The foundations of Japan

by J. W. Robertson Scott

COST AND PRICE OF RICE (see page 383)

Year	Yield in koku	Reserved for Rent and Seeds (koku)	Market Price per koku (yen)	Gross Income including Straw and Chaff, not usually sold (yen)	Manures (yen)	Taxes and Amortisation of Implements (sen)	Total Outlay (yen)	Net Income from Summer Crop of Rice (yen)	Days of Labour on Summer Crop of Rice	Net Income from Winter Crop (?Barley)	Total Net Income from both Crops.
1894	2.23	1.05	7.66	9.81	2	21	2.21	7.60	2.5	2.51	10.11
1895	2.13	1.05	8.09	8.71	2	21	2.26	6.45	21.5	2.48	8.92
1896	1.53	.80	8.67	6.89	2.4	22	2.58	4.31	21.5	3.38	7.69
1897	1.88	1.05	11.53	10.63	2.9	23	3.13	7.50	21.5	5.22	12.72
1898	2.39	1.05	14.62	21.13	3.2	25	3.40	17.73	21.5	5.50	23.23
1899	1.75	.88	12.05	11.48	3.8	30	4.11	7.37	21	2.22	9.99
1900	2.14	1.05	11.11	13.24	4.1	31	4.40	8.84	21	4.22	13.06
1901	2.10	1.05	10.53	12.06	4	32	4.35	7.71	21	3.87	11.58
1902	1.86	.99	12.99	12.40	3.1	38	3.51	8.89	21	4.11	13
1903	2.06	1.04	12.50	13.85	3.4	49	3.79	10.05	21	6	16.85
1904	2.24	1.03	12.20	16	2.6	53	3.11	9.89	21	6.06	15.95
1905	1.77	.99	13.42	11.60	2.1	46	2.55	9.05	21	6.67	15.71
1906	1.96	1.05	15.15	15 09	4	56	4.61	10.49	21	5.79	16.27
1907	1.98	1.14	16.39	16.69	4.4	42	4.83	11.84	21	8.60	20.43
1908	2.21	1.14	14.29	16.80	5.1	42	5.54	11.26	21	10.79	22.05
1909	2.27	1.14	11.63	14.39	3.7	99	4.64	9.75	21	11.49	21.24
1910	2.02	1.14	14.09	13.37	4.5	80	5.27	8.51	21	12.41	20.91
1911	2.22	1.14	16.67	19.72	4.4	78	5.13	14.59	21	13.49	28.08
1912	2.02	.90	21.74	26.48	5.9	75	6.60	19.88	21.5	3.73	23.6
1913	2.31	1.14	20.83	24.67	6.5	79	7.30	17.37	21.5	12.62	30
1914	2.48	1.14	12.50	18.29	5.8	78	6.53	11.75	21.5	11.54	23.30
1915	2.36	1.20	11.77	14.91	5.8	82	6.67	8.24	21.5	9.67	18.91

This table may be supplemented by the following prices for (unpolished) rice in Tokyo: 1916, 13 yen 76 sen; 1917, 19 yen 84 sen; 1918, 32 yen 75 sen; 1919, 45 yen 99 sen.

In the spring of 1921 the League for the Prevention of Sales of Rice ed that rice should not be sold under 35 yen per koku. The price passed the figure of 35 yen in July 1918. At the time the League's proposals were made the Ministry of Agriculture was quoted as stating that the cost of producing rice "is now 40 yen per koku." The accuracy of the figures on which the Ministry's estimates are made is frequently called in question.

[ CULTIVATED AREA IN JAPAN AND GREAT BRITAIN [XVIII].] In 1919 there were in Great Britain (England, Scotland, Wales, the Isle of Man and the Channel Islands) 15,808,000 acres of arable, 15,910,000 of pasture and 13,647,000 of grazing, or a total of 45,365,000 acres out of a total area of 56,990,000 acres. In Japan there were 15,044,202 acres of paddy and of cultivated upland, 46,958,000 acres of forest and 8,773,000 acres of waste; total 70,775,000, out of 90,880,000 acres. The area of the United Kingdom without Ireland is 56,990,080 acres; that of Japan Proper, 75,988,378 acres. The population of the United Kingdom without Ireland (in 1911) was 41,126,000, and of Japan Proper (in 1911) 51,435,000. (See also [Appendix XXX].)

[ HUMAN LABOUR v. CATTLE POWER [XIX].] The Department of Agriculture stated in 1921 that "from 200 to 300, sometimes more than 500 days' labour [of one man] are required to grow a chō of rice." The area of paddy which is ploughed by horse or cattle power was 61.89 per cent. The area of upland so cultivated was only 38.97 per cent. The "average year's work of the ordinary adult farmer" was put at 200 days. The Department estimated an average man's day's work (10 hours) as follows:

Nature of Work	Tools used	Output by one Man per Day hectare
Tillage of paddy	Kuwa (mattock)	0.06
" " "	Fumi-guwa (heavy spade)	0.1-0.15
Transplanting rice	Hand work	0.07-0.1
Weeding	Sickle and weeding tools	0.1
Cutting the rice crop	Sickle	0.1-0.15
Mowing grass	Sickle (long handle)	0.5
" "	Scythe	0.5

But I have never seen a scythe in use in Japan!

[ MANURE [XX].] The value of the manure used in Japan in a year has been estimated at about 220 million yen, but for the three years ending 1916 it averaged 241 millions, as follows:

Produced or obtained by the Farmer		Purchased
	yen		yen
Compost	63,500,000	Bean cake	32,000,000
Human waste	54,000,000	Mixed	17,000,000
Green manure	9,600,000	Miscellaneous	16,000,000
Rice chaff	5,000,000	Sulphate of ammonia	15,000,000
		Superphosphate	12,000,000
		Fish waste	12,000,000

Dr. Sato puts the artificial manure used per tan at a sixth of that of Belgium and a quarter of that of Great Britain and Germany. See also [Appendix IV]. An agricultural expert once said to me, "Japanese farmer he keep five head of stock, his own family."

[ SOWING OF RICE [XXI].] A common seeding time is the eighty-eighth day of the year according to the old calendar, say May 1 or 2. Transplanting is very usual at the end of May or early in June. In Kagawa, Shikoku, I found that rice was sown at the beginning of May or even at the end of April, the transplanting being done in mid-June. The harvest was obtained 10 per cent. about September 10th, 30 per cent. in October and 60 per cent. about the beginning of November. The winter crop of naked barley was sown in the first quarter of December and was harvested late in May or early in June, so there was just time for the rice planting in mid-June.

In Kochi the first crop is sown about March 15, the seedlings are put out in mid-May and the harvest is ready about August 10. The second crop, which has been sown in June, is ready with its seedlings from August 13 to August 15, and the harvest arrives about November 1 and 2. The first crop may yield about 3 koku, the second 1½ koku.

A good deal depends in raising a big crop on a good seed bed. This is got by reducing the quantity of seed used and by applying manure wisely. Whereas formerly as much as from 5 to 7 go of seed was sown per tsubo, the biggest crops are now got from 1 go.

The Japanese names of the most widely grown varieties are Shinriki, Aikoku, Omachi, Chikusei and Sekitori. At an experiment station I copied the names of the varieties on exhibition there: Banzai, Patriotism, Japanese Embroidery, Good-looking, Early Power of God, Bamboo, Small Embroidery, Power of God, Mutual Virtue, Yellow Bamboo, Late White, Power of God (glutinous), Silver Rice Cake and Eternal Rice Field.

There are several thousand chō in the vicinity of Tokyo where, owing to the low temperature of the marshy soil, the seed is sown direct in the paddies, not broadcast but at regular intervals and in thrice or four times the normal quantities.

[ RATE OF PLANTING [XXII].] I have been told that an adult who has the seedlings brought to his or her hand can stick in a thousand an hour. The early varieties may be set in clumps of seven or eight plants; middle-growth sorts may contain from five to six; the latest kind may include only three or four. The number of clumps planted may be 42 per tsubo, which, as a tsubo is nearly four square yards, is about ten per square yard. The clumps are put in their places by being pushed into the mud. A straight line is kept by means of a rope. The success of the crop depends in no small degree on skilful planting.

