LIST OF PLATES.
| Earth’s Orbit when Eccentricity is at its Superior Limit | ||
PLATE | To face page | |
| Showing Agreement between the System of Ocean-Currents and Winds | 212 | |
| Showing how opposing Currents intersect each other | 219 | |
| Section of Mid-Atlantic | 222 | |
| Diagram representing the Variations of Eccentricity of the Earth’s Orbit | 313 | |
| Showing probable Path of the Ice in North-Western Europe | 449 | |
| Showing Path of Ice across Caithness | 453 | |
| Map of the Midland Valley (Scotland), showing buried River Channels | 471 | |
CHAPTER I.
INTRODUCTION.
The Fundamental Problem of Geology.—Geology a Dynamical Science.—The Nature of a Geological Principle.—Theories of Geological Climate.—Geological Climate dependent on Astronomical Causes.—An Important Consideration overlooked.—Abstract of the Line of Argument pursued in the Volume.
The Fundamental Problem of Geology.—The investigation of the successive changes and modifications which the earth’s crust has undergone during past ages is the province of geology. It will be at once admitted that an acquaintance with the agencies by means of which those successive changes and modifications were effected, is of paramount importance to the geologist. What, then, are those agencies? Although volcanic and other subterranean eruptions, earthquakes, upheavals, and subsidences of the land have taken place in all ages, yet no truth is now better established than that it is not by these convulsions and cataclysms of nature that those great changes were effected. It was rather by the ordinary agencies that we see every day at work around us, such as rain, rivers, heat and cold, frost and snow. The valleys were not produced by violent dislocations, nor the hills by sudden upheavals, but were actually carved out of the solid rock, silently and gently, by the agencies to which we have referred. “The tools,” to quote the words of Professor Geikie, “by which this great work has been done are of the simplest and most every-day order—the air, rain, frosts, springs, brooks, rivers, glaciers, icebergs, and the sea. These tools have been at work from the earliest times of which any geological record has been preserved. Indeed, it is out of the accumulated chips and dust which they have made, afterwards hardened into solid rock and upheaved, that the very framework of our continents has been formed.”[1]
It will be observed—and this is the point requiring particular attention—that the agencies referred to are the ordinary meteorological or climatic agencies. In fact, it is these agencies which constitute climate. The various peculiarities or modifications of climate result from a preponderance of one or more of these agencies over the rest. When heat, for example, predominates, we have a hot or tropical climate. When cold and frost predominate, we have a rigorous or arctic climate. With moisture in excess, we have a damp and rainy climate; and so on. But this is not all. These climatic agencies are not only the factors which carved out the rocky face of the globe into hill and dale, and spread over the whole a mantle of soil; but by them are determined the character of the flora and fauna which exist on that soil. The flora and fauna of a district are determined mainly by the character of the climate, and not by the nature of the soil, or the conformation of the ground. It is from difference of climate that tropical life differs so much from arctic, and both these from the life of temperate regions. It is climate, and climate alone, that causes the orange and the vine to blossom, and the olive to flourish, in the south, but denies them to the north, of Europe. It is climate, and climate alone, that enables the forest tree to grow on the plain, but not on the mountain top; that causes wheat and barley to flourish on the mainland of Scotland, but not on the steppes of Siberia.
Again, if we compare flat countries with mountainous, highlands with lowlands, or islands with continents, we shall find that difference of climatic conditions is the chief reason why life in the one differs so much from life in the other. And if we turn to the sea we find that organic life is there as much under the domain of climate as on the land, only the conditions are much less complex. For in the case of the sea, difference in the temperature of the water may be said to constitute almost the only difference of climatic conditions. If there is one fact more clearly brought out than another by the recent deep-sea explorations, it is this, that nothing exercises so much influence on organic life in the ocean as the temperature of the water. In fact, so much is this the case, that warm zones were found to be almost equivalent to zones of life. It was found that even the enormous pressure at the bottom of the ocean does not exercise so much influence on life as the temperature of the water. There are few, I presume, who reflect on the subject that will not readily admit that, whether as regards the great physical changes which are taking place on the surface of our globe, or as regards the growth and distribution of plant and animal life, the ordinary climatic agents are the real agents at work, and that, compared with them, all other agencies sink into insignificance.
It will also be admitted that what holds true of the present holds equally true of the past. Climatic agents are not only now the most important and influential; they have been so during all past geological ages. They were so during the Cainozoic as much as during the present; and there is no reason for supposing they were otherwise during the remoter Mesozoic and Palæozoic epochs. They have been the principal factors concerned in that long succession of events and changes which have taken place since the time of the solidification of the earth’s crust. The stratified rocks of the globe contain all the records which now remain of their action, and it is the special duty of the geologist to investigate and read those records. It will be at once admitted that in order to a proper understanding of the events embodied in these records, an acquaintance with the agencies by which they were produced is of the utmost importance. In fact, it is only by this means that we can hope to arrive at their rational explanation. A knowledge of the agents, and of the laws of their operations, is, in all the physical sciences, the means by which we arrive at a rational comprehension of the effects produced. If we have before us some complex and intricate effects which have been produced by heat, or by light, or by electricity, &c., in order to understand them we must make ourselves acquainted with the agents by which they were produced and the laws of their action. If the effects to be considered be, for example, those of heat, then we must make ourselves acquainted with this agent and its laws. If they be of electricity, then a knowledge of electricity and its laws becomes requisite.
This is no mere arbitrary mode of procedure which may be adopted in one science and rejected in another. It is in reality a necessity of thought arising out of the very constitution of our intellect; for the objective law of the agent is the conception by means of which the effects are subjectively united in a rational unity. We may describe, arrange, and classify the effects as we may, but without a knowledge of the laws of the agent we can have no rational unity. We have not got the higher conception by which they can be comprehended. It is this relationship between the effects and the laws of the agent, a knowledge of which really constitutes a science. We might examine, arrange, and describe for a thousand years the effects produced by heat, and still we should have no science of heat unless we had a knowledge of the laws of that agent. The effects would never be seen to be necessarily connected with anything known to us; we could not connect them with any rational principle from which they could be deduced à priori. The same remarks hold, of course, equally true of all sciences, in which the things to be considered stand in the relationship of cause and effect. Geology is no exception. It is not like systematic botany, a mere science of classification. It has to explain and account for effects produced; and these effects can no more be explained without a knowledge of the laws of the agents which produced them, than can the effects of heat without a knowledge of the laws of heat. The only distinction between geology and heat, light, electricity, &c., is, that in geology the effects to be explained have almost all occurred already, whereas in these other sciences effects actually taking place have to be explained. But this distinction is of no importance to our present purpose, for effects which have already occurred can no more be explained without a knowledge of the laws of the agent which produced them than can effects which are in the act of occurring. It is, moreover, not strictly true that all the effects to be explained by the geologist are already past. It falls within the scope of his science to account for the changes which are at present taking place on the earth’s crust.
