CHAPTER IV.
THE GOVERNMENT OF CITIES.
The General Plan of City Government.—The general framework of city government is not very different from that of the other governmental divisions. There are the legislative, executive, and judicial departments, whose organization and functions are stated in the charter, or fundamental law of the city. The city legislature is the council or board of aldermen. In most cases this body is a single house, though in some cities there are two houses. The members are elected from the wards into which the city is divided. The council may pass ordinances for the government of the city, but it is limited in the extent of its powers by the terms of the city charter.
City Charters Granted by Legislatures.—The source of the charter is the State legislature. In most States the constitution provides that the legislature shall pass general laws prescribing the framework of all cities, or of the classes into which the cities of a State may be divided, according to their population. These laws also contain regulations that are safeguards against the abuses of municipal government, such as heavy taxation and the accumulation of debts. The requirement of general laws secures uniformity in the most important features of city government, and it prevents the practice, which is otherwise liable to prevail, of constant interference by State legislatures in the affairs of certain cities. Such special laws should be enacted with great caution, if at all; for when a legislature regulates the affairs of a particular city, it too often does so at the request of persons or corporations having advantages to gain at the expense of the public.[[3]]
The Mayor.—The chief executive of the city is the mayor. He is the head of the police department and has more or less authority over the other administrative departments to be discussed later in this chapter. In the cases of both mayor and aldermen, the facts concerning their terms, salaries, and other details vary so greatly in different cities that no general description is possible.
The city judiciary includes the ordinary State courts and also special or municipal courts of various degrees.
Other City Officials.—Besides the officers enumerated, every city has its clerk, treasurer, attorney, and assessors. The auditor, or comptroller, is an important official who controls city finances.
Administrative Departments.—The greatest difficulties of city government arise in connection with the numerous administrative departments; these are quite complex in their operation. In large cities the number of officials and the variety of their duties render it almost impossible for the average citizen to become informed concerning these affairs; consequently, opportunities for fraud and mismanagement occur frequently.
Why, it may be asked, is such complex machinery necessary in municipal government? It is because social and industrial conditions (that is, the circumstances under which men live and work) are quite different from those that we find in towns and villages; and city government must be adapted to these conditions.
Conditions Peculiar to City Life.—Let us notice some of the ways in which this is true. (1) The mere fact that population is dense increases the possibility that a citizen may interfere with the rights of his neighbors even in the conduct of ordinary business. (2) There is greater liability that public health and safety may be endangered, both in the homes and in the shops and factories of cities, than in less densely settled communities. (3) The opportunities for evil-doing and for concealment that exist in cities draw to them a larger proportion of the vicious classes who need control and suppression. (4) Finally, in cities it is less easy than in the country for each family to supply itself with certain conveniences, such as water, light, and transportation; consequently, the government must regulate to some extent the supply of these necessities.
These are some of the conditions that are peculiar to city life; and we find here the reasons why the government in a city must undertake a large number of functions. At every point the safety of the citizen and his property must be guarded; and in a great many ways the conveniences of life must be supplied by the city or under the control of city officials. Thus we account for the fact that city government is complex—the principal source of the difficulties and the evils that we find in connection with administrative departments.
Fire and Police Departments.—The number and the organization of administrative departments vary considerably in different cities. Everywhere we find the police, fire, and health departments. Fire departments are, as a rule, very efficient; for the citizens will not allow laxness in the protection of their property. The efficiency of police departments varies greatly in different cities. When the selection of police officers is on a political basis, the standards are apt to be low, and the police may then protect or even assist violators of the law. Instances have been known where policemen received, regularly, money payments from law-breakers whom they did not arrest. The detection of this form of corruption is difficult; nevertheless, if it continues, the people are evidently not awake to their own best interests. In other cities, on the other hand, the police force is maintained upon a high standard. Sometimes civil-service-reform methods are used in the selection of policemen; the passing of an examination is necessary for appointment. This, with a fair system of promotions, should render a police force more like a military organization in its relation to the enforcement of law.
The Health Department.—The department of public health has duties that are of vital importance. Sewerage systems, sanitation, and the water-supply are the chief objects of its inspection. Health officers also have powers which enable them to detect and prohibit the sale of impure foods. The milk-supply should receive its particular attention, for the purity of this product is an important matter. The enforcement of strict health regulations in the crowded tenement districts of large cities is very difficult; but the neglect of these matters by city officials is nothing less than criminal.