[ HOW MUCH RICE DOES A JAPANESE EAT? [XXIII].] The daily consumption of rice per head, counting young and old, is nearly 3 go. (A go is roughly a third of a pint.) A sturdy labourer will consume at least 5 go in a day, and sometimes 7 or even 10 go. The allowance for soldiers is 6 go. These quantities represent the rice uncooked. In recent years more and more rice has been eaten by those who formerly ate barley or mainly barley. And some who once ate a good deal of millet and hiye are now eating a certain amount of rice. The average annual consumption per head of the Japanese population (Korea and Formosa excluded from the calculation) was: 1888-93, 948 go; 1908-13, 1,037 go; 1913-18, 1,050 go. The averages of 25 years (1888-1912) were: production, 42,756,584 koku; consumption, 44,410,725 koku; deficit, 1,984,970 koku; population, 45,140,094; per head, 0.980 koku. In 1921 the Department of Agriculture, estimating a population of 55,960,000 (see [Appendix XXX]) and an annual consumption per head of 1.1 koku per year, put the national consumption for a year at about 61,550,000 koku. See also [Appendix XXVI].

[ IMPORTED AND EXPORTED RICE [XXIV].] "Good rice" is imported from Korea and Formosa. The objection is to "Rangoon" rice. But most of the imported rice does not come from Rangoon but from Saigon. The figures for 1919 were in yen: China, 283,011; British India, 1,012,979; Kwantung, 15,053,977; Siam, 29,367,430; French Indo-China, 116,313,525; other countries, 39,918; total, 162,070,840. The exports in 1919 were in yen: China, 1,354; Australia, 6,570; Asiatic Russia, 165,463; Kwantung, 213,633; British America, 356,600; United States, 476,756; Hawaii, 3,046,598; other countries, 60,707—all obviously in the main for Japanese consumption. The total imports and exports were in koku and yen over a period of years:

Year	Imports		Exports
	Koku	Value (yen)	Koku	Value (yen)
1909	1,325,243	13,585,817	422,513	5,867,290
1910	918,627	8,644,439	429,251	5,900,477
1911	1,719,566	11,721,085	216,198	3,940,541
1912	2,234,437	30,193,481	208,423	4,367,824
1913	3,637,269	48,472,304	204,002	4,372,979
1914	2,022,644	24,823,933	260,738	4,974,108
1915	457,606	4,886,125	662,629	9,676,969
1916	309,158	3,087,616	686,479	11,197,356
1917	564,376	6,513,373	769,129	14,662,546
1918	4,647,168	89,755,678	264,565	8,321,965
1919	4,642,382	162,070,840	95,219	4,327,690
1920	471,083	18,059,194	116,249	5,897,675

The twenty-five years' average (1888-1912) of excess of import over export was 1,339,493 koku. See also [Appendix XXVIII].

[ INCREASE OF RICE YIELD AND OF POPULATION [XXV].]

	1882	1913	Percentage of Increase	1918	Percentage of Increase[A]
Population	36,700,000	53,362,000	45	66,851,000	55
Rice crop (koku)	30,692,000	50,222,000	63	53,893,000	75

[Footnote A: 1882-1918. The degree to which the increase in production will be maintained is of course a matter for discussion. As far as rice is concerned, it must be borne in mind that there is an increasing consumption per head.]

[ FARMERS' DIET [XXVI].] It is officially stated in 1921 that "the common farm diet consists of a mixture of cooked rice and barley as the principal food with vegetables and occasionally fish." The barley is what is known as naked barley. Ordinary barley is eaten in northern Japan, but two-thirds of the barley eaten elsewhere is the wheat-like naked barley, which cannot be grown in Fukushima and the north. The husking of ordinary barley is hard work. The young men do it during the night when it is cool. They keep on until cock-crow. Their songs and the sound of their mallets make a memorable impression as one passes through a village on a moonlight night. Another substitute for rice beyond millet is hiye (panic grass). In the south it is regarded as a weed of the paddies, but in the north many tan are planted with this heavy-yielding small grain.

[ TAXATION [XXVII].] Before 1906 national taxation was 2.5 per cent. of the legal price of land. In 1900 it was 3.3 per cent., in 1904 5.5 per cent., in 1911 4.7 per cent, and in 1915 4.5 per cent. But local taxation increased in greater proportion.

[ FLAVOUR OF RICE AND PRICE FLUCTUATIONS [XXVIII].] Japanese rice has a fatty flavour which the people of Japan like. Therefore the native rice commands a higher price in Japan than Chinese or Indian rice. With the exception of a small quantity exported to Japanese abroad, Japanese rice is consumed in Japan. The supply of it and the demand for it are exclusively a Japanese affair. Naturally, when the crop fails the price soars, and when there is a superabundant harvest the price comes down to the level of foreign rice. Here is the secret of the enormous fluctuations in the price of Japanese rice with which the authorities have so often endeavoured to cope.

The Government granary plan is the third big effort of authority to manage rice prices. The Okuma Government, under the administration of which rice went down to 14 yen per koku, had a Commission to raise prices. The Terauchi Ministry, at a time when prices rose, touching 55 yen, had a Commission to bring prices down.

[ AREA AND CLIMATE [XXIX].] Japan Proper comprises a main island, three other large islands in sight of the main island, and archipelagos—4,000 islets have been counted. The main island, Honshu, with Shikoku behind it, lies off the coast of Korea; the next largest and northernmost island, Hokkaido, off the coast of Siberia, and the remaining sizeable island and the southernmost, Kyushu, off the coast of China over against the mouth of the Yangtse. The area of this territory, that is of Japan before the acquirement of Formosa, Korea, southern Saghalien and part of Manchuria, is about 142,000 square miles in area, which is that of Great Britain in possession not of one Wales but of four, or nearly 1 per cent. of the area of Asia. But there are several million more people in Japan than there are inhabitants of Great Britain and thrice as many as there are Britons in Canada, Australia, New Zealand, South Africa and India. (See also [Appendix XXX].) Japan, which lies between the latitudes of Cairo and the Crimea, may be said to consist of mountains, of which fifty are active volcanoes, with some land, either hilly or boggy, at the foot of them. It is nowhere more than 200 miles across and in one place is only 50. A note on the ocean currents which exercise an influence on agriculture will be found on page 195. The protection afforded to the eastern prefectures by mountain ranges is obvious. Generally the summer temperature of Japan is higher and the winter temperature is lower than is recorded in Europe and America within the same latitudes.

"The mild climate and abundant rainfall," says the Department of Agriculture, "stimulate a luxuriant forest development throughout the country which in turn provides ample fountain heads for rivers. The rivers and streams run in all directions, affording opportunity for irrigation all over the country. The insular position of the country renders its humidity high and its rainfall abundant when compared with Continental countries. The rainy season prevails during the months of June and July, making this season risky for the harvest of wheat and barley; on the other hand it affords a beneficent irrigation supply to paddy-grown rice, which is the most important crop. The characteristic feature of the climate in the greater part of the islands is the frequency of storms in the months of August and September. As the flowers of the rice plant commence to bloom during the same period, these late summer storms cause much damage."

The weather in Tokyo in 1918 was as follows:

	Jan.	Feb.	Mar.	Apl.	May	June	July	Aug.	Sept.	Oct.	Nov.	Dec.
Rain and snow (mm.)	10	65	163	108	123	149	82	78	202	135	142	80
Temp. (C.)	1.6	3.6	6.7	11.7	16.7	20.2	26.0	26.0	22.6	16.0	10.4	3.9

The varied climate of Japan is indicated by the following statistics for centres as far distant as Nagasaki in the extreme south-west and Sapporo in Hokkaido:

	Nagasaki	Kyoto	Tokyo	Niigata	Aomori	Sapporo
Days of rain or snow	179	176	144	218	229	216
Average temp. (C.)	14.9	13.6	13.8	12.5	9.4	7.3
Maximum	36.7	37.2	36.6	39.1	36.0	33.4
Minimum	5.6	11.9	8.1	9.7	19.0	25.6

The italicised temperatures are below zero. Average dates of last frost: Tokyo, April 6; Nagoya, April 13; Matsumoto, May 17.