No amount of description, arrangement, and classification, however perfect or accurate, of the facts which come under the eye of the geologist can ever constitute a science of geology any more than a description and classification of the effects of heat could constitute a science of heat. This will, no doubt, be admitted by every one who reflects upon the subject, and it will be maintained that geology, like every other science, must possess principles applicable to the facts. But here confusion and misconception will arise unless there be distinct and definite ideas as to what ought to constitute a geological principle. It is not every statement or rule that may apply to a great many facts, which will constitute a geological principle. A geological principle must bear the same characteristics as the principles of those sciences to which we have referred. What, then, is the nature of the principles of light, heat, electricity, &c.? The principles of heat are the laws of heat. The principles of electricity are the laws of electricity. And these laws are nothing more nor less than the ways according to which these agents produce their effects. The principles of geology are therefore the laws of geology. But the laws of geology must be simply the laws of the geological agents, or, in other words, the methods by which they produce their effects. Any other so-called principle can be nothing more than an empirical rule, adopted for convenience. Possessing no rationality in itself, it cannot be justly regarded as a principle. In order to rationality the principle must be either resolvable into, or logically deducible from, the laws of the agents. Unless it possess this quality we cannot give the explanation à priori.
The reason of all this is perfectly obvious. The things to be explained are effects; and the relationship between cause and effect affords the subjective connection between the principle and the explanation. The explanation follows from the principle simply as the effect results from the laws of the agent or cause.
Theories of Geological Climate.—We have already seen that the geological agents are chiefly the ordinary climatic agents. Consequently, the main principles of geology must be the laws of the climatic agents, or some logical deductions from them. It therefore follows that, in order to a purely scientific geology, the grand problem must be one of geological climate. It is through geological climate that we can hope to arrive ultimately at principles which will afford a rational explanation of the multifarious facts which have been accumulating during the past century. The facts of geology are as essential to the establishment of the principles, as the facts of heat, light, and electricity are essential to the establishment of the principles of these sciences. A theory of geological climate devised without reference to the facts would be about as worthless as a theory of heat or of electricity devised without reference to the facts of these sciences.
It has all along been an admitted opinion among geologists that the climatic condition of our globe has not, during past ages, been uniformly the same as at present. For a long time it was supposed that during the Cambrian, Silurian, and other early geological periods, the climate of our globe was much hotter than now, and that ever since it has been gradually becoming cooler. And this high temperature of Palæozoic ages was generally referred to the influence of the earth’s internal heat. It has, however, been proved by Sir William Thomson[2] that the general climate of our globe could not have been sensibly affected by internal heat at any time more than ten thousand years after the commencement of the solidification of the surface. This physicist has proved that the present influence of internal heat on the temperature amounts to about only 1/75th of a degree. Not only is the theory of internal heat now generally abandoned, but it is admitted that we have no good geological evidence that climate was much hotter during Palæozoic ages than now; and much less, that it has been becoming uniformly colder.
The great discovery of the glacial epoch, and more lately that of a mild and temperate condition of climate extending during the Miocene and other periods to North Greenland, have introduced a complete revolution of ideas in reference to geological climate. Those discoveries showed that our globe has not only undergone changes of climate, but changes of the most extraordinary character. They showed that at one time not only an arctic condition of climate prevailed in our island, but that the greater part of the temperate region down to comparatively low latitudes was buried under ice, while at other periods Greenland and the Arctic regions, probably up to the North Pole, were not only free from ice, but were covered with a rich and luxuriant vegetation.
To account for these extraordinary changes of climate has generally been regarded as the most difficult and perplexing problem which has fallen to the lot of the geologist. Some have attempted to explain them by assuming a displacement of the earth’s axis of rotation in consequence of the uprising of large mountain masses on some part of the earth’s surface. But it has been shown by Professor Airy,[3] Sir William Thomson,[4] and others, that the earth’s equatorial protuberance is such that no geological change on its surface could ever possibly alter the position of the axis of rotation to an extent which could at all sensibly affect climate. Others, again, have tried to explain the change of climate by supposing, with Poisson, that the earth during its past geological history may have passed through hotter and colder parts of space. This is not a very satisfactory hypothesis. There is no doubt a difference in the quantity of force in the form of heat passing through different parts of space; but space itself is not a substance which can possibly be either cold or hot. If, therefore, we were to adopt this hypothesis, we must assume that the earth during the hot periods must have been in the vicinity of some other great source of heat and light besides the sun. But the proximity of a mass of such magnitude as would be sufficient to affect to any great extent the earth’s climate would, by its gravity, seriously disarrange the mechanism of our solar system. Consequently, if our solar system had ever, during any former period of its history, really come into the vicinity of such a mass, the orbits of the planets ought at the present day to afford some evidence of it. But again, in order to account for a cold period, such as the glacial epoch, we have to assume that the earth must have come into the vicinity of a cold body.[5] But recent discoveries in regard to inter-glacial periods are wholly irreconcilable with this theory.
A change in the obliquity of the ecliptic has frequently been, and still is, appealed to as an explanation of geological climate. This theory appears, however, to be beset by a twofold objection: (1), it can be shown from celestial mechanics, that the variations in the obliquity of the ecliptic must always have been so small that they could not materially affect the climatic condition of the globe; and (2), even admitting that the obliquity could change to an indefinite extent, it can be shown[6] that no increase or decrease, however great, could possibly account for either the glacial epoch or a warm temperate condition of climate in polar regions.
The theory that the sun is a variable star, and that the glacial epochs of the geologists may correspond to periods of decrease in the sun’s heat, has lately been advanced. This theory is also open to two objections: (1), a general diminution of heat[7] never could produce a glacial epoch; and (2), even if it could, it would not explain inter-glacial periods.
The only other theory on the subject worthy of notice is that of Sir Charles Lyell. Those extraordinary changes of climate are, according to his theory, attributed to differences in the distribution of land and water. Sir Charles concludes that, were the land all collected round the poles, while the equatorial zones were occupied by the ocean, the general temperature would be lowered to an extent that would account for the glacial epoch. And, on the other hand, were the land all collected along the equator, while the polar regions were covered with sea, this would raise the temperature of the globe to an enormous extent. It will be shown in subsequent chapters that this theory does not duly take into account the prodigious influence exerted on climate by means of the heat conveyed from equatorial to temperate and polar regions by means of ocean-currents. In Chapters [II.] and [III.] I have endeavoured to prove (1), that were it not for the heat conveyed from equatorial to temperate and polar regions by this means, the thermal condition of the globe would be totally different from what it is at present; and (2), that the effect of placing all the land along the equator would be diametrically the opposite of that which Sir Charles supposes.
