A Short History of Freethought Ancient and Modern, Volume 1 of 2 / Third edition, Revised and Expanded, in two volumes

by J. M. Robertson

CONTENTS

VOLUME I

PAGE

[Preface] xi

Chap. I—[Introductory]

§ 1.	[Origin and Meaning of the word Freethought]							1
§ 2.	[Previous histories]							10
§ 3.	[The Psychology of Freethinking]							15

Chap. II—[Primitive Freethinking] 22

Chap. III—[Progress under Ancient Religions]

§ 1.	[Early Association and Competition of Cults]							44
§ 2.	[The Process in India]							48
§ 3.	[Mesopotamia]							61
§ 4.	[Ancient Persia]							65
§ 5.	[Egypt]							69
§ 6.	[Phoenicia]							78
§ 7.	[Ancient China]							82
§ 8.	[Mexico and Peru]							88
§ 9.	[The Common Forces of Degeneration]							91

Chap. IV—[Relative Freethought in Israel]

§ 1.	[The Early Hebrews]							97
§ 2.	[The manipulated prophetic literature]							104
§ 3.	[The Post-Exilic Literature]							109

Chap. V—[Freethought in Greece] 120

§ 1.	[Beginnings of Ionic Culture]							123
§ 2.	[Homer, Stesichoros, Pindar, and Æschylus]							126
§ 3.	[The Culture-Conditions]							134
§ 4.	[From Thales to the Eleatic School]							136
§ 5.	[Pythagoras and Magna Graecia]							148
§ 6.	[Anaxagoras, Perikles, and Aspasia]							152
§ 7.	[From Demokritos to Euripides]							157
§ 8.	[Sokrates, Plato, and Aristotle]							168
§ 9.	[Post-Alexandrian Greece: Ephoros, Pyrrho, Zeno,Epicurus, Theodorus, Diagoras, Stilpo, Bion, Strato, Evêmeros,Carneades, Clitomachos; The Sciences; Advance and Decline of Astronomy;Lucian, Sextus Empiricus, Polybius, Strabo; Summary]							180

Chap. VI—[Freethought in ancient Rome]

§ 1.	[Culture Beginnings, to Ennius and the Greeks]							194
§ 2.	[Lucretius, Cicero, Cæsar]							201
§ 3.	[Decline under the Empire]							207
§ 4.	[The higher Pagan ethics]							215

Chap. VII—[Ancient Christianity and its Opponents]

§ 1.	[Freethought in the Gospels: contradictoryforces]							218
§ 2.	[The Epistles: their anti-rationalism]							224
§ 3.	[Anti-pagan rationalism. The Gnostics]							224
§ 4.	[Rationalistic heresy. Arius. Pelagius. Jovinian.Aerius. Vigilantius. The religious wars]							229
§ 5.	[Anti-Christian thought: its decline. Celsus. Lastlights of critical thought. Macrobius. Theodore. Photinus. Theexpulsion of science. The appropriation of pagan endowments]							235
§ 6.	[The intellectual and moral decadence. Boethius]							243

Chap. VIII—[Freethought under Islam]

§ 1.	[Mohammed and his contemporaries. Early“Zendēkism”]							248
§ 2.	[The Influence of the Koran]							252
§ 3.	[Saracen freethought in the East. The Motazilites. TheSpread of Culture. Intellectual Collapse]							253
§ 4.	[Al-Ma’arri and Omar Khayyám.Sufîism]							261
§ 5.	[Arab Philosophy and Moorish freethought. Avempace.Abubacer. Averroës. Ibn Khaldun]							266
§ 6.	[Rationalism in later Islam. Sufîism. Bâbismin contemporary Persia. Freethinking in Mohammedan India andAfrica]							272

