annonæ, [190]
“Curators,” [276]
Curiales, [311]
Curies, [30]
Curtius, Quintus, [33]
Curule chair, the, [22]
Customs duties, [272]
Cybele, the worship of, [79]
Cyclades, the, [201]
Cymbeline, [259]
Cynics, the, [302]
Cynocephalæ, [55]
Cyprus, [178], [193], [200]
Cyrenaica, [193], [208]
Cyrene, [60], [208], [268]
Cytheris, [126], [138]
Dacia, [265], [266], [267], [312]
Dalmatia, [193], [265]
Dalmatian War, [187]
Damascus, [268]
Danish shores, [213]
Dante and Cæsar, [112],
Dante’s debt to Roman poets, [289]
Danube, the, [197], [218], [219], [220], [263], [264], [265], [306], [309], [314]
Danube frontier, [220]
Dead, burial of the, [34]
Death, [303]
Death-duties, [189]
Death-masks,
[248]
Debtors, punishment of, [43]
Decebalus, [265]
Decemviri, [42]
Decius, [301]
Decuriones, [195], [311]
“Delation,” [204], [272], [275], [277]
Delphi, [101], [201]
Delphic Amphictyony, the, [202]
Demetrius, [51]
Democracy, the Gracchi and, [86], [90],
Julius Cæsar and, [109]
Democritus, [139]
Denarius, silver, [207]
Despotism, benevolent, [311]
Development fund, [276]
Diana, [38], [39], [238]
Diana of Ephesus, Temple of, [201]
Dictator, [125]
Dill, Dr. Samuel, on Pliny, [279], [284]
Dining, [133]
Dinner-parties, [136]
Dio Cassius, [168], [182]
Dio Chrysostom, [290]
“Dioceses,” [312]
Diocletian, [271], [301], [310], [311]
Diocletian, palace of, [316]
Diplomacy, Roman, [26]
Discipline, Roman, [26], [183],
of army, [97]
Divination, Etruscan, [21]
Divodurum, [212]
Divorce, [80], [136], [226]
Docks, [186]
Domitian, unpopular, [177],
and Britain, [261],
and imperial expansion, [264],
and Decebalus, [265],
a tyrant, [274],
and the senate, [274],
assassination, [275],
and Titus, [293]
Doric architecture, [153],
column, [250]
Drama, beginnings, [73],
Greek tragedies translated for Roman stage, [75];
comedies, [75],
under the Republic, [137]
Drinking, [136]
Druidism, [114], [211], [259]
Drusus, [184], [215], [227], [239]
Drusus, M. Livius, [102]
Dukes (dux), [312]
Durocortorum, [212]
Dutch horsemen, [184]
Dutch shores, [213]
Dutch territory, [216]
Duties, customs, [212], [273]
Duumviri, [195]
Dyarchy, the, [177], [275]
Eagle, the silver (standard), [98]
Eagles, Roman, captured, [197]
East, the, and Roman art, [249]
Eating, [136]
Eburacum (York), [261]
Edict of Milan, [302]
Edicts, perpetual, [298], [299]
Education beginnings, [74],
under the Republic, [132],
in Gaul, [211],
and schools in 200 a.d., [280];
Pliny endows a secondary school, [283],
and schools under the Empire, [285-286]
Egnatius Rufus, [180]
Egypt allied against Philip of Macedon, [55],
conquered by Octavian (Augustus), [60], [130], [166],
Pompeius and Cæsar in, [122],
private possession of Augustus, [170], [172],
prefect of, [180], [194],
corn-supply, [190];
wealth, [202],
under Augustus, [203];
religion, [203],
taxes, [203];
canals and irrigation, [203],
reservoirs, [204],
position of prefect, [204],
and Greek art, [247];
rebels in the triumph of Aurelian, [307],
a diocese, [312]
Elagabalus, [306]
Elbe, the, [216], [217], [218]
Election posters, [285]
Electra (sculpture), [249], [250]
Elephantine, Nilometer at, [204]
Elephants, [46]
Eleusinian mysteries, [55], [231]
Emesa, [194], [199];
fetish-stone, [306]
Empire-building, [28], [44], [211]
Empire, the early, history, [162];
establishment of, [168];
illegitimate, [254];
during its first century, [259];
limits of the, [269],
junior colleagues to Cæsar, [276],
weak through its vastness, [308];
decay, [313];
divided, [313];
dismembered, [314]
Empire, the Eastern, [313]
Ems, [216], [264]
Ennius, [76], [78], [138], [236]
Ephesus, [201], [247], [282]
Epictetus, [302]
Epicurus, [139]
Epirot phalanx, [46]
Equality, [33], [71]
Equestrian class (Equites), [64], [88], [97], [180]
Eros (Egyptian tax-gatherer), [191]
Esquiline Camp, [258]
Esquiline Hill, [25]
Ethics, Christian, [302], [303]
Etruria, conquests, [28],
Sullan colonists in, [110]
Etruscans, the, neighbours at beginning of Rome, [13];
piracy, [13], [17],
remains, [14], [20],
conquest of Rome, [19],
their origin, [20],
art, [20], [22],
character, [21],
divination, [21];
costumes, [22],
decline of the Etruscan power, [23],
Etruscan princes of Rome, [20], [23],
enemy of Rome, [28];
gods, [39],
portraiture, [152], [156],
and Roman architecture, [153],
and Roman art, [248]
Eudæmones, [307]
Euhemerism, [201]
Euphrates, the, [197], [267]
Europe, Rome and the making of, [5];
Germany and the history of, [213]
Extortion, [133], [191], [209], [212], [273]
Extravagances, [279]
Fabii, the, [24], [72]
Fabius, Pictor, [150]
Fabius, Quintus, [51]
Family, the, [225]
Famine, [190]
Farnese Palace, [251]
“Father of his country,” [179]
Fatherhood, [226]
Fatherhood of God, [303]
Fathers, power of, [25]
Fauns, [37]
Faustina, [224]
Feasting, [133], [136]
Felix, [206]
Fencing, [98]
Ferrero, Signor G., on Cæsar’s character, [112],
on Augustus, [199],
and Gaul, [210]
Festivals, early Roman, [36]
Festus, [207]
Fever, malarial, [135]
Fifth Legion, [215]
Finance, beginnings, [66],
under Augustus, [187],
gifts, [188],
property-tax and death-duties, [189],
of the senate, [192]
Financial corruption, [64]
Financiers, [194]
Fire-brigade, [181], [186]
Flamines, [38]
Flaminian Way, [196]
Flaminii, the, [72]
Flamininus, [55]
Flavian age, the, [293]
Flavian dynasty, [274]
Flax, [212]
Flora, [38], [39]
Footmen, [137]
Fordicidia, [40]
Formiæ, [134]
Fortifications, frontier, [261], [262], [264]
Fortuna Virilis, [39];
Temple of, [153], [154]
Fortune-hunters, [226]
Forum, the, [33], [252]
Forum Julii (Fréjus), [187]
Forums, [280], [282]
Fowler, W. Warde, [35]
France, roads of, [211]
Frankfort, [264]
Franks, [212], [213], [307], [309]
Fratres Arvales, [39]
Frazer, J. G., [35]
“Free” states, [60]
Freedmen, [181]
Freeman, E. A., [19]
Fréjus, [187]
French Revolution, the, and the Roman Republic, [71]
Frescoes, [296]
Friezes, [246]
Frisians, [216]
Frontiers, [223];
fortified, [261],
natural, [266]
Fulvia, [126], [127], [129], [138], [149]
Furniture, [297]
Gabii, [25]
Gabinian Law, [109]
Gadara, [205]
Gades, [220], [282]
Gætulian nomads, [208]
Gaius (Emperor). See Caligula