But supposing that difference in the distribution of land and water would produce the effects attributed to it, nevertheless it would not account for those extraordinary changes of climate which have occurred during geological epochs. Take, for example, the glacial epoch. Geologists almost all agree that little or no change has taken place in the relative distribution of sea and land since that epoch. All our main continents and islands not only existed then as they do now, but every year is adding to the amount of evidence which goes to show that so recent, geologically considered, is the glacial epoch that the very contour of the surface was pretty much the same then as it is at the present day. But this is not all; for even should we assume (1), that a difference in the distribution of sea and land would produce the effects referred to, and (2), that we had good geological evidence to show that at a very recent period a form of distribution existed which would produce the necessary glacial conditions, still the glacial epoch would not be explained, for the phenomena of warm inter-glacial periods would completely upset the theory.
Geological Climate depending on Astronomical Causes.—For a good many years past, an impression has been gradually gaining ground amongst geologists that the glacial epoch, as well as the extraordinary condition of climate which prevailed in arctic regions during the Miocene and other periods, must some way or other have resulted from a cosmical cause; but all seemed at a loss to conjecture what that cause could possibly be. It was apparent that the cosmical cause must be sought for in the relations of our earth to the sun; but a change in the obliquity of the ecliptic and the eccentricity of the earth’s orbit are the only changes from which any sensible effect on climate could possibly be expected to result. It was shown, however, by Laplace that the change of obliquity was confined within so narrow limits that it has scarcely ever been appealed to as a cause seriously affecting climate. The only remaining cause to which appeal could be made was the change in the eccentricity of the earth’s orbit—precession of the equinoxes without eccentricity producing, of course, no effect whatever on climate. Upwards of forty years ago Sir John Herschel and a few other astronomers directed their attention to the consideration of this cause, but the result arrived at was adverse to the supposition that change of eccentricity could greatly affect the climate of our globe.
As some misapprehension seems to prevail with reference to this, I would take the liberty of briefly adverting to the history of the matter,—referring the reader to the Appendix for fuller details.
About the beginning of the century some writers attributed the lower temperature of the southern hemisphere to the fact that the sun remains about seven days less on that hemisphere than on the northern; their view being that the southern hemisphere on this account receives seven days less heat than the northern. Sir Charles Lyell, in the first edition of his “Principles,” published in 1830, refers to this as a cause which might produce some slight effect on climate. Sir Charles’s remarks seem to have directed Sir John Herschel’s attention to the subject, for in the latter part of the same year he read a paper before the Geological Society on the astronomical causes which may influence geological phenomena, in which, after pointing out the mistake into which Sir Charles had been led in concluding that the southern hemisphere receives less heat than the northern, he considers the question as to whether geological climate could be influenced by changes in the eccentricity of the earth’s orbit. He did not appear at the time to have been aware of the conclusions arrived at by Lagrange regarding the superior limit of the eccentricity of the earth’s orbit; but he came to the conclusion that possibly the climate of our globe may have been affected by variations in the eccentricity of its orbit. “An amount of variation,” he says, “which we need not hesitate to admit (at least provisionally) as a possible one, may be productive of considerable diversity of climate, and may operate during great periods of time either to mitigate or to exaggerate the difference of winter and summer temperatures, so as to produce alternately in the same latitude of either hemisphere a perpetual spring, or the extreme vicissitudes of a burning summer and a rigorous winter.”
This opinion, however, was unfortunately to a great extent nullified by the statement which shortly afterwards appeared in his “Treatise on Astronomy,” and also in the “Outlines of Astronomy,” to the effect that the elliptic form of the earth’s orbit has but a very trifling influence in producing variation of temperature corresponding to the sun’s distance; the reason being that whatever may be the ellipticity of the orbit, it follows that equal amounts of heat are received from the sun in passing over equal angles round it, in whatever part of the ellipse those angles may be situated. Those angles will of course be described in unequal times, but the greater proximity of the sun exactly compensates for the more rapid description, and thus an equilibrium of heat is maintained. The sun, for example, is much nearer the earth when he is over the southern hemisphere than he is when over the northern; but the southern hemisphere does not on this account receive more heat than the northern; for, owing to the greater velocity of the earth when nearest the sun, the sun does not remain so long on the southern hemisphere as he does on the northern. These two effects so exactly counterbalance each other that, whatever be the extent of the eccentricity, the total amount of heat reaching both hemispheres is the same. And he considered that this beautiful compensating principle would protect the climate of our globe from being seriously affected by an increase in the eccentricity of its orbit, unless the extent of that increase was very great.
“Were it not,” he says, “for this, the eccentricity of the orbit would materially influence the transition of seasons. The fluctuation of distance amounts to nearly 1/30th of its mean quantity, and consequently the fluctuation in the sun’s direct heating power to double this, or 1/15th of the whole. Now the perihelion of the orbit is situated nearly at the place of the northern winter solstice; so that, were it not for the compensation we have just described, the effect would be to exaggerate the difference of summer and winter in the southern hemisphere, and to moderate it in the northern; thus producing a more violent alternation of climate in the one hemisphere, and an approach to perpetual spring in the other. As it is, however, no such inequality subsists, but an equal and impartial distribution of heat and light is accorded to both.”[8]
Herschel’s opinion was shortly afterwards adopted and advocated by Arago[9] and by Humboldt.[10]
Arago, for example, states that so little is the climate of our globe affected by the eccentricity of its orbit, that even were the orbit to become as eccentric as that of the planet Pallas (that is, as great as 0·24), “still this would not alter in any appreciable manner the mean thermometrical state of the globe.”
This idea, supported by these great authorities, got possession of the public mind; and ever since it has been almost universally regarded as settled that the great changes of climate indicated by geological phenomena could not have resulted from any change in the relation of the earth to the sun.
There is, however, one effect that was not regarded as compensated. The total amount of heat received by the earth is inversely proportional to the minor axis of its orbit; and it follows, therefore, that the greater the eccentricity, the greater is the total amount of heat received by the earth. On this account it was concluded that an increase of eccentricity would tend to a certain extent to produce a warmer climate.
All those conclusions to which I refer, arrived at by astronomers, are perfectly legitimate so far as the direct effects of eccentricity are concerned; and it was quite natural, and, in fact, proper to conclude that there was nothing in the mere increase of eccentricity that could produce a glacial epoch. How unnatural would it have been to have concluded that an increase in the quantity of heat received from the sun should lower the temperature, and cover the country with snow and ice! Neither would excessively cold winters, followed by excessively hot summers, produce a glacial epoch. To assert, therefore, that the purely astronomical causes could produce such an effect would be simply absurd.
Important Consideration overlooked.—The important fact, however, was overlooked that, although the glacial epoch could not result directly from an increase of eccentricity, it might nevertheless do so indirectly. Although an increase of eccentricity could have no direct tendency to lower the temperature and cover our country with ice, yet it might bring into operation physical agents which would produce this effect.