The Department of Streets.—This department, which has in charge the construction of streets and pavements, affects the convenience of every citizen. Here vast sums of money are expended, sometimes wisely, and sometimes under the supervision of officials who are lacking in the technical knowledge required by this kind of work. Opportunity for dishonest handling of public money may be found in the letting of contracts and in the purchase of supplies. Street-cleaning has received comparatively little attention in American cities. In this respect we are far behind many European cities. This is because the relation of clean streets to public health, and to civic beauty, is not fully appreciated by the average citizen of our country.
Public Charities.—The administration of public charities is everywhere a difficult matter, and, naturally, its difficulty is greatest in large cities, where we find the greatest number of those who seek relief. Two problems confront the department of public charities: (1) How can it distinguish between those who actually need assistance and those who do not? (2)How can it help those who need assistance temporarily, without weakening their desire to become self-supporting? The same problems must be solved by the citizen in connection with his private charities. In general, it may be said that charitable work is best managed by private organizations, in charge of trained workers, who can investigate all cases of application for aid.
The Public Schools.—Public education is another department of municipal activity.[[4]] City governments spend great amounts of public money for this purpose. The work of our educational institutions is constantly being enlarged; courses in commerce, manual training, and domestic science are intended to strengthen the practical side of education. In some cities special schools are maintained for the defective classes and for truants.
Libraries, Parks, and Playgrounds.—The educational advantages furnished by the city are not for the children alone. Public libraries and museums serve adults as well. Recreation is provided by means of parks, public playgrounds, and open-air gymnasiums. These will become more common when their educational influence is more fully understood.
Committees or Boards.—The important questions that arise in connection with administrative departments are, how shall they be organized? and how shall the officers who control them be appointed? Two general methods prevail: (1)In the smaller cities the members of the council are grouped into committees, which have charge of the various administrative departments. In large cities there are boards or commissioners, distinct from the council, and these may be composed of salaried officers. In either case the board may employ a superintendent to take charge of the work under its jurisdiction. The principal criticism which can be offered against this method of managing administrative departments is that responsibility cannot be definitely located. No single member of a board or commission will assume responsibility for mismanagement; and when responsibility is divided among several persons, none of them feels it very strongly.
(2)Single Heads of Departments.—As a remedy for this defect, administrative departments in some cities are placed under the control of single officers. These are given authority to appoint their subordinates, and they are held strictly accountable for the management of the department. Responsibility is further concentrated in some cities by giving the mayor power to appoint these heads of departments.
The Commission Form of City Government.—This form is found in a number of cities throughout the country. In place of the mayor and council these cities have a small body of men (generally three or five) who both make and execute city ordinances. They are elected at large from the city. Each of the commissioners is in charge of one or more of the city departments, and all subordinate officers are appointed by them. The commissioners are expected to devote their entire time to their duties and they are paid liberal salaries. Thus, it is hoped, city government will become more business-like and efficient.
In most cities that have the commission form provision is made for the initiative, referendum, and recall. The initiative enables a body of citizens who sign a petition to obtain a certain law by popular vote, if the commission refuses to pass it. The referendum enables citizens to vote for or against a law that the commission has passed, and thus to repeal it if they desire. Under the recall a member of the commission can be made to stand for re-election, or else to resign, at any time during his term of office, if a certain number of citizens petition for this action.
Qualifications of City Officers.—Grave questions are involved in these matters of organization, but the efficiency of city government depends in the greatest measure upon the character of the officers who are placed in power. We need to recognize the importance, in city affairs as in private business, of securing officials who are qualified by training and by successful experience to serve the public. Economy and honesty in municipal government cannot be expected when politics alone determines appointments to office. The establishment of civil-service-examination systems in certain cities is a step in the right direction.
Public Utilities.—Besides the administrative departments already mentioned, we have in large cities those which control the supply of water, light, and transportation facilities. The industries furnishing these necessities may belong to the city, but in most cases they are owned by individuals and corporations.[[5]] Even then they should be subject to strict regulation by the city, for several reasons: (1) These industries make use of public streets. The right to do this is granted by the council in a franchise. (2) The product that is supplied being in each case a necessity, it is the duty of the city government to protect the citizens from any abuse or inconvenience that may arise in connection with it. (3) In nearly every case the industries in question are monopolies; i.e., competition between rival plants is not possible. For this reason the public may suffer either from high rates or from imperfect service.