Gaius, over-lord in Asia, [195]
and the Parthian king, [200],
and the succession, [228],
tutor and servants of, [230]
Gaius, “Institutes” of, [299]
Galatia, [193], [199]
Galatians, [184]
Galba, [179], [258], [273]
Galen, [290]
Galilee, [194], [206], [268]
Gallia. See Gaul
Gallienus, [306], [307]
Gallus, Cornelius, [203], [204], [232], [234]
Gamaliel, [207]
Games, public, [137]
Gardening, [296]
Gardthausen, Dr., on Augustus, [162],
on the Roman Army and the British Empire, [186]
Gaul, The Gauls and Etruria, [23], [28],
Gallic invasion of 390 b.c., [25], [26],
conquest of the Gauls, [49],
allies of Hannibal, [50],
revolt of the Gauls, [53], [117],
Southern Gaul, [59],
Cisalpine Gaul, [60];
Gallia Narbonensis, [59], [193], [209],
Gallia Comata, [60], [210],
conquest by Cæsar, [111],
Cæsar and the Gallic wars, [112],
the Gauls, time of Cæsar, [114],
politics, [116];
and Augustus, [169], [172],
province, [193];
Gauls in Galatia, [199];
under Augustus, [209-211];
gods, [211],
tribes, [211];
German inroads, [215];
revolt against Nero, [257],
and Britain, [259];
civilisation, [262],
nationality, [262],
“Empire of the Gauls,” [262],
Gallic communities and the “Latin right,” [299];
Gallic empire destroyed, [307];
unity, [308],
diocese, [312]
Geese, sacred, [59]
Gems, portraits on, [158]
Generosity, public, [284]
Genius (luck), [37], [156]
Geographical knowledge, ancient, [59]
Germanicus as General in Germany, [184], [217], [218], [219], [263],
Augustus and the children of, [226],
the poisoning of, [255]
Germany, Cæsar and the Germans, [117],
German slaves bodyguard, [184],
German revolt, [184],
province Germania, [193],
Augustus and, [197], [212],
and its conquest, [214-220]
social system and tribes, [214],
inroads into Gaul, [215],
unconquered, [263];
Germans in the triumph of Aurelian, [307],
unity, [308]
Ghosts (Lemures), [37]
Gibbon, Edward, influence of, on view of Roman history, [3];
and the Roman imperial system, [277]
Gladiatorial combats, [74]
Gladiators, [71], [131], [133], [137], [185], [280], [282]
Glaucia, [95]
Gluttony, [136], [279]
Glycon, [156]
Gods, loves of the, in Ovid, [240]
Gods, Roman. See Religion
Gold mines of Macedon, [54], [58]
Golden House, the, of Nero, [256], [293]
Goldsmith art, [249]
Gordians, the, [306]
Goths, the, [213], [299], [307], [309], [314]
Government, Roman, benevolent, [61];
local autonomy to conquered territories, [62];
want of policy by senate, [82]
Governors, Roman, [63], [134]
Gracchi, the, [84]
Gracchus, Gaius, takes up reform, [87];
elected a tribune, [88],
his policy, [88-89],
murdered, [89]
Gracchus, Tiberius, [84],
training, [85],
and the land, [85], [86];
and democracy, [86],
elected a tribune, [86],
murdered, [87]
Græco-Roman culture under Augustus, [231],
and Roman literature, [288]
Gravitas, [43]
Greece, resemblances between Rome and, [1],
Greece and expansion, [6];
influence of, on Rome, [72], [74], [81],
influence of, on Roman literature, [151],
and Roman architecture, [153], [250], [251],
influence of, on portraiture, [157],
Roman veneration for Greece, [201],
and Roman education, [201],
position of, in the Roman Empire, [201],
Greek religion, [207],
and Roman art, [243-252]
Greek cities, [194]
Greek culture, extent of, [200],
in Rome, [231]
Greek drama for the Roman stage, [75], [76]
Greek mythology and Roman religion, [35], [39]
Greek philosophy in Rome, [139]
Greek sculpture in Rome, [155]
Grotius, [298]
Grove, prayer on cutting down a, [40],
sacred, [211]
Gruningen, [264]
Guilds (collegia), [284], [311]
Gundobald, [314]
Hadrian visits Britain, [261];
strengthens the Limes Trans-Rhenanus, [264]
and the Parthians, [267],
as Emperor, [275], [276],
life under, [279],
freedom of letters under, [163], [289],
and Greek art, [293],
and law, [299];
and the army, [310]
Hadrian, wall of, [261]
Hadrian’s villa, [296]
Hamilcar, [49]
Hannibal, genius of, [47],
and foreign conquest, [49];
becomes leader of the Carthaginians, [50];
his greatness and character, [50],
march over the Alps, [50];
as a strategist, [51],
defeats, [52], [53],
Antiochus and, [56]
Harbour dues, [61]
Harbours,
[187]
Hasdrubal, [50], [52]
Head, Barclay, on Roman coins, [154]
Heating of houses, [280]
Heliopolis. See Ba’albek
“Helladarch,” [202]
Hellenism, [10], [72], [74]
Helvetians, the, [94], [111]
Heraclea, [46]
Herculaneum, [297]
Hercules, the Farnese, [156]
Hercules, Temple of, [250]
Hermann. See Arminius
Hermodorus, [153]
Herod Antipas, [206]
Herod the Great, [184], [198], [205], [206]
Herodes Atticus, [284]
Hesiod, [234]
Hexameter, the Latin, [78], [232]
Hiberi, [307]
Hiero of Syracuse, [23], [51], [61]
Hildesheim, [249]
Hippocrates, [290]
Hirpinus, [280]
Hispania Bætica, [193]
Hispania. See Spain
Historians, [138], [150], [305]
Historical reliefs (sculpture), [248]
History, the arts and politics in, [231]
History, early Roman, worthlessness of, [24],
Tacitus and Roman history, [253], [289],
lack of interest, [288]
Holland, North, [216]
Holy of Holies, [207]
Homer’s Odyssey translated, [74]
Honoria, [314]
Horace quoted on the past of Rome, [7];
Latinity of, [9],
on Hannibal, [52];
his health, [136],
on the Portus Julius, [187];
and the Parthians, [197], [199],
and Arabia Felix, [204];
on the conquest of Britain, [209],
educated in Greece, [237],
and Cæsarism, [237];
Satires, [237],
lyrical odes, [237];
drama, [238],
Odes, [238];
Century Hymn, [238],
Secular Games, [238],
celebrates Augustus, [239],
pictures the life of Rome, [239];
losses in the Civil War, [243],
and satire, [289]
Horatii, [24]
Horatius and the saving of Rome, [19], [33]
Hortensius, [138]
Houses, [134], [135], [152], [296]
Humanitarianism, [303]
Huns, the, [214], [314]
Iceni, the, [260]
Ictinus, [295]
Idealism in Greek art, [158]
Ides of March, [36], [126]
Idistavisus, [219], [263]
Illyria, [48]
Illyrian War, [166],
revolt, [217]
Illyricum, [193], [312]
Imagines, [156], [158]
Immortality, [303]
Imperator, [183]
Imperial administration centralised, [278],
junior colleagues to Cæsar, [276],
imperial succession, [306]
Imperium, [31]
India, trade with, [204],
Greek art, [247]
Informers. See “Delation”