[ POPULATION OF JAPAN, MANCHURIA AND MONGOLIA [XXX].] The population of the Empire according to the 1920 census was 77,005,510, which included Korea, 17,284,207; Formosa, 3,654,398; Saghalien, 105,765; and South Manchuria (that is, the Kwantung Peninsula), 80,000. In Old Japan (Honshu, Shikoku and Kyushu with the near islands, and Loo-choos and Bonins) there were 53,602,043, and in Hokkaido (including Kuriles) 2,359,097.

Tokyo is the largest city, 2,173,000, followed by Osaka, 1,252,000. Kobe and Kyoto have a little more than half a million; Nagoya and Yokohama four hundred thousand apiece. Ten other cities have a hundred thousand odd.

In the following table the populations and areas of Japan, Great Britain and the United States are compared:

Country	Area	Population	Population per sq. mile
Japan (excluding Korea, Formosa and Saghalien)	142,000	55,961,140 (1920)	394
British Isles	121,636	47,306,664[*] (1921)	388
United States (excluding Alaska and oversea possessions)	3,000,000	105,683,108 (1920)	35

* Ireland taken at 1911 census figures.

Japan's 394 per square mile is lowered by the population of Hokkaido (2,359,097), which is only 66 per square mile. The population of the three chief Japanese islands is: Honshu, the mainland (41,806,930), 471; Shikoku (3,066,890), 423; and Kyushu (8,729,088), 511. (These figures are for 1920.) "As regards density per square kilometre," writes an official of the Imperial Bureau of Statistics in the Japan Year-book, with the figures antecedent to the 1920 census before him, "it is calculated at 140 for Japan and this compares as follows with Belgium (1910) 252, England and Wales (1911) 239, Holland (1909) 171, Italy (1911) 121, Germany (1910) 120 and France 44. When comparison is made on the basis of habitable area Japan may be considered to surpass all as to density, for while in Japan it constitutes only 19 per cent, of the total area, the ratio is as high as 74 for Belgium, 73 for England and Wales, 67 for Holland, 76 for Italy, 65 for Germany and 70 for France." The Professor of Agricultural Science at Tokyo University says: "The area under cultivation, even in the densely populated parts, is comparatively smaller than in any other country."

In a statement issued in 1921 the Department of Agriculture reckoned the population at 145 per square kilometre and recorded the mean rate of increase "in recent years" as 12.06 per 1,000. It stated that the density of the rural population was 44 per square kilometre or 9.42 per hectare of arable, in other words that the density "is higher than that of France, Belgium, Switzerland and some other countries where the agriculture is marked by fairly intensive methods." Mr. Nikaido, of the Bureau of Statistics, writes in the Japan Year-book that the annual increase of Japan's population was 14.78 per 1,000 for 1909-13 and 12.06 for 1914-18, "a rate greater than in any civilised country, with the exception of Germany and Rumania in the pre-War years."

The birth rate is high, but so is the mortality. The death rate of minors is thrice that of Germany and Great Britain. Here the increasing industrialisation of the country is no doubt playing its part. The ratio of still births has steadily risen since the eighties. The ratio of births, other than still births, per 1,000 of population, which in 1889-93 was 28.6, increased by 1909-13 to 33.7; but the death rate fell only from 21.1 to 20.6. The ratio of unmarried, 63.22 in 1893, was 66.22 in 1918.

The following figures for Japan Proper are printed by the Financial and Economic Annual, issued by the Department of Finance:

Year.	Total.	Annual Increase of Population	Average Increase per 1,000 Inhabitants.
1910	50,716,600	--	14.09	}14.21
1911	51,435,400	718,800	14.17
1912	52,167,000	731,600	14.22
1913	52,911,800	744,800	14.28
1914	53,668,600	756,800	14.30
1915	54,448,200	779,600	14.53	}14.50
1916	55,235,000	786,800	14.45
1917	56,035,100	800,100	14.49
1918	56,851,300	816,200	14.57
1919	57,673,938	822,638	14.47
1920	55,961,140	--	--

It will be seen that for the year 1920 there was a big drop. The population of 55,961,140 for the year 1920 is the actual population as returned by the census; the figures of the preceding years are "based," it is explained to me, "on the local registrars' entries. The national census has demonstrated that the figures were larger than the actual number of inhabitants, the discrepancies being partly due to erroneous and duplicate registration and partly to the exodus of persons to the colonies or foreign countries whilst retaining their legal domiciles at home. But the table serves to show the rate of increase." A million and three-quarters is a substantial figure, however, to account for in this way. It would seem reasonable to suppose that the increased cost of living, marriage at a later age than formerly and increased mortality due directly or indirectly to the factory system have arrested the rate of increase of the population in recent years. For trustworthy figures of the Japanese population we must await the next census and compare its figures with those of the 1920 census, the first to be taken scientifically.

A considerable part of Japan is uninhabitable. Of how much of the British Isles can this be said? The fact that there are in Japan fifty more or less active volcanoes, about a thousand hot springs and two dozen mountains between 12,000 and 8,000 ft. high speaks for itself. Ben Nevis is only 4,400, Snowdon only 3,500 ft.

The population of Korea in 1920 (17,284,207) was 239 per square mile. According to Whitaker for 1921 the population of Manchuria (11 millions) is 30 per square mile, and of Mongolia (3 millions) 2.8.

[ SMALL FARMS DECREASING [XXXI].]

Year	Below 5 tan	Over 5 tan	Over 1 chō	Over 2 chō	Over 3 chō	Over 5 chō
1908	37.28	32.61	19.51	6.44	3.01	1.15
1912	37.14	33.25	19.61	5.96	2.83	1.21
1918	35.54	33.30	20.70	6.33	2.82	1.31
1919	35.36	33.18	20.68	6.21	2.83	1.74

See also [Appendix XLVII].

[ FORESTS [XXXII].] The following figures for 1918 show, in thousand chō, the ownership of forests (bared tracts in brackets): Crown, 1,303 (89); State, 7,288 (392); prefectures, cities, towns and villages, 2,894 (1,383); temples and shrines, 111 (15); 7,186 (1,630); total, 18,782 (3,509). The largest yield is from sugi (cryptomeria), pine and hinoki (Charmae-cyparis obtusa).

[ ARMAMENTS [XXXIII].] 1,505 million yen of the national debt is for armaments and military purposes against 923 million yen for reproductive undertakings (railways, harbours, drainage, roads, steelworks, mining, telephones, etc.), 143 million for exploitation of Formosa, Korea and Saghalien, 123 million for financial adjustment and 98 million for feudal pensions and feudal debt. Of the expenditure for 1920-1, 846 million, some 395 million were for the army and navy. During a period of 130 years the United States Government has spent nearly four-fifths of its revenue on war or objects related to war.

[ LANDOWNING AND FARMING [XXXIV].] Before the Restoration the farmers were the tenants of the daimyos' vassals, the samurai, or of the daimyos direct. When the daimyos gave up their lands the Crown made the farmers the owners of the land they occupied. Its legal value was assessed and the national land tax was fixed at 3 per cent, and the local tax at 1 per cent. Various adjustments have since taken place.

The Japanese Constitutional Labour Party has insisted in a communication to the International Labour Conference at Geneva that Japanese tenant farmers are not properly called farmers but that they are "labourers pure and simple." See [Appendix LXXVI].

[ STATE RAILWAYS [XXXV].] The railways, which were nationalised in 1907, extended in 1919 to 6,000 miles. There were also nearly 2,000 miles of light railways (in addition to 1,368 of electric street cars). Most of the lines are single track. The gauge is 3 ft. 6 in. The Government has proposed gradually to electrify the whole system.