The Question of Municipal Ownership.—The opinion is gaining ground that no amount of municipal control will cure the evils of private ownership in these industries. Since they are "natural monopolies," it is argued they should be operated by the city government. This opinion is seen to have great weight when we consider the corruption and the lack of attention to the public welfare that accompany the granting of franchises to corporations. The bribery of aldermen and the granting of valuable privileges without compensation are frequent occurrences. On the other hand, the facts that bad officers are sometimes elected in our cities, and that they ignore public interests, raise a very serious question whether they should be intrusted with the management of great industries, such as water and lighting plants and street-car systems.
Reasons for Poor City Government.—Other arguments may be made on both sides of this question of municipal ownership; but there are fundamental reasons why the cities of the United States are, on the whole, poorly governed, which must receive consideration before this question can be settled. The conditions accounting for the evils of municipal government may be briefly stated as follows: (1) City governments are necessarily complex, and, in their administrative departments especially, a multitude of details must receive attention. Citizens find it difficult to understand these transactions and even more difficult to follow them closely. (2) City governments must spend vast sums of money, and this fact is a standing temptation to dishonest men both in and out of office. (3) The rapidity with which cities have grown has increased the difficulty of their problems. (4) Individuals and corporations have found it necessary to secure franchises from cities for the operation of important industries; this has opened many opportunities for corruption in city affairs. (5) The presence of large numbers of foreigners who are ignorant of governmental affairs has enabled corrupt politicians to exert great influence upon the voters in city elections.
The Reform of Municipal Governments.—Having reviewed the principal causes for the evils of municipal government, let us now consider some of the conditions that are necessary for bringing about reforms.
(1) National politics should be entirely separated from city affairs. It may be impossible to prevent the nomination of candidates by the regular political parties; but within each party local issues, not national, should determine the selection of candidates. At the polls the voter should cast his ballot independently of party considerations.
(2) Public interest in municipal affairs and the existence of a strong civic pride are conditions that are essential to the election of good officers and to the purity of city government.
(3) Before we can have better city governments every citizen must recognize his responsibility, not only on election day, but on every occasion when he can help in the work of detecting wrong, punishing corrupt officials, and encouraging better things in all departments of city life. This means unselfishness in one's attitude toward the public welfare; it means willingness to sacrifice time and effort in the public service. The example set by many eminent persons who have devoted themselves unselfishly to the accomplishment of reforms in our great cities may well be imitated by every citizen in the smaller affairs of his city or his ward. And the younger generation of citizens, who are yet students in the public schools, may exert no little influence toward the betterment of the city; and they may aid in the formation of that better public sentiment without which no improvement in our standards of municipal government is possible.
SUPPLEMENTARY QUESTIONS.
Outline for the study of your city government.
1. Was the city organized under a general law of the State, or was it granted a special charter? Does the legislature enact special laws for the city?
2. The mayor: term, salary. What are his principal powers? Should his responsibility be increased?
3. The council or board of aldermen: number of members, term of office, manner of election, compensation?
4. The municipal courts and judges.
5. Administrative departments: make a complete list of these. Are they controlled by boards or by single officers? How do the officers obtain their positions? Are they paid salaries? Of what business does each have charge?
6. How are the water, lighting, and street-car plants managed? Do you believe in the municipal ownership of any of them? Give reasons for your opinion.
7. How do police officers receive appointment? If an officer fails to enforce an ordinance, what course would you take to secure its enforcement?
8. Are party lines closely adhered to by voters in city elections? Are independent party organizations formed? Are they successful?
9. What can you learn of reform movements that have taken place in your city's history? Give the causes for the success or failure of these.
10. What is the cost of your city government per annum? Is it economically administered? What are the principal items of expense? Has the city other sources of revenue besides taxation?
11. What are the excellent features of your city's government? What are its faults? How may the latter be corrected?
12. Mention some ways in which students can assist in bringing about better conditions in your city.
REFERENCES.
1. Reinsch, Young Citizen's Reader, 80-83. Hoxie, How the People Rule, 63-83. Dole, Young Citizen, 93-108; 132-139.