Inquisitions, [301]
Inscriptions from Pompeii, [285]
International law, [298]
Intrigue, [224], [229]
Ionic columns, [154]
Ireland, [261]
“Irene,” [169]
Irish, Gallic Celts and the, compared, [115]
Isis, [39], [139], [203];
priests of, [282]
Isthmian games, [55]
Italian “allies” and the franchise, [102]
Italians, citizen rights for, [88-89]
Italian, the modern, and the ancient Roman compared, [13]
Italy, divisions of, [12],
invasions, [15],
Civil War, [106],
under Augustus, [196];
colonies in, [196],
a province, [278], [312];
and the barbarians, [314]
Ivories, Byzantine, [316]
James, Wm., on war, [54]
Janus, [38], [154], [166]
Jerome and Lucretius, [142]
Jerusalem, Cæsar and, [123],
under Augustus and the Herods, [205], [206], [207],
destruction of, [268]
Jesus Christ, [205], [206]
Jewellery, [297]
Jewish law, [207];
religion, [207]
Jews in the Roman provinces, [200], [208],
under Augustus, [205-207],
under the Empire, [267-269]
See also Judæa
John, St., and Philo, [300]
Johnson, Dr., and Latin, [8]
Juba, King, [122], [123], [208]
Judæa, province, [194],
under Augustus, [205-207];
government and conquest, [267], [268]
Judaism, [300]
Jugurtha, [84], [91-93]
Julia (daughter of Augustus), [175], [227], [228], [229], [230]
Julia (the younger), Ovid and, [241], [242]
Julian Alps, [220]
Julian laws, [226]
Julianus, Salvius, [299]
Julii, the, [72]
Julius Nicanor, [201]
Juno, [39]
Jupiter, [38], [39], [79], [139], [240], [307]
Jupiter Capitolinus, Temple of, [152], [153], [269], [282]
Jupiter, Temple of, in Mount Zion, [269]
Jurisprudentes, [298]
Jus fetiale, [298];
jus gentium, [298],
jus naturæ, [298]
Justice, [270], [272]
Justinian, [299], [315]
Juvenal and emperors, [11], [138], [163], [242], [278],
Latin of, [287];
and satire, [289];
and ethics, [303]
Kent, [150]
King, the, [41]
Kingship, early, [19]
Knuckle-bones, [229]
Labienus, [121], [123]
Labour, free, and slavery, [71]
Lacedæmon, [201]
Lacerna, [280]
Lacinian Promontory, the, [45]
Laconia, Northern, [201]
Lahn, river, [264]
Lampridius, [305]
Land as property, [34],
land speculation, [67], [131],
neglect of the, [85],
Tiberius Gracchus and, [87],
Gaius Gracchus and, [88],
Marius and, [95],
Licinian land law, [86],
land-tax in Gaul, [190],
land system of Gaul, [211]
Langobardi See Lombards
Lares, [37]
Latin, use of, [9],
culture, [9],
eclipse of Latin studies, [9]
Latin festival, [38]
Latin League, the, [25], [26], [27]
Latin period, the (literature), [146]
“Latin right,” [299]
Latin and Teutonic races, contest between, [213]
Latinism, [8]
Latium, Plain of, [25]
Law, Roman devotion to, [33],
early Roman, [41-43],
in Gaul, [211],
Julian laws, [225-226],
under the Empire, [297-299],
a legacy to the world, [315]
Legates, [193]
Legion, composition of a, [98], [172]
Legionaries, the, [98]
Legiones (Leon), [221]
Lemures, [37]
Leon, [221]
Lepidus, [128], [163]
Lesbia, [143]
Levies for army, [97]
Lex, the, [179]
Lex Claudia, [67]
Liberty, love of, [33],
religious, [270]
Libraries, [168], [243], [283]
Licinian laws, [86]
Licinius (tax-gatherer in Gaul), [191], [212]
Licinius Macer (annalist), [150]
Lictors, [30], [282]
Ligurian cavalry, [98]
Lilybæum, [46]
Limes Trans-Rhenanus, [264],
Rhætian, [264]
Linz, [264]
Lippe, [216]
Literature, early Roman, [34],
beginnings of, [75];
of the Republic, [142-151],
in Rome under Augustus, [231],
patrons, [232],
the State and, [241], [243],
golden age of (“Augustan”), [242],
popularity of, under the Empire, [286],
and tyranny, [287],
its eclipse, [287],
freedom of, [289],
lack of originality, [291]
Livia Drusilla, [227], [228]
Livia, house of, [296]
Livii, the, [72]
Livius Andronicus, [74]
Livy and the foundation of Rome, [17],
and political equality, [30];
as historian, [150], [151],
freedom accorded to, [232];
and Tacitus compared, [289]
Loans, [131]
Local government in Roman provinces, [61]
Logos, the Divine, [300]
Lombards, [213], [217]
London (Londinium), [260], [282]
London, modern, Roman architecture in, [251]
Longinus, [94]
Lorch, [264]
Lucan, Latinity of, [9],
and Spain, [220], [290],
and republicanism, [242], [273],
the Pharsalia, [288]
Lucca, conference at, [119]
Lucceius, [145]
Lucian, [290]
Lucilius, [237]
Lucius, [228]
Lucretia, [33]
Lucretius and Epicurean philosophy, [139],
quoted, [140], [141],
as poet, [141], [142], [243],
a free poet, [232],
Vergil’s use of, [236]
Lucrine Lake, [186]
Lucullus, [153]
Lucullus, gardens of, [255]
Ludians, [307]
Lugdunensis, [210]
Lugdunum (Lyons), [210], [211], [262], [282]
Lupercalia, [125]
Lusitania, [221]
Lutetia, [211]
Luxury, [72], [134], [136]
Lycaonia, [193]
Lycia, [194]
Lyons See Lugdunum
Lytton, Lord, [279]
Maas, the, [263]
Macedonia, [56], [59], [61], [193], [202], [312]
Macedonian War, Second, [54]
Macedonian War, Third, [65]
Macrobius, [133]
Mæcenas, Octavian’s agent at Rome, [129], [165],
his rank, [181],
a poet, [232],
and literary patronage, [233],
and Vergil, [234],
and Horace, [237], [239]
Magistracy, the, [41], [72],
magistracies, [278]
Magistrates, [30], [32], [62], [179], [181], [190], [311]
Magnesia, [56]
Mainz, [216], [219], [263]
Maison Cairée, [251]
Mamurra, [135]
Manes, [37]
Manilius (tribune), [109]
Maniples, battle formation, [29], [97];
number of men, [98]
Mantua, Vergil and, [233], [234]
Marble, [188]
Marbod, King, [217], [219]
Marcellus, nephew of Augustus, [166];
probable successor to Augustus, [175];
married to Julia, [227];
death, [228],
in Vergil, [235]
Marcellus opposed to Cæsar, [118], [120]
Marcellus, Theatre of, [251], [293]
Marcomanni, [217]
Marcomannia, [309]
Marcus, [164]
Marius, Gaius, and reform, [90],
chosen as officer against Jugurtha, [93];
elected consul, [93],
commands the army in Africa, [93],
re-elected consul, [94],
chief magistrate of the state, [94];
defeats the Teutons and Cimbri, [94],
and the land, [95],
and the senate, [95],
and a professional army, [96],
massacre by, and death, [104],
Cæsar and, [109]
Marius the younger, [105]
Mark Antony. See Antony
Marriage, [80],
marriage laws, [226]
Mars, [36]
Mars, priests of See Salii
Mars the Avenger, [198],
Temple of, [252]
Mars’ woodpeckers, [38]