If, instead of endeavouring to trace a direct connection between a high condition of eccentricity and a glacial condition of climate, we turn our attention to the consideration of what are the physical effects which result from an increase of eccentricity, we shall find that a host of physical agencies are brought into operation, the combined effect of which is to lower to a very great extent the temperature of the hemisphere whose winters occur in aphelion, and to raise to nearly as great an extent the temperature of the opposite hemisphere, whose winters of course occur in perihelion. Until attention was directed to those physical circumstances to which I refer, it was impossible that the true cause of the glacial epoch could have been discovered; and, moreover, many of the indirect and physical effects, which in reality were those that brought about the glacial epoch, could not, in the nature of things, have been known previously to recent discoveries in the science of heat.
The consideration and discussion of those various physical agencies are the chief aim of the following pages.
Abstract of the Line of Argument pursued in this Volume.—I shall now proceed to give a brief abstract of the line of argument pursued in this volume. But as a considerable portion of it is devoted to the consideration of objections and difficulties bearing either directly or indirectly on the theory, it will be necessary to point out what those difficulties are, how they arose, and the methods which have been adopted to overcome them.
[Chapter IV.] contains an outline of the physical agencies affecting climate which are brought into operation by an increase of eccentricity. By far the most important of all those agencies, and the one which mainly brought about the glacial epoch, is the Deflection of Ocean-Currents. The consideration of the indirect physical connection between a high state of eccentricity and the deflection of ocean-currents, and also the enormous influence on climate which results from this deflection constitute not only the most important part of the subject, but the one beset with the greatest amount of difficulties.
The difficulties besetting this part of the theory arise mainly from the imperfect state of our knowledge, (1st) with reference to the absolute amount of heat transferred from equatorial to temperate and polar regions by means of ocean-currents and the influence which the heat thus transferred has on the distribution of temperature on the earth’s surface; and (2nd) in connection with the physical cause of ocean circulation.
In Chapters [II.] and [III.] I have entered at considerable length into the consideration of the effects of ocean currents on the distribution of heat over the globe. The only current of which anything like an accurate estimate of volume and temperature has been made is the Gulf-stream. In reference to this stream we have a means of determining in absolute measure the quantity of heat conveyed by it. On the necessary computation being made, it is found that the amount transferred by the Gulf-stream from equatorial regions into the North Atlantic is enormously greater than was ever anticipated, amounting to no less than one-fifth part of the entire heat possessed by the North Atlantic. This striking fact casts a new light on the question of the distribution of heat over the globe. It will be seen that to such an extent is the temperature of the equatorial regions lowered, and that of high temperate, and polar regions raised, by means of ocean currents, that were they to cease, and each latitude to depend solely on the heat received directly from the sun, only a very small portion of the globe would be habitable by the present order of beings. This being the case, it becomes obvious to what an extent the deflection of ocean currents must affect temperature. For example, were the Gulf-stream stopped, and the heat conveyed by it deflected into the Southern Ocean, how enormously would this tend to lower the temperature of the northern hemisphere, and raise the temperature south of the equator.
Chapters [VI.], [VII.], [VIII.], [IX.], [X.], and [XIII.], are devoted to the consideration of the physical cause of oceanic circulation. This has been found to be the most difficult and perplexing part of the whole inquiry. The difficulties mainly arise from the great diversity of opinion and confusion of ideas prevailing in regard to the mechanics of the subject. There are two theories propounded to account for oceanic circulation; the one which may be called the Wind theory, and the other the Gravitation theory; and this diversity of opinion and confusion of ideas prevail in connection with both theories. As the question of the cause of oceanic circulation has not only a direct and important bearing on the subject of the present volume, but is further one of much general interest, I have entered somewhat fully into the matter.
The Gravitation theories may be divided into two classes. The first of these attributes the Gulf-stream and other sensible currents of the ocean to difference of specific gravity, resulting from difference of temperature between the sea in equatorial and polar regions. The leading advocate of this theory was the late Lieutenant Maury, who brought it so much into prominence in his interesting book on the “Physical Geography of the Sea.” The other class does not admit that the sensible currents of the ocean can be produced by difference of specific gravity; but they maintain that difference of temperature between the sea in equatorial and polar regions produces a general movement of the upper portion of the sea from the equator to the poles, and a counter-movement of the under portion from the poles to the equator. This form of the gravitation theory has been ably and zealously advocated by Dr. Carpenter, who may be regarded as its representative. The Wind theories also divide into two classes. According to the one ocean currents are caused and maintained by the impulse of the trade-winds, while according to the other they are due not to the impulse of the trade-winds alone, but to that of the prevailing winds of the globe, regarded as a general system. The former of these is the one generally accepted; the latter is that advocated in the present volume.
The relations which these theories bear to the question of secular change of climate, will be found stated at length in [Chapter VI.] It will, however, be better to state here in a few words what those relations are. When the eccentricity of the earth’s orbit attains a high value, the hemisphere, whose winter solstice occurs in aphelion, has, for reasons which are explained in [Chapter IV.], its temperature lowered, while that of the opposite hemisphere is raised. Let us suppose the northern hemisphere to be the cold one, and the southern the warm one. The difference of temperature between the equator and the North Pole will then be greater than between the equator and the South Pole; according, therefore, to theory, the trades of the northern hemisphere will be stronger than those of the southern, and will consequently blow across the equator to some distance on the southern hemisphere. This state of things will tend to deflect equatorial currents southwards, impelling the warm water of the equatorial regions more into the southern or warm hemisphere than into the northern or cold hemisphere. The tendency of all this will be to exaggerate the difference of temperature already existing between the two hemispheres. If, on the other hand, the great ocean currents which convey the warm equatorial waters to temperate and polar regions be not produced by the impulse of the winds, but by difference of temperature, as Maury maintains, then in the case above supposed the equatorial waters would be deflected more into the northern or cold hemisphere than into the southern or warm hemisphere, because the difference of temperature between the equator and the poles would be greater on the cold than on the warm hemisphere. This, of course, would tend to neutralize or counteract that difference of temperature between the two hemispheres which had been previously produced by eccentricity. In short, this theory of circulation would effectually prevent eccentricity from seriously affecting climate.
Chapters [VI.] and [VII.] have been devoted to an examination of this form of the gravitation theory.