[ ILLEGITIMACY [XXXVI].] In Japan illegitimacy is a question not of morals but of law. That is to say, it is a question of registration. If a husband omits to register his marriage he is not legally married. Thus it is possible for there to be born to a married pair a child which is technically illegitimate. If the child should die at an early age it is equally possible for it to appear on the official records as illegitimate. A birth must be registered within a fortnight. It may be thought perhaps that it is practicable for the father to register his marriage after the birth of the child and within the time allowed for registration. It is possible but it is not always easy. An application for the registration of the marriage of a man under twenty-five must bear the signature of his parents and the signature of two persons who testify that the required consent has been regularly obtained. In the event of a man's father having "retired," the signature of the head of the family must be secured. If a man is over twenty-five, then the signatures of his parents or of any two relatives will suffice. Now suppose that a man is living at a distance from his birthplace or suppose that the head of his family is travelling. Plainly, there may be a difficulty in securing a certificate in time. Therefore, because, as has been explained, no moral obloquy attaches to unregistered marriage or to unregistered or legally illegitimate children, registration is often put off. When a man removes from one place to another and thereupon registers, it may be that his marriage and his children may be illegitimate in one place and legitimate in another. There is a difference between actual and legal domicile. A man may have his domicile in Tokyo but his citizen rights in his native village.

[ SAKÉ AND BEER [XXXVII].] Saké is sold in 1 or 2 go bottles at from 10 to 25 sen for 2 go. As it is cheaper to buy the liquor unbottled most people have it brought home in the original brewery tub. There are five sorts of saké: seishu (refined), dakushu (unrefined or muddy), shirozake (white saké), mirin (sweet saké) and shōchū (distilled saké). Saké may contain from 10 to 14 per cent. of alcohol; shōchū is stronger; mirin has been described as a liqueur. Japanese beers contain from 1 to 2 per cent. less alcohol than English beers and only about a quarter of the alcohol in saké. More than four-fifths of it is sold in bottles. Beer is replacing saké to some extent, but owing to the increase in the population of Japan the total consumption of saké (about 4,000,000 koku) remains practically the same. In 1919 beer and saké were exported to the value of 7,200,000 and 4,500,000 yen respectively.

[ MINERAL PRODUCTION [XXXVIII].] In 1919 the production was as follows: gold, 1,938,711 momme, value 9,681,494 yen; silver, 42,822,160 momme, value 11,131,861 yen; copper, 130,737,861 kin, value 67,581,475 yen; iron, steel and iron pyrites, 169,545,050 kwan, the value of the steel being 72,666,867 yen; coal, 31,271,093 metric tons, value 442,540,941 yen.

[ JAPAN AS SILK PRODUCER [XXXIX].] In exportation of silk, Japan, which in 1919 had under sericulture 8.6 of her total cultivated area and 17.1 per cent, of her upland, passed Italy in 1901 and China in 1910. Her exportation is now twice that of China. In production her total is thrice that of Italy. France is a long way behind Italy. The production of China is an unknown quantity.

As to the advantages and drawbacks of Japan for sericulture the Department of Agriculture wrote in 1921: "Japan is not favourably placed, inasmuch as atmospheric changes are often very violent, and the air becomes damp in the silk-culture seasons. This is especially the case in the season of spring silkworms, for the cold is severe at the beginning and the air becomes excessively damp as the rainy season sets in. The intense heat in July and August, too, is very trying for the summer and autumn breeds. Compared with France and Italy, Japan seems to be heavily handicapped, but the abundance of mulberry leaves all over the land and the comparatively rich margin of spare labour among the farmers have proved great advantages."

The length of the sericultural season ranges from 54 days in spring to 31 or 32 days in autumn, but there are variations according to weather, methods and seed. The season begins with the incubation period. Then follows the rearing. Last is the period in which the caterpillars mount the little straw stacks provided for them in order that they may wind themselves into cocoons. I do not enter into the technics of the retardation and stimulation of seed in order to delay or to hasten the hatch according to the movements of the market. Hydrochloric and sulphuric-acid baths and electricity are used as stimulants; storage in "wind holes" is practised to defer hatching.

Cocoons are reckoned both by the kwan of 8¼ lbs. and by the koku of approximately 5 bushels. The cocoon production in 1918 worked out at about 16½ bushels per acre of mulberry or 18 bushels per family engaged in sericulture. About 34 million bushels of cocoons are produced. In 1919 the production was 270,800,000 kilos. The average production of a tambu of mulberry field was 1.356 koku. In 1919 a koku was worth on the average 106.81 yen (including double and waste cocoons). The cost of producing cocoons rose from 4.105 yen per kwamme in 1916 to 11.284 yen in 1920. The daily wages of labourers employed by the farmers rose from 62 sen for men and 47 sen for women in 1910 to 1 yen 93 sen for men and 1 yen 44 sen for women in 1920. With the slump, the price of cocoons fell below the cost of production and there was trouble in several districts when wages were due. The labourers engaged for the silk seasons of 1916 numbered 341,577, of whom 30,000 came from other than their employers' prefectures. These people migrate from the early to the late districts and so manage to provide themselves with work during a considerable period. As many as 5½ per cent, of the persons engaged in the industry are labourers. Many employment agencies are engaged in supplying labour.

It has been estimated that the labour of 19.8 persons (200 per hectare) is needed for a tambu of mulberry field. The silkworms hatched from a card of eggs (laid by 100 moths) are supposed to call for the labour of 49.2 persons (1,456 per kilo, 2.204 lbs.)

The production of cocoons rose from 0.866 koku per card in 1914 to 1.105 in 1918, or from 4,412,000 to 6,832,000.

More than three-quarters of the raw silk produced used to be exported. Now, with the increase of factories in Japan (the figures are for 1918), only 67 per cent, goes abroad, the bulk of it to the United States, which obtained from Japan, in 1917-18, 75 per cent., and in 1919, it has been stated, 90 per cent, of its total supply. About 28 per cent, of the world's consumption is supplied by Japan. Whereas in 1915 the output of raw silk was 5,460,000 kwan valued at 217,746,000 yen, it was in 1918 7,891,000 kwan valued at 546,543,000 yen. While in 1915-16 the percentage of Japanese exporters to foreign exporters was 64-4, it had risen in 1919-20 to 77.5. Against 450 chō of mulberries in 1914 there were in 1918 508,993 chō. The total export of raw silk and silk textiles to all countries in 1920 was 382 and 158 million yen respectively. In 1919, 96 per cent. of the raw silk Japan exported went to the United States and 46 out of 101 million yens' worth of exported silk textiles (habutal). Japan's whole trade with the United States is worth 880 million yen a year. But the proportion of basins in the factories steadily increases. There are nearly five thousand factories, big and little. A well-informed correspondent writes to me: "You know of course of the big organisation subsidised by the Government to control prices and not to make too much silk. The truth is the silk interest became too powerful and the Government is not a free agent."

[ TUBERCULOSIS [XL].] Phthisis and tuberculosis sweep off 22 per cent, and bronchitis and inflammation of the lungs 18 per cent., or together more than a third of the population. See also [Appendix LXIX].

[ WOMEN WORKERS [XLI].] In addition to women and girls working in agriculture, in the mines, in the factories and & trades there are said to be 1,200,000 in business and the public services. Teachers number about 52,000, nurses 33,000, midwives 28,000 and doctors 700.

[ FACTORY FOOD AND "DEFIANCE OF HYGIENIC RULES" [XLII].] Dr. Kuwata says in the Japan Year-book (1920-1) that "in cotton mills where machinery is run day and night it is not uncommon when business is brisk to put operatives to 18 hours' work. In such cases holidays are given only fortnightly or are entirely withheld. The silk factories in Naganoken generally put their operatives to 14 or 16 hours' work and in only a small portion are the hours 13."

Summarising a report of the Department of Agriculture and Commerce, he says of the factory workers: "The bulk of workers are female and are chiefly fed with boiled rice in 43 per cent. of the factories. In other factories the staple food is poor, the rice being mixed with cheaper barley, millet or sweet potato in the proportion of from 20 to 50 per cent. In most cases subsidiary dishes consist of vegetables, meat or beans being supplied on an average only eight times a month. Dormitories are in defiance of hygienic rules. In most cases only half to 1 tsubo (4 square yards) are allotted to one person." See also [Appendix LXIX].

[ CHINESE COMPETITION WITH JAPAN [XLIII].] The Jiji called attention in the spring of 1921 to the way in which spinning mills in China were an increasing menace to Japanese industry. There were in China 810,000 spindles under Chinese management, 250,000 under European and 340,000 under Japanese, a total of 1,430,000, which will shortly be increased to 1,150,000 against 3,000,000 in Japan only 1,800,000 of which are at work. The 1919 return was: China, 1,530,000; Japan, 3,200,000.