Marsians, [13], [28]
Martial, [220], [278], [289]
Martyrdoms of Christians, [301]
Masinissa, [57], [208]
Mater Matuta, shrine of, [152], [250]
Materialism and religion, [139]
Mau, Prof., [296]
Mauretania, [194], [208], [269]
Mausoleum, friezes of the, [246]
Maxentius, [302]
Maximin the Thracian, [179], [306]
Media Atropatene, [199]
Medicine, [290]
Mediomatrici, the, [212]
Mediterranean fleet, [186]
Mediterranean, Roman command of the, [56]
Mediterranean worship, prehistoric, [38]
Melville, G. J. W., [279]
Memmius, [92]
Menander, [76]
Mercury, [39]
Merida, [221]
Mesopotamia, [107], [267]
Messalina, [138], [224], [255]
Messalla, M. Valerius, [233], [240]
Messengers, imperial, [196]
Messiah, the, [269]
“Messianic Eclogue,” Vergil’s, [160]
Messina, [47], [209]
Metaphysics, [300]
Metaurtus, River, [52]
Metellus family, [75]
Metellus, Q, [92], [95], [153]
Metellus, Q Cæcilius, [226]
Metz, [212]
Meyer, Dr. Edouard, [171]
Michael Angelo, [244], [251]
Milan, Edict of, [302], [313]
Militarism, [302]
Military despotism, [183]
Military service under Gaius Gracchus, [88],
under the Republic, [96-97],
Roman citizens and, [184],
Italians and, [196],
Jews exempt, [268];
barbarians and, [311]
Milo, [119]
Milvian Bridge, [313]
Minden, [219]
Minerals, [188]
Minerva, [39], [79]
Mines, [117], [131], [221],
in Gaul, [212]
Mint at Lyons, [211]
Misenum, [186]
Mithradates, King of Pontus, [60], [103],
massacre by, [65],
duration of war against, [107],
defeated by Pompeius, [109],
portrait on coin, [158]
Mithradatic War, [103]
Mithraism, [201], [299], [308]
Modena, [163]
Mœsia, [194], [220], [265]
Mogontiacum (Mainz), [263]
Moles Hadriani, [294]
Mommsen, Theodor, on Greece and Rome, [10];
on Roman religion, [40],
on Roman luxury, [72],
on Cæsar, [112],
on the Gauls, [115],
on Augustus, [198]
Monaco, monument to Augustus at, [220]
Monarchy, Cæsar and, [124],
hereditary, [175],
Augustus and the, [183],
growth of, [277]
Money, [313]
Monotheism, [207], [303]
Morality, [79], [136], [138]
Morocco See Mauretania
Mosaics, [158], [247], [296], [316]
Moselle, the, [215]
Mucianus, [274]
Mule and tent money, [190]
Mummius, [155], [247]
Munda, [123]
Municipal government, [284]
Municipal life, [195]
Municipal senators, [311]
Municipia, [28]
Mural painting, [152]
Music in schools, [286]
Musonius Rufus, [302]
Mysia. See Mœsia
Mythology, early Roman, [36], [37], [38].
See also Religion
Nabatæa, [194]
Nævius, [75]
Naples, [134], [251], [296]
Naples, Bay of, [283]
Narbonne, [210]
Narcissus, [256]
Nations, wandering of the, [309]
Natural law, [298]
Nature-worship, [240]
Navy, [48], [186], [187]
Neolithic culture, [14]
Nepos, [150]
Nero,
Suetonius on, [162], [256], [306],
unpopular, [177];
Petronius satirises, [242];
the historians and, [254],
his Golden House, [256],
murders, [256],
attempts upon his mother’s life, [257],
story of his death, [257];
posthumous honours, [259],
and the Jews, [268];
accession, [272],
administration, [272-273],
his fall, [273],
entertainments, [279],
tyranny, [287];
and Seneca, [291],
Greek curio-hunting, [293],
Christian persecution, [301]
Nero, Claudius, [227]
Nero, colossus of, [282]
Nerva, [179], [275], [276], [289]
Nicolaus, [206]
Nicomedia, [312]
Nicopolis, [202]
Nile, the, [204]
Ninth Legion, [122], [260]
Niobe, [241]
Nismes, Temple of, [251]
Nobility, [223], [224]
Nola, [106]
Nomads, Northern, [197]
Noricum, [194], [220]
Northern descents on the Mediterranean peoples, [213]
Numa, [19]
Numantia, [85]
Numidia, [92], [208]
Numidian cavalry, [52], [98]
Nymphs, [37]
Ocean, the, [210], [213], [217]
Octavia, [126], [129], [138], [175], [224], [228], [235]
Octavius, (tribune), [87]
Octavius, Octavian. See Augustus
Odenathus, [307]
Odoacer, [314]
Officialism See Bureaucracy
Oil, free, [308]
Olympia, [201]
Olympian mythology, [207], [240]
Omens, [32], [139]
Opimius, L., [92]
Ops Consiva, [37], [38]
Oratory, [144], [147], [148]
Orestes (sculpture), [249]
Oriens, [312]
Ornament in sculpture, [249],
painted, [297]
Orodes, [200]
Osiris, [203]
Ostia, [12], [27], [255]
Otho, [273]
Ovid, Latinity of, [9];
and Augustus, [169],
and the defeat of Parthia, [199],
and the gods, [225],
an immoral writer, [240];
and the loves of the gods, [240],
and nature-worship, [240];
typical of the civilisation of his day, [241],
as a barrister, [241],
banishment, [242];
and the younger Julia, [242];
his character, [242]
Oysters, Lucrine, [187]
Pacuvius, [76], [138]
Pagan-Christian rites, [304]
Painting (art), [152], [296]
Pais, Prof. Ettore, [42]
Palatine Hill, [25], [280]
Palatine, the, [168]
Palazzo dei Conservatori, [294]
Pales (god), [36]
Palestine, [268]
Palmyra, [282], [295], [306], [307], [308]
Pamphylia, [193]
Pannonia, [193], [220]
Pannonian and Illyrian revolt, [184], [217]
Pantheon, the, [251], [294]
Paphlagonia, [193]
Parilia, [36]
Paris, [211]
Parisii, the, [211]
Parthenon frieze, [249]
Parthia, [247], [266], [267], [269]
Parthians, the, [107], [125], [129], [197-200], [259]
Party system started by the Gracchi, [90]
Pasiteles, [155]
Passports, [196]
“Patavinity,” [151]
Patras, [202]
Patriarchal system, [25], [26]
Patricians, [14], [25], [30], [43], [167], [272], [314]
Patriciate, the, [224]
Patriotism, [231]
Patronage in literature, [232]
Patrons of art, [246], [247]
Patronus, or champion, [176], [195]
Paul, St., [207], [300],
appeal to Cæsar, [194]
Paulinus, Suetonius, [260]
Pausanias, [290]
“Pax,” [166]
Pax Augusta, [209]
Pax Julia (Beja), [221]
Pax Romana, [61], [186]
Peace under Augustus, [166],
Augustan Altar of Peace (“Tellus Group”), [244], [245], [248], [251];
in the Antonine age, [303],
and defence, [309]
Pelignians, [13]
Penates, [37]
Pensions for soldiers, [99], [185]
People, the, [179]
Peræa, [194]
Pergamum, [55],
Attalids of, [246]
Pericles, [157]
Perseus, [56]
Persians, [307]
Perspective in sculpture, [248]
Pertinax, [306]
Perugia, [129], [196]
Perusine War, [227]
Peter, St., [300]
Petronius Arbiter, [138], [242], [278], [279]
Petronius the legate, [205]
Pharisaism, [207]
Pharisees, the, [269]
Pharsalus, Battle of, [121]
Philemon, [76]
Philip of Macedon, [50], [54]