The above remarks apply equally to Dr. Carpenter’s form of the theory; for according to a doctrine of General Oceanic Circulation resulting from difference of specific gravity between the water at the equator and at the poles, the equatorial water will be carried more to the cold than to the warm hemisphere. It is perfectly true that a belief in a general oceanic circulation may be held quite consistently with the theory of secular changes of climate, provided it be admitted that not this general circulation but ocean currents are the great agency employed in distributing heat over the globe. The advocates of the theory, however, admit no such thing, but regard ocean currents as of secondary importance. It may be stated that the existence of this general ocean circulation has never been detected by actual observation. It is simply assumed in order to account for certain facts, and it is asserted that such a circulation must take place as a physical necessity. I freely admit that were it not that the warm water of equatorial regions is being constantly carried off by means of ocean currents such as the Gulf-stream, it would accumulate till, in order to restoration of equilibrium, such a general movement as is supposed would be generated. But it will be shown that the warm water in equatorial regions is being drained off so rapidly by ocean currents that the actual density of an equatorial column differs so little from that of a polar column that the force of gravity resulting from that difference is so infinitesimal that it is doubtful whether it is sufficient to produce sensible motion. I have also shown in [Chapter VIII.] that all the facts which this theory is designed to explain are not only explained by the wind theory, but are deducible from it as necessary consequences. In [Chapter XI.] it is proved, by contrasting the quantity of heat conveyed by ocean currents from inter-tropical to temperate and polar regions with such an amount as could possibly be conveyed by means of a general oceanic circulation, that the latter sinks into insignificance before the former. In Chapters [X.] and [XII.] the various objections which have been advanced by Dr. Carpenter and Mr. Findlay are discussed at considerable length, and in [Chapter IX.] I have entered somewhat minutely into an examination of the mechanics of the gravitation theory. A statement of the wind theory is given in [Chapter XIII.]; and in [Chapter XIV.] is shown the relation of this theory to the theory of Secular changes of climate. This terminates the part of the inquiry relating to oceanic circulation.
We now come to the crucial test of the theories respecting the cause of the glacial epoch, viz., Warm Inter-glacial Periods. In Chapters [XV.] and [XVI.] I have given a statement of the geological facts which go to prove that that long epoch known as the Glacial was not one of continuous cold, but consisted of a succession of cold and warm periods. This condition of things is utterly inexplicable on every theory of the cause of the glacial epoch which has hitherto been advanced; but, according to the physical theory of secular changes of climate under consideration, it follows as a necessary consequence. In fact, the amount of geological evidence which has already been accumulated in reference to inter-glacial periods may now be regarded as perfectly sufficient to establish the truth of that theory.
If the glacial epoch resulted from some accidental distribution of sea and land, then there may or may not have been more than one glacial epoch, but if it resulted from the cause which we have assigned, then there must have been during the geological history of the globe a succession of glacial epochs corresponding to the secular variations in the eccentricity of the earth’s orbit. A belief in the existence of recurring glacial epochs has been steadily gaining ground for many years past. I have, in [Chapter XVIII.], given at some length the facts on which this belief rests. It is true that the geological evidence of glacial epochs in prior ages is meagre in comparison with that of the glacial epoch of Post-tertiary times; but there is a reason for this in the nature of geological evidence itself. [Chapter XVII.] deals with the geological records of former glacial epochs, showing that they are not only imperfect, but that there is good reason why they should be so, and that the imperfection of the records in reference to them cannot be advanced as an argument against their existence.
If the glacial epoch resulted from a high condition of eccentricity, we have not only a means of determining the positive date of that epoch, but we have also a means of determining geological time in absolute measure. For if the glacial epochs of prior ages correspond to periods of high eccentricity, then the intervals between those periods of high eccentricity become the measure of the intervals between the glacial epochs. The researches of Lagrange and Leverrier into the secular variations of the elements of the orbits of the planets enable us to determine with tolerable accuracy the values of the eccentricity of the earth’s orbit for, at least, four millions of years past and future. With the view of determining those values, I several years ago computed from Leverrier’s formula the eccentricity of the earth’s orbit and longitude of the perihelion, at intervals of ten thousand and fifty thousand years during a period of three millions of years in the past, and one million of years in the future. The tables containing these values will be found in [Chapter XIX.] These tables not only give us the date of the glacial epoch, but they afford, as will be seen from [Chapter XXI.], evidence as to the probable date of the Eocene and Miocene periods.
Ten years ago, when the theory was first advanced, it was beset by a very formidable difficulty, arising from the opinions which then prevailed in reference to geological time. One or two glacial epochs in the course of a million of years was a conclusion which at that time scarcely any geologist would admit, and most would have felt inclined to have placed the last glacial epoch at least one million of years back. But then if we assume that the glacial epoch was due to a high state of eccentricity, we should be compelled to admit of at least two glacial epochs during that lapse of time. It was the modern doctrine that the great changes undergone by the earth’s crust were produced, not by convulsions of nature, but by the slow and almost imperceptible action, of rain, rivers, snow, frost, ice, &c., which impressed so strongly on the mind of the geologist the vast duration of geological periods. When it was considered that the rocky face of our globe had been carved into hills and dales, and ultimately worn down to the sea-level by means of those apparently trifling agents, not only once or twice, but many times, during past ages, it was not surprising that the views entertained by geologists regarding the immense antiquity of our globe should not have harmonised with the deductions of physical science on the subject. It had been shown by Sir William Thomson and others, from physical considerations relating to the age of the sun’s heat and the secular cooling of our globe, that the geological history of our earth’s crust must be limited to a period of something like one hundred millions of years. But these speculations had but little weight when pitted against the stern and undeniable facts of subaërial denudation. How, then, were the two to be reconciled? Was it the physicist who had under-estimated geological time, or the geologist who had over-estimated it? Few familiar with modern physics, and who have given special attention to the subject, would admit that the sun could have been dissipating his heat at the present enormous rate for a period much beyond one hundred millions of years. The probability was that the amount of work performed on the earth’s crust by the denuding agents in a period so immense as a million of years was, for reasons stated in [Chapter XX.], very much under-estimated. But the difficulty was how to prove this. How was it possible to measure the rate of operation of agents so numerous and diversified acting with such extreme slowness and irregularity over so immense areas? In other words, how was it possible to measure the rate of subaërial denudation? Pondering over this problem about ten years ago, an extremely simple and obvious method of solving it suggested itself to my mind. This method—the details of which will be found in [Chapter XX.]—showed that the rate of subaërial denudation is enormously greater than had been supposed. The method is now pretty generally accepted, and the result has already been to bring about a complete reconciliation between physics and geology in reference to time.
[Chapter XXI.] contains an account of the gravitation theories of the origin of the sun’s heat. The energy possessed by the sun is generally supposed to have been derived from gravitation, combustion being totally inadequate as a source. But something more than gravitation is required before we can account for even one hundred millions of years’ heat. Gravitation could not supply even one-half that amount. There must be some other and greater source than that of gravitation. There is, however, as is indicated, an obvious source from which far more energy may have been derived than could have been obtained from gravitation.
The method of determining the rate of subaërial denudation enables us also to arrive at a rough estimate of the actual mean thickness of the stratified rocks of the globe. It will be seen from [Chapter XXII.] that the mean thickness is far less than is generally supposed.
The physical cause of the submergence of the land during the glacial epoch, and the influence of change in the obliquity of the ecliptic on climate, are next considered. In [Chapter XXVI.] I have given the reasons which induce me to believe that coal is an inter-glacial formation.