[ HOODWINKING THE FOREIGNER [XLIV].] In the Manchester Guardian Japan Number, June 9, 1921, the managing director of a leading spinning company, in a page and a half article, states that among the reasons why a large capitalisation is needed by Japanese factories, beyond the fact of higher cost of machinery, is the "special protection needed for Japanese operatives and the special consideration given by the spinners to the happiness and welfare of their operatives." When will Japanese believe their best friends when they tell them that such attempts to hoodwink the foreigner achieve no result but to cover themselves with ridicule?

[ TOBACCO [XLV].] In 1918-19 there was produced on 24,439 chō 10,308,089 kwan of tobacco. During the same period 9,681,274 kwan were taken by the Government, which paid 19,114,803 yen or 1.974 per kwan. In 1919 there was imported leaf tobacco to the value of 5,288,918 yen. Cigarettes to the value of 589,744 yen were exported. The profits of the Tobacco Monopoly, estimated at 71 millions for 1919-20, were estimated at 88 millions for 1920-1.

[ ELECTORAL OFFENCES [XLVI].] There were candidates at the 1920 election who spent 50,000 yen. It is not uncommon for the number of persons charged with election offences to reach four figures. The qualification for a vote (law of 1918) is the payment of 3 yen of national tax. Under the old law there were about 25 voters per 1,000 inhabitants; now there are 54.

[ SMALLNESS OF ESTATES [XLVII].] The number of men holding from 5 to 10 chō was, in 1919, 121,141 and between 10 and 50 chō, 45,978. The number holding 50 chō (125 acres) and upwards was only 4,226, and 400 or so of these were in Hokkaido. See also [Appendix XXXI].

[ VEGETABLE WAX MAKING [XLVIII].] The wax-tree berries are flailed and then pounded. Next comes boiling. The mush obtained is put into a bag and that bag into a wooden press. The result is wax in its first state. A reboiling follows and then—the discovery of the method was made by a wax manufacturer while washing his hands—a slow dropping of the wax into water. What is taken out of the water is wax in a flaked state. It is dried, melted and poured into moulds. The best berries yield 13 per cent. of fine wax. The variety of wax grown was oro (yellow wax). There is another variety. The sort I saw is grafted at three years with its own variety. The fruitful period lasts for a quarter of a century. Roughly, the yield is 100 kwan per tan. Formerly, wax was made from wild trees.

[ NAMES FOR ETA [XLIX].] Eta (great defilement) is an offensive name. The phrase tokushu buraku (special villages), applied to Eta hamlets, is also objected to. Heimin is the official name, but the Eta are generally termed shin heimin (new common people), which is again regarded as invidiously distinguishing them. The name chihō is now officially proposed for Eta villages. The fact that many Eta have made large sums during the war has somewhat improved the position of their class. Some Eta are well satisfied with their name and freely acknowledge their origin. Year by year intermarriage increases in Japan. A Home Department official has been quoted as saying that in 1918 as many as 450 marriages were registered between Eta and ordinary Japanese.

The population of the village I visited, 1,900 in 300 families, was getting its living as follows: farming 682, trade 185, industry 31, day labour 97, travelling players 180, not reported 180. The Parliamentary voters were 10, prefectural 17, county 19 and village 57. There were 98 ex-soldiers in the community and one man was a member of the local education committee. The birth rate was above the local average. The crimes committed during the year were: theft 2, gambling 2, assault 1, police offences 3. Of the 300 families only one was destitute, and it had been taken care of by the young women's society.

A considerable proportion of the early emigrants to America were Eta. It is now recognised that it was a short-sighted policy on the part of the authorities to allow them to go.

[ PAPER MAKING [L].] A paper-making outfit may cost from 60 to 70 yen only. The shrubs grown to produce bark for paper making are kōzo (the paper mulberry), mitsumata (Edgworthia chrysantha) and gampi (Wilkstroemia sikokiana). Someone has also hit on the idea of turning the bark of the ordinary mulberry to use in paper making.

[ LIBRARIES, THE PRESS AND THE CENSORSHIP [LI].] There are 1,200 libraries in the country with 4 million books and 8 million visitors in the year. About 47,000 books are published in a year, of which less than half, probably, are original works. From one to two hundred are translations, usually condensed translations. The largest number deal with politics. There are about 3,000 newspapers and periodicals. In 1917 some 1,200 issues of newspapers and periodicals attracted the attention of the censor and the sale of 600 books was prohibited. Some sixty foreign books were stopped.

[ JAPANESE IN BRAZIL [LII].] Emigration to South America has latterly been arrested through the rise in wages at home. During the past four years an average of about 3,000 families has gone every twelve months to Brazil, where about a quarter of a million acres are owned and leased by Japanese. The Japanese Government spends 100,000 yen a year on giving a grant of 50 yen to each emigrating family up to 2,000 in number, through the Overseas Colonisation Company. The Brazilian Government also offers a gratuity.

[ CATTLE KEEPING IN SOUTH-WESTERN JAPAN [LIII].] Tajima, the old province which comprises about four counties in Tottori, is a large supplier of "Kobe beef," but it is a cattle-feeding not a grazing district. The number of cattle in Hyogo is double the cattle population of Tottori, but no cattle keeper has more than a score of beasts. The usual thing is for farmers to have two or three apiece. Some of the "Kobe beef" comes from the prefectures of Hiroshima and Okayama. It is in the north of Japan, where the people are not so thick on the ground and cultivation is less intense, that cattle production has its best chance.

[ VALUE OF LAND [LIV].] The value of land in the hill-village in which I stayed necessarily varied, but the average price of paddy was given me as 250 yen per tan. Dry land was half that. Open hill land, that is the so-called grass land, might be worth 120 yen. The rise in values which has taken place is illustrated by the following table of farm-land values per tan in 1919, published by the Bank of Japan:

		Paddy			Upland
		Good	Ordinary	Bad	Good	Ordinary	Bad
Hokkaido		231	158	95	115	62	26
Honshu (main island)	{North}	802	579	366	477	295	170
	{Tokyo}	863	607	406	673	442	272
	{middle}	1,226	834	523	875	565	313
	{west}	1,226	840	525	727	443	244
Shikoku		1,120	784	470	752	450	225
Kyushu		960	652	416	538	300	175

[ FRUIT PRODUCTION [LV].] The Japanese when they do not eat meat do not feel the need of fruit which is experienced in the West. But there is now a steady increase in the fruit crops. For 1918 the figures were (in thousands of kwan): persimmons, 43,620; pears, 27,730; oranges, 73,660; peaches, 12,810; apples, 6,695; grapes, 6,240; plums (largely used pickled), 6,190.

[ JAPANESE STUDENTS ABROAD [LVI].] During 1921 more than 200 young professors or candidates for professorships were sent to Europe and America by the Ministry of Education. Probably another 300 were studying on funds (£450 for a year plus fares is the grant which is made by the Ministry of Education) supplied by the Ministries of Agriculture, of Railways and of the Army and Navy (often supplemented, no doubt, by money furnished by their families). If to these students are added those sent by independent Universities, institutions, corporations and private firms, the total cannot be fewer than 1,000. The students stay from six months to two or three years, and when they return others take their places. Counting diplomatists, business men, tourists and students there are, of course, more Japanese in Great Britain than there are British in Japan. There are fifteen hundred Japanese in London alone.