Philip the Arabian, bust of, [292]
Philippi, Battles of, [128]
Philistine coast towns, [205]
Philistinism in Roman art, [246]
Philo Judæus, [290], [300]
Philomela, [241]
Philosophy, [139], [279], [286], [290], [299], [300]
Phœbe, [230]
Phraates, [198], [200]
Phrygian corybants, [139]
Piacenza, [53]
Piazza, [252]
Piety, [235]
Pilate, Pontius, [206]
Pile-dwellings, [14]
Pilum, the, [98]
Piracy, [59], [106], [108]
Pisidia, [193]
Piso C. Calpurnius, [80]
Piso (consul with Augustus), [174]
Placidia, Empress, [315]
Plague, the, [290], [307]
Plantation system of slaves, [71]
Platæa, [201]
Plautius Silvanus, Aulus, [259]
Plautus, [76], [77], [138]
Plebeians, [14], [25], [30], [43]
Plebiscite, the, [174], [179]
Plebs, secession of the, [30]
Pliny (the elder) and Etruscan art, [20],
art critic, [249];
as compiler, [290]
Pliny (the younger), history in, [195], [278],
and the emperors, [242],
condition of Italy, [196],
letters, [270];
benevolence, [283],
and schools, [286],
and reading, [287],
and toleration, [301]
Plutarch, [290]
Poetry of the Republic, [142],
of the Augustan age, [233-243],
of the Empire, [288-289]
Polemo, [200]
Police, [182], [186]
Political system, reform of, and the Gracchi, [89]
Pollio, Asinius, [160], [168], [232], [234]
Polybius, [66], [150]
Polycarp, [300]
Polygnotus, [296]
Pompeian law, [120]
Pompeii, [134], [195], [283], [285], [296], [297]
Pompeius, Gneius, the Great, and new provinces, [60];
and the monarchy, [100],
supporter of Sulla, [105], [108],
ally of Crassus, [108],
ruler of the sea, [109];
puts down piracy, [109],
defeats Mithradates, [109],
and Cæsar, [114], [119];
political incapacity, [118],
sole consul, [119],
flies before Cæsar, [121];
murdered, [122],
and the walls of Jerusalem, [123],
his wealth, [132],
Vergil and, [288]
Pompeius, Sextus, a pirate, [123],
joined by “patriots,” [128],
defeat of, [129],
his allies against Augustus, [164],
and Sicily, [209];
reconciliation with Augustus, [226]
Pomponius Mela, [290]
Pont du Gard, [294]
Pontifex maximus, [32].
See also Cæsar
Pontus, [60], [193], [194], [200], [312]
Poor children, Pliny’s benefaction for, [283]
Pope, the, [315]
Population, decline of, [313]
Populus Romanus, [174], [177], [179]
Pork, free, [308]
Portraiture, Etruscan, [152],
dread of, [156],
under the Republic, [156-157],
under Augustus, [248-250],
under the Empire, [292]
Portugal, [221]
Portus Julius, [187]
Post, [196]
Postumus, [306]
Pottery, Etruscan, [20],
Gallic, [114],
Aretine, [159]
“Præfects, Prætorian,” [312]
Præneste, [251], [296]
Prætor peregrinus, [298]
Prætor urbanus, [298]
Prætorian guard, the, Augustus and, [172],
dominates politics, [175],
commanded by prefects, [182],
its strength, [182], [185],
murder Caligula and choose Claudius, [271],
choose Nero, [272];
and the succession, [273], [306],
Vespasian and, [274],
lawyers as prefects, [309]
Prætonum, [206]
Prætors, [30], [31], [41], [63], [181], [182], [193], [299]
Prasina Factio, [280]
Praxiteles, [155]
Prefects, of the Fleet, [187];
of the City, [182],
of the Guard, [182],
of Egypt, [203], [204]
President of the state, [134]
Press censorship, [163], [289]
Prices, Edict of, [310]
Priests, colleges of, [32],
and the law, [41];
and dining, [133];
High Priests, [201]
Primus, M., [177]
“Princeps,” [171],
origin of the principate, [177],
Augustus and the office, [180]
“Princes,” [124]
“Princes of the Youth,” [181]
Principate, the, [177], [270]
Principes, the, [29]
Priscus, Helvidius, [300]
Prisoners, Roman, as slaves, [197]
Probus, [179], [308]
Proconsuls, [193]
Procurators, [194]
Proletariat, the, [132].
See also Populus Propertius and the Parthians, [199],
and Mæcenas, [233],
as poet, [239-240];
loss of patrimony, [243]
Property-tax, [189],
in Gaul, [190]
Proprætors, [194]
Provence, [210]
Provinces, early, [58];
acquisition and government, [59-65],
local autonomy, [61],
corruption, [64],
self-supporting and profitable, [188],
taxes, [190];
of the Roman world, [193],
under the senate, [193],
Cæsar’s provinces, [193],
lists of provinces, [193-194],
under Diocletian, [312].
See also the names of provinces as Spain, Gaul, Africa
Provincia, [59]
Prudishness, [80]
Ptolemy, alliance with, [47]
“Publican and sinner,” [64]
Publicans (Publicani), [64], [207]
Punic War, First, [48],
Second, [49],
Third, [57]
Pupienus, [306]
Puteoli, [134]
Pyrrhic War, [44]
Pyrrhus, [45], [51]
Quæstors, [66], [133], [188]
Quintilian, [220], [290]
Quintus Curtius, [33]
Quintus Fabius, [51]
[ “Race-suicide,” ][138]
Raphael, [244]
Rates, [196]
Raudine Plain, [94]
Ravenna, [187], [315]
Reading, [287]
Realism in Roman art, [157], [248], [249]
Red Sea, [204]
Regensburg, [264]
Religion, early Roman, [32], [35],
and Greek mythology, [35], [39],
gods, 36 et seq.,
its nature, [39],
business nature of, [40],
becomes cosmopolitan and debased, [79],
State religion under the Republic, [133],
formal and political, [138],
formulæ, [139];
materialism and the State religion, [139];
superstition and rites, [139],
Augustus and, [201],
of Gaul, [211],
and art, [248],
and architecture, [251],
Claudius and, [272],
in schools, [286],
and international law, [298],
under the Empire, [299],
Christianity, [299]
Religions, conflict of, [299]
Religious liberty under Trajan, [301]
Remi, the, [212]
Renaissance, Roman art and the, [244], [251]
Republic, the, causes for its end, [100]
Republican civilisation, later, [130]
Republican constitution, [31]
Republicanism, Diocletian and, [311]
Revenue, public, [192]
Rex, [125]
Rhætia, [194], [220]
Rhætian limes, [264]
Rheims, [210], [212]
“Rhetoric,” [286]
Rhine, the, Cæsar’s expeditions, [117];
flotillas, [187],
Augustus crosses, [212], [216],
as frontier, [215], [218], [263];
Rhine legions, [219], [263],
Limes Trans-Rhenanus, [264];
invasions of barbarians, [306], [314]
Rhodes, [55], [132], [194], [247]
Rich and poor under the Republic, [132]
Ricimer the Suevian, [314]
Ridgeway, Prof. Wm., [2], [14]
Riegl, Alois, [244]
Rimini, [196]
Roads, Italy, [196],
France, [211],
imperial, [278]
Robigus, [37]
Roman Church, ritual, &c. of the, [303],
a legacy of Rome, [315]
Roman conquests, 44 et seq.