The next two chapters—the one on the path of the ice in north-western Europe, the other on the north of England ice-sheet—are reprints of papers which appeared a few years ago in the Geological Magazine. Recent observations have confirmed the truth of the views advanced in these two chapters, and they are rapidly gaining acceptance among geologists.
I have given, at the conclusion, a statement of the molecular theory of glacier motion—a theory which I have been led to modify considerably on one particular point.
There is one point to which I wish particularly to direct attention—viz., that I have studiously avoided introducing into the theories propounded anything of a hypothetical nature. There is not, so far as I am aware, from beginning to end of this volume, a single hypothetical element: nowhere have I attempted to give a hypothetical explanation. The conclusions are in every case derived either from facts or from what I believe to be admitted principles. In short, I have aimed to prove that the theory of secular changes of climate follows, as a necessary consequence, from the admitted principles of physical science.
CHAPTER II.
OCEANS-CURRENTS IN RELATION TO THE DISTRIBUTION OF HEAT OVER THE GLOBE.
The absolute Heating-power of Ocean-currents.—Volume of the Gulf-stream.—Absolute Amount of Heat conveyed by it.—Greater Portion of Moisture in inter-tropical Regions falls as Rain in those Regions.—Land along the Equator tends to lower the Temperature of the Globe.—Influence of Gulf-stream on Climate of Europe.—Temperature of Space.—Radiation of a Particle.—Professor Dove on Normal Temperature.—Temperature of Equator and Poles in the Absence of Ocean-currents.—Temperature of London, how much due to Ocean-currents.
The absolute Heating-power of Ocean-currents.—There is perhaps no physical agent concerned in the distribution of heat over the surface of the globe the influence of which has been so much underrated as that of ocean-currents. This is, no doubt, owing to the fact that although their surface-temperature, direction, and general influence have obtained considerable attention, yet little or nothing has been done towards determining the absolute amount of heat or of cold conveyed by them or the resulting absolute increase or decrease of temperature.
The modern method of determining the amount of heat-effects in absolute measure is, doubtless, destined to cast new light on all questions connected with climate, as it has done, and is still doing, in every department of physics where energy, under the form of heat, is being studied. But this method has hardly as yet been attempted in questions of meteorology; and owing to the complicated nature of the phenomena with which the meteorologist has generally to deal, its application will very often prove practically impossible. Nevertheless, it is particularly suitable to all questions relating to the direct thermal effects of currents, whatever the nature of these currents may happen to be.
In the application of the method to an ocean-current, the two most important elements required as data are the volume of the stream and its mean temperature. But although we know something of the temperature of most of the great ocean-currents, yet, with the exception of the Gulf-stream, little has been ascertained regarding their volume.
The breadth, depth, and temperature of the Gulf-stream have formed the subject of extensive and accurate observations by the United States Coast Survey. In the memoirs and charts of that survey cross-sections of the stream at various places are given, showing its breadth and depth, and also the temperature of the water from the surface to the bottom. We are thus enabled to determine with some precision the mean temperature of the stream. And knowing its mean velocity at any given section, we have likewise a means of determining the number of cubic feet of water passing through that section in a given time. But although we can obtain with tolerable accuracy the mean temperature, yet observations regarding the velocity of the water at all depths have unfortunately not been made at any particular section. Consequently we have no means of estimating as accurately as we could wish the volume of the current. Nevertheless, since we know the surface-velocity of the water at places where some of the sections were taken, we are enabled to make at least a rough estimate of the volume.
From an examination of the published sections, I came to the conclusion some years ago[11] that the total quantity of water conveyed by the stream is probably equal to that of a stream fifty miles broad and 1,000 feet deep,[12] flowing at the rate of four miles an hour, and that the mean temperature of the entire mass of moving water is not under 65° at the moment of leaving the Gulf. But to prevent the possibility of any objections being raised on the grounds that I may have over-estimated the volume of the stream, I shall take the velocity to be two miles instead of four miles an hour. We are warranted, I think, in concluding that the stream before it returns from its northern journey is on an average cooled down to at least 40°,[13] consequently it loses 25° of heat. Each cubic foot of water, therefore, in this case carries from the tropics for distribution upwards of 1,158,000 foot-pounds of heat. According to the above estimate of the size and velocity of the stream, which in [Chapter XI.] will be shown to be an under-estimate, 2,787,840,000,000 cubic feet of water are conveyed from the Gulf per hour, or 66,908,160,000,000 cubic feet daily. Consequently the total quantity of heat thus transferred per day amounts to 77,479,650,000,000,000,000 foot-pounds.
This estimate of the volume of the stream is considerably less by one-half than that given both by Captain Maury and by Sir John Herschel. Captain Maury considers the Gulf-stream equal to a stream thirty-two miles broad and 1,200 feet deep, flowing at the rate of five knots an hour.[14] This gives 6,165,700,000,000 cubic feet per hour as the quantity of water conveyed by this stream. Sir John Herschel’s estimate is still greater. He considers it equal to a stream thirty miles broad and 2,200 feet deep, flowing at the rate of four miles an hour.[15] This makes the quantity 7,359,900,000,000 cubic feet per hour. Dr. Colding, in his elaborate memoir on the Gulf-stream, estimates the volume at 5,760,000,000,000 cubic feet per hour, while Mr. Laughton’s estimate is nearly double that of mine.
From observations made by Sir John Herschel and by M. Pouillet on the direct heat of the sun, it is found that, were no heat absorbed by the atmosphere, about eighty-three foot-pounds per second would fall upon a square foot of surface placed at right angles to the sun’s rays.[16] Mr. Meech estimates that the quantity of heat cut off by the atmosphere is equal to about twenty-two per cent. of the total amount received from the sun. M. Pouillet estimates the loss at twenty-four per cent. Taking the former estimate, 64·74 foot-pounds per second will therefore be the quantity of heat falling on a square foot of the earth’s surface when the sun is in the zenith. And were the sun to remain stationary in the zenith for twelve hours, 2,796,768 foot-pounds would fall upon the surface.
It can be shown that the total amount of heat received upon a unit surface on the equator, during the twelve hours from sunrise till sunset at the time of the equinoxes, is to the total amount which would be received upon that surface, were the sun to remain in the zenith during those twelve hours, as the diameter of a circle to half its circumference, or as 1 to 1·5708. It follows, therefore, that a square foot of surface on the equator receives from the sun at the time of the equinoxes 1,780,474 foot-pounds daily, and a square mile 49,636,750,000,000 foot-pounds daily. But this amounts to only 1/1560935th part of the quantity of heat daily conveyed from the tropics by the Gulf-stream. In other words, the Gulf-stream conveys as much heat as is received from the sun by 1,560,935 square miles at the equator. The amount thus conveyed is equal to all the heat which falls upon the globe within thirty-two miles on each side of the equator. According to calculations made by Mr. Meech,[17] the annual quantity of heat received by a unit surface on the frigid zone, taking the mean of the whole zone, is 5·45/12th of that received at the equator; consequently the quantity of heat conveyed by the Gulf-stream in one year is equal to the heat which falls on an average on 3,436,900 square miles of the arctic regions. The frigid zone or arctic regions contain 8,130,000 square miles. There is actually, therefore, nearly one-half as much heat transferred from tropical regions by the Gulf-stream as is received from the sun by the entire arctic regions, the quantity conveyed from the tropics by the stream to that received from the sun by the arctic regions being nearly as two to five.