[ TEA PRODUCTION [LVII].] Every prefecture but Aomori produces some tea, but very little is grown in the prefectures of the extreme north. The largest producers are in order: Shidzuoka, Miye, Nara, Kyoto, Kumamoto, Gifu, Kagoshima, Shiga, Saitama, Osaka and Ibariki. In 1919 Shidzuoka produced 4 million kwan, valued at nearly 13 million yen. But the statistics of tea production are unsatisfactory. Much tea is produced and sold locally which is unreported. A great deal of this is of inferior quality and produced from half-wild bushes. The 1919 figures are: area, 48,843 chō; number of factories, 1,122,164; green tea—sencha, 7,205,886 kwan; bancha, 2,580,035 kwan; gyokuro, 75,826 kwan; black, 50,756 kwan; others, 234,868 kwan; sencha dust, 249,862 kwan; other dust, 486 kwan. Total, 10,397,719 kwan; value, 33,377,460 yen. There was exported green tea (pan fired), 12,420,000 yen; green tea (basket fired), 4,575,000 yen; others, 1,405,000 yen. Of this there went to the United States consignments to the value of 15,600,000 yen and to Canada of 1,700,000 yen. In 1918 the export to America was 50,000 tons; in 1919, 30,000; and in 1920, 23,000; and a further decline is expected in 1921. The total exports, which were, in 1909, 62 per cent, of the production, were, in 1918, only 57 per cent, and, in 1919, 37 per cent.

THEINE PERCENTAGES.—The following percentages of theine in black and green tea were furnished me by the Department of Agriculture:

	Green (Basket Fired)	Green (Pan Fired)	Black	Oolong
Theine	2.81	2.22	2.26	2.35
Tannin	15.08	14.29	7.32	16.15

Theine or caffeine is a feathery-looking substance which resembles the material of a silk-worm's cocoon. There is more theine or caffeine in tea leaves than in coffee.

[ MISTAKES IN CROP STATISTICS [LVIII].] Generally speaking, it may be said that cereals are under-estimated and cocoons over-estimated. Cereals may be 20 per cent. under-estimated. The under-estimation may no doubt be traced back to the time when taxation was on the basis of the grain yield.

[ OCCUPATIONS FOR THE BLIND [LIX].] A third of the 70,000 sightless are amma, about a quarter as many practise acupuncture and the application of the moxa, while nearly the same number are musicians or storytellers. The blind have petitioned the Diet to restrict the calling of amma to men and women who have lost their sight.

[ WELL SINKING FOR GAS [LX].] The presence of gas, which is odourless, is betrayed by the discoloration of the water from which it emanates and by bubbles.

[ HEALTH, HEIGHTS AND WEIGHTS OF SCHOOL CHILDREN [LXI].] In 1917-18 the constitutions of 1,193,000 elementary school boys were reported as 53 per cent. robust, 48 per cent. medium and 4 per cent. weak. The constitutions of 1,016,000 elementary school girls were reported 49 per cent. robust, 48 per cent. medium and 3 per cent. weak. Just as women are often underfed in Japan, girls may frequently be less well fed than boys. Elementary school boys of 16 averaged 4.84 shaku in height and 10.85 kwan in weight. The average height and weight of 512 elementary school girls of the same age were 4.71 shaku and 10.83 kwan.

[ HEIGHT AND WEIGHT OF WRESTLERS [LXII].] In a list of ten famous wrestlers the tallest is stated to be 6.30 shaku (a shaku is 11.93 inches) and the heaviest as 33.2 kwan (a kwan is 8.267 lbs.). The average height and weight of these men work out at 5.84 shaku and 28.4 kwan. By way of comparison it may be mentioned that the percentage of conscripts in 1918 over 5.5 shaku was 2.58 per cent. The average weight of Japanese is recorded as 13 kwan 830 momme.

[ EXEMPTION FROM AND AVOIDANCE OF CONSCRIPTION [LXIII].] The age is 20 and the service two years (with four years in reserve and ten years depot service). The only son of a parent over 60 unable to support himself or herself is released. Middle school boys' service is postponed till they are 25. Students at higher schools and universities need not serve till 26 or 27. The service of young men abroad (i.e. elsewhere than China) is similarly postponed. (If still abroad at 37, they are entered in territorial army list and exempted.) Young men of education equal to that of middle-school graduates can volunteer for a year and pay 100 yen barracks expenses and be passed out with the rank of non-commissioned officers and be liable thereafter for only two terms of three months in territorial army. There are about half a million youths liable to conscription annually. To this number is to be added about 100,000 postponed cases. (In 1917, 47,324 students, 32,263 abroad, 15,920 whereabouts unknown, 5,069 ill, 3,147 criminal causes, 2,477 absentees, family reasons or crime.) Evasions in 1917: convicted, 234; suspected, 1,582. There are two conscription insurance companies with policies issued for 69 million yen. In one place charms against being conscripted are sold—at a shrine. Desertions in 1916 (7 per cent, officers) 956, of which 258 received more than "light punishment." The conscripts suffering from trachoma were 15.3 per cent. and from venereal diseases 2.2 per cent. Heights (1918): under 5 shaku, 10.95 per cent.; 5-5.3 shaku, 53.34 per cent.; 5.3-5.5 shaku, 33.13 per cent.; above 5.5 shaku, 2.58 per cent. In these four classes there was a decrease in height in the first two of .39 per cent. and .57 per cent. respectively and an increase in the second two of .80 per cent. and 15 per cent. respectively.

[ HOKKAIDO HOLDINGS [LXIV].] There are only 28 holdings of more than 1,000 chō, 62 of over 500 chō, 161 over 100 chō and 80 over 50 chō. These large holdings are used for cattle breeding alone. There are no more than 620 holdings over 20 chō and only 6,756 over 10. The number over 5 chō is 51,877, and over 2 chō 62,015. Under the area of 2 chō there are as many as 40,928. Few of the largest holdings are worked as single farms. They are let in sections to tenants.

[ CLAUSES IN A TENANT'S CONTRACT [LXV].] (1) The tenant must make at least 1 chō of paddy every year. (2) Rent rice must be the best of the harvest, but the tenant may pay in money. (3) In the following cases the owner will give orders to the tenants: (a) If tenants do not use enough manure, (b) If there is disease of plants or insect pests, (c) If the tenant neglects to mend the road or other necessary work is neglected. (4) The owner will dismiss a tenant: (a) If the tenant does not pay his rent without reason, (b) If the tenant is neglectful of his work or is idle, (c) If the tenant is not obedient to the owner and does not keep this contract faithfully. (d) If the tenant is punished by the law. (5) When tenants leave without permission of absence more than twenty days the owner can treat as he will crops or buildings. (6) In the following cases the tenant must provide two labourers to the owner: mending road, drainage canal or bridges; mending water gate and irrigation canal; when necessary public works must be undertaken.

[ CULTIVATED AREA AND LIVESTOCK [LXVI].] The area of cultivated land in Japan (counting paddy and arable) was, in 1919, 15,179,721 acres (6,071,888 chō). The number of animals kept for tillage purposes was 1,199,970 horses and 1,036,020 homed cattle. The total number of horses in the country was only 1,510,626 and of horned cattle, excluding 207,891 returned as "calving" and 12,761 as "deaths," 1,307,120. Sheep, 4,546; goats, 91,777; swine, 398,155. The number of horned cattle slaughtered in the year was 226,108. Some 86,800 horses were also slaughtered. In Great Britain (arable, pasture and grazing area, 63 million acres) there were, in 1919, 11 million cattle, 25 million sheep, 3 million pigs and 1¾ million horses.

[ EGGS AND POULTRY [LXVII].] Even with the assistance of a tariff on Chinese eggs and of a Government poultry yard, which distributes birds and sittings at cost price, there were in 1919 14,105,085 fowls and 11,278,783 chickens. There was an importation of 3½ million "fresh" eggs.

[ MEAT CONSUMPTION [LXVIII].] The present meat consumption by Japanese is uncertain, for there were in 1920 [a]^[A]] 3,579 foreign residents and 22,104 visitors, and there is an exportation of ham and tinned and potted foods. The number of animals slaughtered in 1918 was: cattle and calves, 226,108; horses, 86,800; sheep and goats, 9,587; swine, 327,074. Someone said to me that "the nutritious flesh of the horse should not be neglected, for the farmer is able to digest tough food."

[A] In 1921 as many as 24,000 foreigners landed in nine months.