Roman Empire under Augustus, greatness of the, [221]
Roman Government, the, and Christianity, [300-301]
Roman history, views of, [3], [4], [5],
historians and, [4], [7], [8],
worthlessness of much early history, [23],
Greek influence in manufacturing, [24],
unreliability of, before 390 B.C., [24],
chronological summary, [317-324]
Roman Peace, the, [61], [186]
Roman society, viciousness of, in the age of conquest, [80]
Roman suzerainty, [56];
annexations, [56],
provinces, [58];
government, [61]
Roman Wall, the (Britain), [261]
Romans, origin of the, [13];
early Romans as warriors, [26];
conquests by, [28];
the early Romans, [32],
the Roman character [33], [43];
virtues, [33],
accomplishments, [34],
religion, [35],
agriculture, [36],
law, [41],
a fighting people, [54]
“Rome and Augustus,” cult of, [201]
Rome and Greece, resemblances between, [1],
Greek influence, [6], [7], [11].
See also Art, Literature
Rome, and the making of Europe, [5];
as a city-state, [6],
its greatness, [10];
origin of, [16],
under the Etruscans, [17],
Etruscan princes expelled, [23];
and the Latin plain, [12],
and the control of the Mediterranean, [13],
the Seven Kings of, [19],
legends and early traditions, [17],
the earliest city, [25],
political equality, [30],
constitution, [30],
the imperial city, [65];
wealth, [65],
taxation, [66],
finance, [66],
the populace, [68],
corn-supply, [69],
slavery, [70],
equality, [71],
luxury, [72],
civilisation, [72],
Greek influence, [73], [74], [81];
causes of degeneracy, [80],
individual domination, [83],
end of the Republic, [118],
and Cæsar, [123],
wealth and social conditions under the Republic, [132],
unhealthy, [135],
social life, [136],
streets, [152];
improvements under Augustus, [167],
magistracy, [182],
city prefect, [182],
reform of, by Augustus, [223],
regeneration of Roman society, [225], [231];
patriotism, [231],
Horace and, [239];
and art, [243],
rebuilding, [244], [248]
architecture, [250];
the weakness of the Empire [271],
riches and loss of power, [278],
life of the city described by satirists, [278],
imperial Rome, [278],
amusements, [279],
advanced civilisation, [280],
its splendours, [280],
buildings and peoples, [282],
as a place of abode, [296],
the Eternal City, [304],
Aurelian Wall, [307]
Romulus and Remus, [17]
Romulus, hut of, [153]
Roofing, [250]
Roumania (Dacia), [265]
Roxolani, [307]
Rubicon, the, [120]
Russia, [197], [213]
Saalburg, [264]
Saale, the, [216]
Sabines, [13]
Sacred Mount, [30]
Sacred Way, [282]
Sacrifices, human, [40], [211]
Sadducees, [269]
Saguntum, [49]
St. Angelo, Castle of, [294]
St. Bernard Pass, [220]
Saints, Christian, [304]
Salamis, [201]
Salaries of officials, [190]
Salii, [34], [39]
Salinator, M. Livius, [74]
Sallust, [150]
Salt, free, [308]
Saltus, Teutoburgiensis, [218]
Salvage brigade, [131]
Samaria, [205]
Samnite Wars, [13], [28], [44],
rebellion, [105]
Sanhedrin, [207]
Saracens, [307]
Saragossa, [221]
Sarcophagi, [247]
Sardinia, [48], [53], [59], [61], [193]
Sarmatia, province, [309],
Sarmatian cavalry, [266];
captive Sarmatians, [307]
Sarmatians, the, and Ovid, [243]
Sarmizegethusa, [266]
Satires, [237]
Saturn, [38],
Temple of, [251]
Saturninus, [95]
Saxons, [213], [309]
Scævola, [33], [84]
Scapula, Ostorius, [260]
Scaurus, [91], [92], [94]
Sceptre of ivory, the, [22]
Schoolmasters, [286]
Schools See Education
Scipio Africanus, [52], [53], [58]
Scipios, the, [76], [83], [123]
Scopas, [155], [250]
Scotland, [261]
Scribonia, [226], [227]
Sculpture of the Republic, [155-157],
revival of, [200],
the Greeks and Roman sculpture, [245],
copies and imitations, [291];
busts, [292],
bas-reliefs, [292];
narrative on columns, [292]
Sea-power, the Romans and, [187]
Sebaste (Samaria), [205]
Secession of the Plebs, the, [30]
Secular games, [238]
Sejanus, [271]
Semitic question, the, [268]
Sena, victory of, [75]
Senate, the, beginnings, [25];
wisdom of, [28];
its constitution, [31];
and Pyrrhus, [46],
aristocracy and government, [72];
weakness under late Republic, [82];
the Gracchi and, [86], [89], [90];
and the Jugurthan War, [91];
and Marius, [95],
under Augustus, [167], [169], [175-179], [224],
position and powers under the Empire, [179];
military affairs, [184];
under Vespasian, [274];
under Domitian and later emperors, [275],
supplanted by Diocletian, [312]
Senators forbidden foreign commerce, [67], [132];
as landowners, [67], [132],
flee from Cæsar, [121];
tax farmers, [132];
hereditary, [132], [134]
Seneca the younger and Nero, [272], [290], [291];
ethics of, [303]
Senecas, the, Spaniards, [220], [290]
Senones, the, [212]
Sens, [212]
Serapis, [139]
Sergi, G., on the Mediterranean race, [2]
Sertorius, [105], [107]
Sestertius, [34]
Severi, the, [311]
Severus, Alexander, [306], [311]
Severus, Septimius, [306]
Seviri, Augustales, [196]
Shakespeare and Cæsar, [112]
Shapur, the Persian King, [306]
Sheep, [36], [70]
Shepherds, [71]
Ships, [131]
Shophets, [49]
Shows, public, [137]
Sicily, Pyrrhus and, [46];
the Romans and, [47], [51], [52],
acquisition of, [59], [60], [61],
corn-supply of, [190],
a province, [193],
colonies in, [195],
its history, [208-209]
Sidon, [247]
Sienckiewicz, Henryk, [279]
Siesta, the, [136]
Silanus, [94]
Silius, [255]
Silius Italicus, [287], [288]
Silures, the, [260]
Silver coinage, [34], [154]
Sirmio, [143], [296]
Slavery of early Rome, [70],
and immorality, [79],
Roman society and, [279]
Slaves, Sardinian, [53],
risings among, [106];
Gallic conquest and, [117],
training and use of, [131];
under Augustus, [181];
body-guard, [182], [184],
and the fleet, [187];
tax on sales, [190],
Greek slaves and art, [247]
Slavs, [214]
Social conditions under the Republic, [132]
Social laws, [226]
Social war, [102]
Society under the Republic, [132],
regeneration of, by Augustus, [225];
under the Empire, [279],
grades of, [284]
Soldiers. See Army
Soldiers, tribune of the, [133]