But we have been assuming in our calculations that the percentage of heat absorbed by the atmosphere is no greater in polar regions than it is at the equator, which is not the case. If we make due allowance for the extra amount absorbed in polar regions in consequence of the obliqueness of the sun’s rays, the total quantity of heat conveyed by the Gulf-stream will probably be nearly equal to one-half the amount received from the sun by the entire arctic regions.
If we compare the quantity of heat conveyed by the Gulf-stream with that conveyed by means of aërial currents, the result is equally startling. The density of air to that of water is as 1 to 770, and its specific heat to that of water is as 1 to 4·2; consequently the same amount of heat that would raise 1 cubic foot of water 1° would raise 770 cubic feet of air 4°·2, or 3,234 cubic feet 1°. The quantity of heat conveyed by the Gulf-stream is therefore equal to that which would be conveyed by a current of air 3,234 times the volume of the Gulf-stream, at the same temperature and moving with the same velocity. Taking, as before, the width of the stream at fifty miles, and its depth at 1,000 feet, and its velocity at two miles an hour, it follows that, in order to convey an equal amount of heat from the tropics by means of an aërial current, it would be necessary to have a current about 1¼ mile deep, and at the temperature of 65°, blowing at the rate of two miles an hour from every part of the equator over the northern hemisphere towards the pole. If its velocity were equal to that of a good sailing-breeze, which Sir John Herschel states to be about twenty-one miles an hour, the current would require to be above 600 feet deep. A greater quantity of heat is probably conveyed by the Gulf-stream alone from the tropical to the temperate and arctic regions than by all the aërial currents which flow from the equator.
We are apt, on the other hand, to over-estimate the amount of the heat conveyed from tropical regions to us by means of aërial currents. The only currents which flow from the equatorial regions are the upper currents, or anti-trades as they are called. But it is not possible that much heat can be conveyed directly by them. The upper currents of the trade-winds, even at the equator, are nowhere below the snow-line; they must therefore lie in a region of which the temperature is actually below the freezing-point. In fact, if those currents were warm, they would elevate the snow-line above themselves. The heated air rising off the hot burning ground at the equator, after ascending a few miles, becomes exposed to the intense cold of the upper regions of the atmosphere; it then very soon loses all its heat, and returns from the equator much colder than it went thither. It is impossible that we can receive any heat directly from the equatorial regions by means of aërial currents. It is perfectly true that the south-west wind, to which we owe so much of our warmth in this country, is a continuation of the anti-trade; but the heat which this wind brings to us is not derived from the equatorial regions. This will appear evident, if we but reflect that, before the upper current descends to the snow-line after leaving the equator, it must traverse a space of at least 2,000 miles; and to perform this long journey several days will be required. During all this time the air is in a region below the freezing-point; and it is perfectly obvious that by the time it begins to descend it must have acquired the temperature of the region in which it has been travelling.
If such be the case, it is evident that a wind whose temperature is below 32° could never warm a country such as ours, where the temperature does not fall below 38° or 39°. The heat of our south-west winds is derived, not directly from the equator, but from the warm water of the Atlantic—in fact, from the Gulf-stream. The upper current acquires its heat after it descends to the earth. There is one way, however, whereby heat is indirectly conveyed from the equator by the anti-trades; that is, in the form of aqueous vapour. In the formation of one pound of water from aqueous vapour, as Professor Tyndall strikingly remarks, a quantity of heat is given out sufficient to melt five pounds of cast iron.[18] It must, however, be borne in mind that the greater part of the moisture of the south-west and west winds is derived from the ocean in temperate regions. The upper current receives the greater part of its moisture after it descends to the earth, whilst the moisture received at the equator is in great part condensed, and falls as rain in those regions.
This latter assertion has been so frequently called in question that I shall give my reasons for making it. According to Dr. Keith Johnston (“Physical Atlas”) the mean rainfall of the torrid regions is ninety-six inches per annum, while that of the temperate regions amounts to only thirty-seven inches. If the greater part of the moisture of the torrid regions does not fall as rain in those regions, it must fall as such beyond them. Now the area of the torrid to that of the two temperate regions is about as 39·3 to 51. Consequently ninety-six inches of rain spread over the temperate regions would give seventy-four inches; but this is double the actual rainfall of the temperate regions. If, again, it were spread over both temperate and polar regions this would yield sixty-four inches, which, however, is nearly double the mean rainfall of the temperate and polar regions. If we add to this the amount of moisture derived from the ocean within temperate and polar regions, we should have a far greater rainfall for these latitudes than for the torrid region, and we know, of course, that it is actually far less. This proves the truth of the assertion that by far the greater part of the moisture of the torrid regions falls in those regions as rain. It will hardly do to object that the above may probably be an over-estimate of the amount of rainfall in the torrid zone, for it is not at all likely that any error will ever be found which will affect the general conclusion at which we have arrived.
Dr. Carpenter, in proof of the small rainfall of the torrid zone, adduces the case of the Red Sea, where, although evaporation is excessive, almost no rain falls. But the reason why the vapour raised from the Red Sea does not fall in that region as rain, is no doubt owing to the fact that this sea is only a narrow strip of water in a dry and parched land, the air above which is too greedy of moisture to admit of the vapour being deposited as rain. Over a wide expanse of ocean, however, where the air above is kept to a great extent in a constant state of saturation, the case is totally different.
Land at the Equator tends to Lower the Temperature of the Globe.—The foregoing considerations, as well as many others which might be stated, lead to the conclusion that, in order to raise the mean temperature of the whole earth, water should be placed along the equator, and not land, as is supposed by Sir Charles Lyell and others. For if land is placed at the equator, the possibility of conveying the sun’s heat from the equatorial regions by means of ocean-currents is prevented. The transference of heat could then be effected only by means of the upper currents of the trades; for the heat conveyed by conduction along the solid crust, if any, can have no sensible effect on climate. But these currents, as we have just seen, are ill-adapted for conveying heat.