[ TUBERCULOSIS IN THE MILLS [LXIX].] When we remember early and mid-Victorian conditions in English mills and the conditions of the sweat shops in New York and other American cities (vide "Susan Lenox"), we shall be less inclined to take a harsh view of industrial Japan during a period of transition. But it is to the interest of the woollen industry no less than that of its workers that the fact should be stated that a competent authority has alleged that 50 per cent. of the employees in the mills suffer from consumption and that many girls sleep ten in a room of only ten-mat size. Improvements have been made lately under the influence of legislation and enlightened self-interest—the president of the largest company is a man of foresight and public spirit—but when I was in Japan, as I recorded in the New East at the time, girls of 13 and 14 were working 11-hour day and night shifts in some mills.

[ WOOLLEN FACTORIES [LXX].] In the Japanese woollen factory the cost of the hands is low individually, but expensive collectively. An expert suggested that it takes half a dozen of the unskilled girls to do the work of an English mill-girl. It is much the same with male labour. "An English worker may be expected to produce work equal to the output of four Japanese hands." Labour for heads of departments is also difficult to get. There are textile schools and probably a hundred men are graduated yearly. But the men are not all fitted for the jobs which are vacant. Therefore, one finds a man acting as an engineer who, because of his lack of technical experience, is unable to exercise sufficient control over the men in his charge. A curiosity of the industry is the high wages which many men of this sort command. They are really being paid better for inferior work than skilled men in England. The capital of the factories in 1918 was 46½ million yen with 32¾ million paid up. Before the War the companies made 8 per cent, as against the 2½ per cent, which contents the English manufacturer, who has often side lines to help his profits. There was more than 100 million yen invested in the woollen textile business, manufacturing and retail. The industry did well during the War by supplies of cloth to Russia and of yarn and muslin to countries which ordinarily are able to supply themselves. In 1918 the production (woollen fabrics and mixtures) was valued at 85 million yen (muslin, 32; cloth, 21; serges, 19; blankets, 3; flannel, 1; others, 8). The imports of wool were 60 million and of yarn 251,000. In 1919 the figures were 61 million and 710,000 respectively. In 1920 the exports were: woollen or worsted yarns, 1,437,926 yen; woollen cloth and serges, 3,019,382 yen; blankets, 1,024,540 yen; other woollens, 548,922 yen. The Nippon Wool Weaving Company, which in 1921 distributed a 20 per cent, ordinary and 20 per cent. extraordinary dividend, has 15 foreign experts.

[ POPULATION OF HOKKAIDO [LXXI].] In 1869, 58,467; has risen as follows:

Year	Population
1874	174,368
1884	276,414
1894	616,650
1904	1,233,669
1914	1,869,582
1919	2,137,700
1920	2,359,097

[ EXTENSION OF CROP-BEARING AREA OF JAPAN [LXXII].] There is normally added to the crop-bearing area about 53,000 chō (132,000 acres) a year. From the new crop-bearing area every year is deducted the loss of arable land from floods, the extension of cities and towns and railways and the building of factories and institutions. This is reckoned at nearly 8,000 chō in the year. One computation is that there are 2 million chō (5 million acres) available for addition to the crop-bearing area, of which 1 million chō would be convertible into paddies. A decision was taken by the Government in 1919 to bring 250,000 chō under cultivation within nine years from that date, and by 1920 some 20,000 chō had been reclaimed. Persons who reclaim more than 5 chō receive 6 per cent, of their expenditure.

The increase in the area of cultivation has been as follows (in chō):

1905	2,841,471	2,540,906	5,382,378
1906	2,849,288	2,551,170	5,400,459
1907	2,858,628	2,639,680	5,498,309
1908	2,882,426	2,684,531	5,566,958
1909	2,902,899	2,777,453	5,680,352
1910	2,910,970	2,804,434	5,715,405
1911	2,923,520	2,836,002	5,759,522
1912	2,939,445	2,880,301	5,819,756
1913	2,953,947	2,902,445	5,856,392
1914	2,961,639	2,916,569	5,878,208
1915	2,974,042	2,948,075	5,922,118
1916	2,987,579	2,971,800	5,959,379
1917	3,005,679	3,012,685	6,018,364
1918	3,011,000	3,070,000	6,081,000
1919	3,021,879	3,050,008	6,071,887

Whereas the percentage of cultivated land to uncultivated was in 1909 14.6 per cent., it was in 1918 15.6 per cent.

[ USE TO WHICH THE LAND IS PUT [LXXIII].] Here are the details of the division of the land in 1909 and 1918:

Division of the Land	Years	Area in chō in 000's	Percentage of Total Area
Total area	1909	38,847	100.0
	1918	38,864	100.0
Paddy fields	1909	2,903	7.5
	1918	3,011	7.7
Upland fields	1909	2,777	7.1
	1918	3,070	7.9
Total arable as above	1909	5,680	14.6
	1918	6,081	15.6
Meadows and pastures	1909	39	0.1
	1918	43	0.1
Grass lands and heather	1909	1,941	5.0
(excluding pastures)	1918	3,509	9.0
Forests	1909	22,072	56.8
	1918	18,783	48.3
Dwellings, factories, roads, railways,	1909	9,115	23.5
institutions, etc.	1918	10,448	27.0

Crop	chō	Yield
Rice (1919)	3,104,611	60,818,163 koku; value, 2,891,397,063 yen
Mulberry (1918)	508,993	6,832,000 koku; raw silk, 7,891,000 kwan; value, 546,543,000 yen
Tea (1919)	48,843	10,397,719 kwan value, 33,377,460 yen
Barley (1919)	534,279	9,664,000 koku
Naked Barley (1919)	646,362	7,995,000 koku
Wheat (1919)	548,508	5,611,000 koku
Soy Bean (1918)	432,207	3,451,320 koku
Other Beans (1918)	—	1,237,000 koku
Peas (1918)	—	536,000 koku
Millets (1918)	—	2,903,000 koku
Buckwheat (1918)	136,313	852,000 koku
Sweet Potato (1918)	314,012	918,328,000 kwan
Irish Potato (1918)	132,090	323,930,000 kwan
Rape Seed (1918)	116,300	856,880 kwan
Sugar Cane (1918)	29,367	316,745,596 kwan
Indigo (1918)	5,570	2,717,757 kwan
Hemp (1918)	11,821	2,564,114 kwan
Cotton (1918)	2,930	681,021 kwan

Radish (1917), 576,746,000 kwan; taro (1917), 159,168,000 kwan; burdock (1917), 43,424,000 kwan; turnip (1917), 41,527,000 kwan; onion (1917), 37,601,000 kwan; carrot (1917), 26,976,000 kwan; cabbage (1917); 19,951,000 kwan; wax-tree seed (1918), 13,761,000 kwan; rush for matting, (1918), 10,442,000 kwan; flax (1918), 17,300,000 kwan; ginger (1918), 8,189,000 kwan; paper mulberry (1918), 6,964,000 kwan; peppermint (1918), 3,380,000 kwan; lily (1917), 682,000 kwan; chillies (1918), 441,000 kwan.

[ EMIGRANTS AND RESIDENTS ABROAD (LXXIV).] The latest official figures as to Japanese resident abroad, supplied in 1921 and probably gathered in 1920, are:

	Asia
China		200,740
Kwantung		79,307
Tsingtao		23,555
Philippines		11,156
Strait Settlements		10,828
Russian Asia		7,028
Dutch India		4,436
Hongkong		3,083
India		1,278
Burma		680
Indo-China		371
	Europe
England		1,638
Germany		409
Holland		375
France		342
Switzerland		87
Italy		34
Belgium		12
Sweden		10
	North America
U.S.A.		115,186
Hawaii		112,221
Canada		17,716
Mexico		2,198
Panama		225
	South America
Brazil		34,258
Peru		10,102
Argentine		1,958
Chile		484
Bolivia		145
	Africa
South Africa		38
Egypt		35
	Oceania
Australia		5,274
South Seas		3,399
Total		648,915

(The comparable return for 1918 was 493,845.) It has been suggested that these official statistics are incomplete; 7,000 as the number of Japanese in Russian territory seems low. Even during the War, in 1917, passports were issued to 62,000 Japanese going abroad. Of these, according to the Japan Year-book, 23,000 were made out for Siberia. Professor Shiga has stated that "no small number" of Japanese leave their country as stowaways.

[ RISE IN PRODUCTION PER "TAN" OF PADDY [LXXV].] The 3 or 4 koku is reached in favourable circumstances only. The average is far below this, but it rises, as shown in [Appendix XV].