Chap. IX—[Christendom in the Middle Ages] 277

§ 1.	[Heresy in Byzantium. Iconoclasm. Leo. Photius.Michael. The early Paulicians]							277
§ 2.	[Critical Heresy in the West. Vergilius.Claudius. Agobard. John Scotus. The case of Gottschalk. Berengar.Roscelin. Nominalism and Realism. Heresy in Florence and inFrance]							282
§ 3.	[Popular Anti-Clerical Heresy. The Paulicians(Cathari) in Western Europe: their anticipation of Protestantism.Abuses of the Church and papacy. Vogue of anti-clerical heresy. Peterde Brueys. Eudo. Paterini. Waldenses]							291
§ 4.	[Heresy in Southern France. The crusade againstAlbigensian heresy. Arrest of Provençal civilization: Rise andcharacter of the Inquisition]							299
§ 5.	[Freethought in the Schools. The problem set toAnselm. Roscelin. Nominalism and Realism. Testimony of GiraldusCambrensis: Simon of Tournay. William of Conches. Abailard. John ofSalisbury]							307
§ 6.	[Saracen and Jewish Influences. Maimonides. IbnEzra. Averroïsts. Amalrich. David of Dinant. Thomas Aquinas.Unbelief at Paris University. Suppressive action of the Church.Judicial torture]							315
§ 7.	[Freethought in Italy. Anti-clericalism inFlorence. Frederick II. Michael Scotus. Dante’s views. Pietro ofAbano. Brunetto Latini. Cecco Stabili. Boccaccio. Petrarch.Averroïsm]							322
§ 8.	[Sects and Orders. Italian developments. TheBrethren of the Free Spirit. Beghards, etc. Franciscans. Humiliati. Abbot Joachim. Segarelli and Dolcino]							331
§ 9.	[Thought in Spain. Arab influences. Heresy underAlfonso X. The first Inquisition. Arnaldo of Villanueva. Enrique IV.Pedro do Osma. The New Inquisition. The causes of Spanishevolution]							337
§ 10.	[Thought in England. Roger Bacon. Chaucer. Itemsin Piers Ploughman. Lollardry. Wiclif]							342
§ 11.	[Thought in France. François de Rues. Jeande Meung. Reynard the Fox. Paris university. The sects. TheTemplars. William of Occam. Marsiglio. Pierre Aureol. Nominalism andRealism. “Double truth.” Unbelief in the Parisschools]							351
§ 12.	[Thought in the Teutonic Countries. TheMinnesingers. Walter der Vogelweide. Master Eckhart. Sects. TheImitatio Christi]							361

Chap. X—[Freethought in the Renaissance]

§ 1.	[The Italian Evolution. Saracen Sources.Anti-clericalism. Discredit of the Church. Lorenzo Valla. Masuccio.Pulci. Executions for blasphemy. Averroïsm. Nifo. Unbelief atRome. Leonardo da Vinci. Platonism. Pico della Mirandola. Machiavelli.Guicciardini. Belief in witchcraft. Pomponazzi. Pomponio Leto. Thesurvival of Averroïsm. Jewish freethought]							365
§ 2.	[The French Evolution. Desperiers. Rabelais.Dolet. The Vaudois massacres. Unbelieving Churchmen. Marguerite ofNavarre. Ronsard. Bodin. Vallée. Estienne. Pleas for tolerance.Revival of Stoicism]							379
§ 3.	[The English Evolution. Reginald Pecock. DukeHumphrey. Unbelief in immortality]							393
§ 4.	[The Remaining European Countries. Nicolaus ofCusa. Hermann van Ryswyck. Astrology and science.Summary]							398

Chap. XI—[The Reformation Politically Considered]

§ 1.	[The German Conditions. The New Learning.Economic Causation]							403
§ 2.	[The Problem in Italy, Spain, and theNetherlands. Savonarola. Catholic reaction. The New Inquisition.Heresy in Italy. Its suppression. The Index Expurgatorius. Italian andnorthern “character”]							407
§ 3.	[The Hussite Failure in Bohemia. Earlyanti-clericalism. Militz and his school. Huss and Jerome. The Taboritewars. Helchitsky]							415
§ 4.	[Anti-Papalism in Hungary. Earlyanti-clericalism. Rapid success of the Reformation. Its decline. Newheresy. Socinianism. Biandrata. Davides. Recovery of theChurch]							419
§ 5.	[Protestantism in Poland. Early anti-clericalism.Inroad of Protestantism. Growth of Unitarianism. Goniondzki. Pauli.Catholic reaction]							422
§ 6.	[The Struggle in France. Attitude of KingFrancis. Economic issues. Pre-Lutheran Protestantism. Persecution.Berquin. Protestant violences. Fortunes of the cause in France]							427
§ 7.	[The Political Process in Britain. England notspecially anti-papal. The causation. Henry’s divorce.Spoliation]							431

Chap. XII—[The Reformation and Freethought]

§ 1.	[Germany and Switzerland. Mutianus. Crotus.Bebel. Rise of Unitarianism. Luther and Melanchthon. Theiranti-democratic politics. Their dogmatism. Zwingli. Calvin and hisvictims. Gruet. The Libertini. Servetus. Gripaldi.Calvin’s polity. Ochino. Anthoine. Moral failure ofProtestantism]							434
§ 2.	[England. Henry and Wolsey. Advanced heresy.Persecution. Sir Thomas More]							458
§ 3.	[The Netherlands. Calvinism and Arminianism.Reaction towards Catholicism. Barneveldt. Grotius]							461
§ 4.	[Conclusion. The intellectual failure. Indirectgains to freedom]							464

Chap. XIII.—[The Rise of Modern Freethought]

§ 1.	[The Italian Influence. Deism. Unitarianism.Latitudinarianism. Aconzio. Nizolio. Pereira]							466
§ 2.	[Spain. Huarte]							470
§ 3.	[France. Treatises against atheism: De Mornay.New skepticism: Sanchez. Montaigne. Charron. TheSatyre-Menippée. Garasse on the BeauxEsprits. Mersenne’s attack]							473