Solon, [19]
Solon’s code, [42]
Soudan, the, [204], [205]
Spain, Hamilcar Barca and, [49];
Roman army in, [51],
Scipio reconquers, [52],
ceded by Carthage, [53],
a province, [59],
incessant warfare, [61],
defeat of Sertorius, [105], [107],
Cæsar and, [121],
Augustus and, [169], [172], [193],
civilised, [209],
Augustus and an outbreak in, [210],
under Augustus, [220-221],
diocese, [312],
the Vandals and, [314]
Spalato, [316]
Spanish army, revolt of the, against Nero, [258]
Sparta, [194], [201]
Spartacus the gladiator, [106]
Statius, [288]
Statues, [243], [291],
portraits, [156]
Stephanus, [156], [249]
Sternness, early Roman, [33]
“Stipendiary” states, [60]
Stirlingshire, [262]
Stoic republicanism, [123], [275]
Stoicism, [139], [207], [231], [300], [302]
Strabo, [195], [202], [290]
Strong, Mrs. A., and Roman art, [157], [244], [292], [294]
“Structor,” [137]
Strzygowski, Josef, [249]
Suabia, [216]
Succession, imperial, [229], [251]
Suetonius and the early Empire, [4],
on Cæsar, [113];
as historian, [162], [275],
and the cowardice of Augustus, [182];
quoted on military science, [184];
on the tastes of Augustus, [252];
on Nero, [256], [259],
studious, [287];
freedom allowed to, [289]
Suevi, the, [215], [307], [309]
Sulla, L. Cornelius, makes Cisalpine Gaul a province, [59];
officer to Marius, [93],
succeeds Marius, [101];
his character, [101],
master of Rome, [103], [105],
and the Mithradatic War, [104],
returns to Rome and defeats the Samnites, [105];
death, [105],
and the columns of the Temple of Olympian Zeus, [153];
failure of, [223]
Sulla, Faustus, [123]
Sulpicius, Rufus, [103]
Sumptuary laws, [226]
Sungod, the, [295], [306]
Surrentum, [251]
Swabians, [213]
Switzerland, [220]
Sword, the Roman, [98]
Sygambri, [216]
Syracuse, [209]
Syria, [60], [169], [200], [267], [273]
Syrian War, [65]
Tabularium, the, [153]
Tacitus and the imperial régime, [4], [11], [242], [273],
and Augustus, [162], [163], [187],
and the Senate, [179],
the Germania, [214],
and Livia, [228],
and historians, [253];
and Britain, [260],
the satire of, [275],
the “silver Latin” of, [287],
and the history of his own times, [288],
as prose writer and historian, [289], [290]
Tacitus, Claudius (Emperor), [308]
Tanagra, [201]
Tarentum, [45]
Tarquin, [24]
Tarquins, the, [19]
Tarraco, [221]
Tarraconensis, [221]
Tarshish, [49]
Tartars, [214], [309]
Tax-farming, [132], [191]
Tax-gatherers, [191]
Taxes (stipendium) from provincial territories, [64],
freedom from (tributum), [188], [189];
in kind, [190];
indirect, [196],
under the Empire, [270], [276],
collection of, [273];
increase of, [311],
exemption of certain classes, [311],
Constantine’s burden of, [313]
Teachers, [286]
“Tellus Group,” the, [244], [250]
Temple, the, Jerusalem, [268]
Temples, [67], [152], [166], [168], [196], [243], [250], [251], [280], [282], [294]
Temples to Augustus, [201]
Tenth Legion, the, [123], [150], [269]
Terence, [76], [77], [138]
Terentia, [138]
Terentius Lucanus, senator, [76]
Terminus, [37]
Terra-cotta ornaments, Etruscan, [21], [22]
“Terramare” civilisation, [14]
Tertullian, [316]
Tetricus, [308]
Teutonic and Latin races, contrast between, [213], [214].
See also Germany
Teutons, the, invasion by, [93],
defeated by Marius, [94]
Thamugadi, [283]
Thapsus, [123]
Theatre of Marcellus, [251]
Theatres, [75]
Theatrical performances, [137]
Thebes, [202]
Theocritus, [144], [233]
Theodosius, [313]
Thespiæ, [201]
Thessalonica, [202]
Third Legion, [283]
Thrace, [194], [197], [312]
Thrasea, Pætus, [273], [300]
Thurii, [106]
Thusnelda, [219]
Tiber, the River, [12],
and navigation, [17], [187],
offerings to the, [40]
Tiberius, Suetonius on, [162], [306],
in the triumph of Augustus, [166];
suppresses the comitia, [174];
nominated to succeed Augustus, [175], [229],
as general, [184];
overlord in Asia, [195];
and Germany, [216], [263],
his mother Livia, [227];
banishment, [228];
rivals, [228];
triumphs, [239],
character, [253];
and enlargement of the Empire, [259];
government, [271],
retirement, [271],
and “delation,” [272];
junior and Rome, [235-236],
loss of patrimony, [236], [243],
position, [288],
and epic poetry, [288]
Verres, [209]
Verulamium, [260]
Vespasian and press censorship, [163],
in Britain, [259],
and Germany, [264],
and Mœsia, [265],
subdues Palestine, [268],
becomes Cæsar, [274],
origin, [274],
government, [274],
Rome under, [279],
and Pliny the elder, [287];
art under, [293]
Vesta, [38],
Temple of, [152]
Vestals, state, [38]
Vetera Castra (Xanten), [216], [219], [263]
Via Appia. See Appian Way
Via Claudia, [263]
Vicars, [312]
Vice, [133], [138]
Villa Albani, [293]
“Villanova” period, [14]
Villas, [251], [295]
Viminacium, [266]
Vindex, [257], [262]
Vipsania, [227]
Virginia, [33]
Viriathus, [84]
Virtue, Roman, [33], [80]
Visigoths, [314]
Vitellius, [262], [273], [289]
Vitruvius, [290]
Voluptas, [139]
Vopiscus, [307]
Wales, [260]
Walls, Roman, [261], [262]
War and culture, [73]
Warfare, annals of, in history, [306]
Watchmen, [186]
Wax images, [156], [248]
Wealth under the Republic, [131]
Weser, the, [216], [219]
Wickhoff, Franz, and Roman art, [157], [244], [293]
Wiesbaden (Aquæ Mattiacæ), [264]
Wine, [136]
Wolf, the, as totem, [19],
the mother wolf, [38]
Women, influence of, [223],
wickedness of, under the Empire, [254]
World-state, the, [278], [308]
Worth, [264]
Xanten. See Vetera Castra
York, [261]
Zacchæus, [207]
Zama, [53]
Zealots, the, [268]
Zela, [123]
Zeno the Stoic, [300]
Zenobia, Queen, [306], [307], [308]
Zeus, Olympian, Temple of, [153]
Zeuxis, [296]
Zion, Temple of Jupiter on, [269]
Zuyder Zee canal, [216]
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FOOTNOTES:
[1] Is there aught which ruinous Time does not impair? Our fathers, a generation worse than our grandsires, begat us, a race more evil, soon to produce offspring more wicked still. (Odes, III. vi. 45-8.)