Between 1887 and 1915 the area under barley and wheat rose from 1,591,000 chō to 1,812,000 chō, the yield from 15,822,000 koku to 23,781,000 koku and the yield per tan from .994 koku to 1.313. Between 1882 and 1914 the increase in the crops of the three varieties of millet averaged .515 koku per tan. The increased yield of soy beans was .229 koku per tan, of sweet potatoes 138 kwamme per tan and of Irish potatoes 138 kwamme.

[ LABOURERS [LXXVI].] When hired labour is required on farms it is supplied either by relatives and neighbours or by the surplus labour of strangers who are small farmers or members of a small farmer's family. According to the Department of Agriculture: "Ordinary fixed employees are upon an equal social footing. Apprentice labourers are very numerous. No working class holds a special social position as such. This is the greatest point of difference between the Japanese agricultural labour situation and that of Europe." The number of labourers in October 1920 was:

		Day	Seasonal	All the year round	Total
Labourers living solely on wages, agricultural and other	male	119,676	52,007	49,110	220,793
	female	80,870	42,193	23,862	146,925
		200,546	94,200	72,972	367,718
Labourers who are labourers part of their time	male	949,266	407,596	188,369	1,546,231
	female	646,720	405,131	116,152	1,168,003
		1,595,986	813,727	304,521	2,714,234
Total		1,796,532	907,927	377,493	3,081,952

In addition to the total of 3,081,952 "there are 32,973 agricultural labourers who are boys and girls under 14."

[ DECREASE OF FARMERS TILLING THEIR OWN LAND [LXXVII].] In 1914 the number of farmers owning their own land was 1,731,247; in 1919 it had fallen to 1,700,747. In 1914 the number of tenants was 1,520,476; in 1919 it had increased to 1,545,639. That is, there were 30,500 fewer landowners and 25,163 more tenants. During the period between 1914 and 1919 the number of farmers (landowners and tenants) increased 30,293. While from 1909 to 1914 the percentage of landowners fell from 33.27 to 31.73, the percentage of tenant farmers rose from 27.69 to 27.87 and the percentage of persons partly owner and partly tenant from 39.04 to 40.40. See [Appendix XXXIV].

[ RURAL AND URBAN POPULATIONS [LXXVIII].] The following table shows the percentage of the population living in communes under 5,000 and 10,000 inhabitants in 1913 and 1918:

Year	Percentage of Population living in Communities		Percentage of Families engaged in Agricultural to Total Families in Japan Proper
	Under 5,000	Under 10,000
1913	50.44	72.39	57.6
1918	46.23	67.71	52.3
	-4.21	-4.68	-5.3

These figures clearly indicate the decrease of the rural population. To take 10,000 inhabitants as the demarcation line between urban and rural population is probably less correct than to take a demarcation line of 7,500 inhabitants. A mean of the two percentages of populations living in communities under 5,000 and under 10,000 inhabitants shows 61.41 per cent, in 1913 and 56.97 per cent, in 1918, a decrease of 4.44 per cent. The variation between this result and the preceding one has a simple explanation. About 30 per cent, of the families engaged in agriculture carry on their farming as an accessory business. Teachers, priests and mechanics may all have patches of land. On the other hand, a small number of people have no land. Therefore, the percentage of the rural population is only slightly higher than that of the families engaged in agriculture. In 1918 there were 5,476,784 farming families (to 10,460,440 total families or 52.3 per cent.), and if we multiply by 5⅓—the average number of persons per family in Japan is 5.317 (1918)—to find the population dependent on agriculture, the number is 29,209,514. The total population of Japan in 1918 was 55,667,711. The Department of Agriculture has stated that on the basis of the census of 1918 the number of persons in households engaged in agriculture was 52 per cent. of the population. According to one set of statistics the percentage of farming families to non-farming families fell from 64 per cent, in 1904 to 60.3 per cent. in 1910 and 56 in 1914. We shall probably not be far wrong in supposing the rural population to be at present about 55 per cent, of the population. The percentage of persons actually working on the farms is another matter. As has been seen, some 30 per cent, of the 5½ million farming families are engaged in agriculture as a secondary business only. It may be, therefore, that the 5½ million families do not actually yield more than 10 million effective farm hands.

[ IS RICE THE RIGHT CROP FOR JAPAN [LXXIX].] Mr. Katsuro Hara, of the College of Literature, Kyoto University, asks, "Is Japan specially adapted for the production of rice?" and answers: "Southern Japan is of course not unfit. But rice does not conform to the climate of northern Japan. This explains the reason why there have been repeated famines. By the choice of this uncertain kind of crop as the principal foodstuff the Japanese have been obliged to acquiesce in a comparatively enhanced cost of living. The tardiness of civilisation may be perhaps partly attributed to this fact. Why did our forefathers prefer rice to other cereals? Was a choice made in Japan? If the choice was made in this country the unwisdom of the choice and of the choosers is now very patent."

Along with this expression of opinion may be set the following figures, showing the total production of rice and of other grain crops during the past six years, in thousands of koku:

Year	Barley	Naked Barley	Wheat	Barley and Wheat	Rice
1914	9,548	7,207	4,488	21,244	57,006
1915	10,253	8,296	5,231	23,781	55,924
1916	9,559	7,921	5,869	23,350	58,442
1917	9,169	8,197	6,786	24,155	54,658
1918	8,368	7,777	6,431	22,576	54,699
1919	9,664	7,995	5,611	23,271	60,818

From 1910 to 1919 the areas under barleys and wheat were, in chō, 1,771,655-1,729,148, and under rice 2,949,440-3,104,611.

[ INNER COLONISATION v. FOREIGN EXPANSION [LXXX].] An Introduction to the History of Japan (1921), written by an Imperial University professor and published by the Yamato Society, the members of which include some of the most distinguished men in Japan, says: "It is doubtful whether the backwardness of the north can be solely attributed to its climatic inferiority. Even in the depth of winter the cold in the northern provinces cannot be said to be more unbearable than that of the Scandinavian countries or of north-eastern Germany. The principal cause of the retardation of progress in northern Japan lies rather in the fact that it is comparatively recently exploited.... The northern provinces might have become far more populous, civilised and prosperous than we see them now. Unfortunately for the north, just at the most critical time in its development the attention of the nation was compelled to turn from inner colonisation to foreign relations. The subsequent acquisition of dominions oversea made the nation still more indifferent."

According to a report of the Hokkaido Government in 1921, the number of immigrants during the latest three year period was 90,000, and one and a half million acres are available for cultivation and improvement.

[ AGRICULTURE v. COMMERCE AND INDUSTRY [LXXXI].] There is supposed to be more money invested in land than in commerce or industry. Comprehensive figures of a trustworthy kind establishing the relative importance of agriculture, commerce and industry are not readily obtained. "This is a question," writes a Japanese professor of agriculture to me, "which we should like to study very much." Industrial and commercial figures at the end of and immediately after the War are not of much use because of the inflation of that period. The annual value of agricultural production before the War was about 1,800 million yen; it must be by now about 2,500 or 3,000. In 1912, according to the Department of Finance, the debt of the agricultural population was 740 million yen. In 1916 the Japan Mortgage Bank and the prefectural agricultural and industrial banks had together advanced to agricultural organisations 110 millions and to other borrowers 273 millions. In 1915 co-operative credit associations had advanced 45 millions to farmers and 11 millions to other borrowers. The paid-up capital of companies, was, in 1913, 1,983 million, of which 27 million was agricultural, and in 1916, 2,434 million, of which 31 million was agricultural. The reserves were, in 1913, 542 million, of which 1 million was agricultural, and in 1916, 841 million, of which 3 were agricultural. (For some reason or other, "fishing" is included under "agricultural." On careful dissection I find that of the 45 million of investments credited to agriculture in 1918, only 28 million are purely agricultural.) The land tax is estimated to yield 73 million yen in 1920-1. It is 2½ per cent. on residential land, 4.5 per cent. on paddy and cultivated land—3.2 per cent, in Hokkaido—and 5.5 per cent. on other land—4 per cent. in Hokkaido.

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