[2] Plates 1, 2, 3, 8, and 70.
[3] Plate 2.
[4] Plate 4.
[5] Plate 5.
[6] Plate 6.
[7] Plate 7.
[8] See “The Glory that was Greece,” pp. 10-11, &c.
[9] Plate 8.
[10] Plate 9.
[11] What thou owest to the stock of Nero, O Rome, let Metaurus’ flood bear witness, and the defeated Hasdrubal, and that fair dawn that drove the darkness from Latium.... And at length spake treacherous Hannibal: “We are but deer, the prey of ravening wolves, but lo! we are pursuing those whom to escape is a rare triumph.... No proud ambassadors now shall I send to Carthage perished, perished is all our hope and all the fortune of our race, for Hasdrubal is dead.” (Odes, IV. iv. 37-40, 49-52, 69-72).
[12] Plate II.
[13] See “The Glory that was Greece,” p. 261.
[14] Plate 12.
[15] Plate 13.
[16] Plate 22, No. 1.
[17] Plate 14.
[18] Plate 22, No. 2.
[19] Plate 27.
[20] But unless the breast is cleared, what battles and dangers must then find their way into us in our own despite! What poignant cares inspired by lust then rend the distrustful man, and then also what mighty fears! and pride, filthy lust, and wantonness! what disasters they occasion, and luxury and all sorts of sloth! He therefore who shall have subdued all these and banished them from the mind by words, not arms, shall he not have a just title to be ranked among the gods? (V. 43-51, Munro’s translation.)
[21] The man who is sick of home often issues forth from his large mansion, and as suddenly comes back to it, finding as he does that he is no better off abroad. He races to his country house, driving his jennets in headlong haste, as if hurrying to bring help to a house on fire; he yawns the moment he has reached the door of his house, or sinks heavily into sleep and seeks forgetfulness, or even in haste goes back again to town. In this way each man flies from himself. (III. 1060-8, Munro’s translation.)
[22] Away from this time forth with thy tears, rascal; a truce to thy complainings.... For old things give way and are supplanted by new without fail, and one thing must ever be replenished out of other things; and no one is delivered over to the pit and black Tartarus. Matter is needed for after generations to grow, all of which, though, will follow thee when they have finished their term of life; and thus it is that all these no less than thou have before this come to an end and hereafter will come to an end. Thus one thing will never cease to rise out of another; and life is granted to none in fee-simple, to all in usufruct. (III. 955, 964-71, Munro’s translation.)
[23] Is there aught in this that looks appalling, aught that wears an aspect of gloom? Is it not more untroubled than any sleep? (III. 976-7, Munro’s translation.)
[24] Suns may set and rise again; for us, when once our brief day has waned, there is one long night to be slept through. Give me a thousand kisses, and then a hundred, and another thousand, and a hundred to follow yea, and another thousand—and yet a hundred! (Carmen, V. 4-9)
[25] Cease to weep, Aurunculeia: Thou need’st not fear that any lovelier maid should see the bright day coming from Ocean.
Even so the hyacinth is wont to bloom in the rich man’s many-coloured garden. But thou lingerest. The day is passing. Come forth, thou bride.
Come forth, thou bride, now if it please thee, and hear our songs. Look how the torches shake their golden hair! Come forth, thou bride.
[26] Plate 15.
[27] At last, Fellow Citizens of Rome, at last we are quit of Lucius Catiline. Mad with audacity, panting with iniquity, infamously contriving destruction for the fatherland, hurling his threats of fire and slaughter against us and our city, we have cast him forth or driven him forth or escorted him forth on his way with salutations. Gone, vanished, absconded, escaped! No more shall disaster be plotted against our bulwarks from within by that monster, that prodigy of wickedness. No more shall that dagger threaten our hearts. No more in the Campus, nor in the forum, nor in the senate-house, no more within the walls of our own homes, shall he fill us with panic and alarm.
[28] I was grieved, Fathers and Senators, grieved that the republic once saved by your exertions and mine should be doomed so shortly to perish.... Listen, listen, Fathers and Senators, listen and learn the wounds of our fatherland!
[29] As a youth I defended the state; I will not fail her in my age: I spurned the swords of Catiline; I will not tremble at thine. Nay, sirs, I would gladly give my body to death, if that could assure the liberty of our country and help the pains o£ the Roman people to bring the fruit of its long travailing to birth. Why, nearly twenty years ago in this very temple I declared that death could not come too soon for a man who had enjoyed a consulship. With how much more truth shall I declare it in my age! To me death is already covetable; I have finished with those rewards which I have gained and those honours which I have achieved. Only these two prayers I make: one, that at my death I may leave the Roman people free (than this nothing greater could be granted by the immortal gods), and, secondly, that every man may so be requited as he may deserve at the hands of the republic!
[30] Plate 44, Fig. 2.
[31] Plate 16.
[32] See page 18.
[33] Plate 22, Nos. 2 and 3.
[34] Plate 18, Fig. 1.
[35] Plate 18, Fig. 2.
[36] Plate 20, Fig. 1.
[37] Plate 19.
[38] Plate 22, Fig. 4.
[39] Plate 22, No. 1.
[40] Plate 21.
[41] Frontispiece, and Plates 23, 24, 25, 26.
[42] Plate 27.
[43] See Frontispiece.
[44] Plate 28, Fig. 1.
[45] Mayst thou [Fortune] preserve Cæsar, who marches against the Britons at the ends of the earth. (Odes, I. xxxv, 29-30.)
[46] Plates 29-32.
[47] Plate 35, Fig. 1.
[48] Carmen Seculare, 17-20.
[49] Plate 36.
[50] Plate 35, Fig. 2; Plate 37; and Plate 41, Fig. 2.
[51] See “The Glory that was Greece,” Plates 31 and 32.
[52] Plate 73: for detail see Plates 53, 54, 55, 56.
[53] Plate 41, Fig. 2; Plate 42, Fig. 1; and Plate 43.
[54] Plate 38.
[55] Plates 39, 40.
[56] Plate 18, Fig. 1.
[57] Plate 44, Fig. 2.
[58] Plate 44, Fig. 1.
[59] Plate 45.
[60] Plate 46.
[61] Plate 47.
[62] Plate 48.
[63] Plate 51.
[64] Plate 52.
[65] Plates 53, 54, 55, 56.
[66] Plate 58.
[67] Plate 59.
[68] Plates 60, 61, 62, 63.
[69] Plate 64.
[70] Plates 65, 66.
[71] Plate 67, Fig. 2.
[72] Plate 68, Fig. 1.
[73] Plate 69.
[74] Plate 70.
[75] Plate 71, Fig. 1.
[76] Plate 72.
[77] Plate 73.
[78] Plate 75, Fig. 1.
[79] Plate 76.
[80] Plate 77.
[81] Plate 29.
[82] Plate 81.
[83] Plate 82.
[84] Plate 45.
[85] Plate 83.
[86] Plate 84.
[87] Plate 85.
[88] Plate 89.
[89] Plates 87, 88, 90.
[90] Plate 91.
[91] Plate 92.
[92] See Plate 95, Fig. 2.
[93] Plate 93.
[94] Plate 71, Fig. 2.
[95] Plate 94.
[96] Plate 95, Fig. 1.