The surface of the ground at the equator becomes intensely heated by the sun’s rays. This causes it to radiate its heat more rapidly into space than a surface of water heated under the same conditions. Again, the air in contact with the hot ground becomes also more rapidly heated than in contact with water, and consequently the ascending current of air carries off a greater amount of heat. But were the heat thus carried away transferred by means of the upper currents to high latitudes and there employed to warm the earth, then it might to a considerable extent compensate for the absence of ocean-currents, and in this case land at the equator might be nearly as well adapted as water for raising the temperature of the whole earth. But such is not the case; for the heat carried up by the ascending current at the equator is not employed in warming the earth, but is thrown off into the cold stellar space above. This ascending current, instead of being employed in warming the globe, is in reality one of the most effectual means that the earth has of getting quit of the heat received from the sun, and of thus maintaining a much lower temperature than it would otherwise possess. It is in the equatorial regions that the earth loses as well as gains the greater part of its heat; so that, of all places, here ought to be placed the substance best adapted for preventing the dissipation of the earth’s heat into space, in order to raise the general temperature of the earth. Water, of all substances in nature, seems to possess this quality to the greatest extent; and, besides, it is a fluid, and therefore adapted by means of currents to carry the heat which it receives from the sun to every region of the globe.
These results show (although they have reference to only one stream) that the general influence of ocean-currents on the distribution of heat over the surface of the globe must be very great. If the quantity of heat transferred from equatorial regions by the Gulf-stream alone is nearly equal to all the heat received from the sun by the arctic regions, then how enormous must be the quantity conveyed from equatorial regions by all the ocean-currents together!
Influence of the Gulf-stream on the Climate of Europe.—In a paper read before the British Association at Exeter, Mr. A. G. Findlay objects to the conclusions at which I have arrived in former papers on the subject, that I have not taken into account the great length of time that the water requires in order to circulate, and the interference it has to encounter in its passage.
The objection is, that a stream so comparatively small as the Gulf-stream, after spreading out over such a large area of the Atlantic, and moving so slowly across to the shores of Europe, losing heat all the way, would not be able to produce any very sensible influence on the climate of Europe.
I am unable to perceive the force of this objection. Why, the very efficiency of the stream as a heating agent necessarily depends upon the slowness of its motion. Did the Gulf-stream move as rapidly along its whole course as it does in the Straits of Florida, it could produce no sensible effect on the climate of Europe. It does not require much consideration to perceive this. (1) If the stream during its course continued narrow, deep, and rapid, it would have little opportunity of losing its heat, and the water would carry back to the tropics the heat which it ought to have given off in the temperate and polar regions. (2) The Gulf-stream does not heat the shores of Europe by direct radiation. Our island, for example, is not heated by radiation from a stream of warm water flowing along its shores. The Gulf-stream heats our island indirectly by heating the winds which blow over it to our shores.
The anti-trades, or upper return-currents, as we have seen, bring no heat from the tropical regions. After traversing some 2,000 miles in a region of extreme cold they descend on the Atlantic as a cold current, and there absorb the heat and moisture which they carry to north-eastern Europe. Those aërial currents derive their heat from the Gulf-stream, or if it is preferred, from the warm water poured into the Atlantic by the Gulf-stream.
How, then, are these winds heated by the warm water? The air is heated in two ways, viz., by direct radiation from the water, and by contact with the water. Now, if the Gulf-stream continued a narrow and deep current during its entire course similar to what it is at the Straits of Florida, it could have little or no opportunity of communicating its heat to the air either by radiation or by contact. If the stream were only about forty or fifty miles in breadth, the aërial particles in their passage across it would not be in contact with the warm water more than an hour or two. Moreover, the number of particles in contact with the water, owing to the narrowness of the stream, would be small, and there would therefore be little opportunity for the air becoming heated by contact. The same also holds true in regard to radiation. The more we widen the stream and increase its area, the more we increase its radiating surface; and the greater the radiating surface, the greater is the quantity of heat thrown off. But this is not all; the number of aërial particles heated by radiation increases in proportion to the area of the radiating surface; consequently, the wider the area over which the waters of the Gulf-stream are spread, the more effectual will the stream be as a heating agent. And, again, in order that a very wide area of the Atlantic may be covered with the warm waters of the stream, slowness of motion is essential.
Mr. Findlay supposes that fully one-half of the Gulf-stream passes into the south-eastern branch, and that it is only the north-eastern branch of the current that can be effectual in raising the temperature of Europe. But it appears to me that it is to this south-eastern portion of the current, and not to the north-eastern, that we, in this country, are chiefly indebted for our heat. The south-west winds, to which we owe our heat, derive their temperature from this south-eastern portion which flows away in the direction of the Azores. The south-west winds which blow over the northern portion of the current which flows past our island up into the arctic seas cannot possibly cross this country, but will go to heat Norway and northern Europe. The north-eastern portion of the stream, no doubt, protects us from the ice of Greenland by warming the north-west winds which come to us from that cold region.
Mr. Buchan, Secretary of the Scottish Meteorological Society, has shown[19] that in a large tract of the Atlantic between latitudes 20° and 40° N., the mean pressure of the atmosphere is greater than in any other place on the globe. To the west of Madeira, between longitude 10° and 40° W., the mean annual pressure amounts to 30·2 inches, while between Iceland and Spitzbergen it is only 29·6, a lower mean pressure than is found in any other place on the northern hemisphere. There must consequently, he concludes, be a general tendency in the air to flow from the former to the latter place along the earth’s surface. Now, the air in moving from the lower to the higher latitudes tends to take a north-easterly direction, and in this case will pass over our island in its course. This region of high pressure, however, is situated in the very path of the south-eastern branch of the Gulf-stream, and consequently the winds blowing therefrom will carry directly to Britain the heat of the Gulf-stream.
As we shall presently see, it is as essential to the heating of our island as to that of the southern portion of Europe, that a very large proportion of the waters of the Gulf-stream should spread over the surface of the Atlantic and never pass up into the arctic regions.
Even according to Mr. Findlay’s own theory, it is to the south-west wind, heated by the warm waters of the Atlantic, that we are indebted for the high temperature of our climate. But he seems to be under the impression that the Atlantic would be able to supply the necessary heat independently of the Gulf-stream. This, it seems to me, is the fundamental error of all those who doubt the efficiency of the stream. It is a mistake, however, into which one is very apt to fall who does not adopt the more rigid method of determining heat-results in absolute measure. When we apply this method, we find that the Atlantic, without the aid of such a current as the Gulf-stream, would be wholly unable to supply the necessary amount of heat to the south-west winds.
The quantity of heat conveyed by the Gulf-stream, as we have seen, is equal to all the heat received from the sun by 1,560,935 square miles at the equator. The mean annual quantity of heat received from the sun by the temperate regions per unit surface is to that received by the equator as 9·08 to 12.[20] Consequently, the quantity of heat conveyed by the stream is equal to all the heat received from the sun by 2,062,960 square miles of the temperate regions. The total area of the Atlantic from the latitude of the Straits of Florida, 200 miles north of the tropic of Cancer, up to the Arctic Circle, including also the German Ocean, is about 8,500,000 square miles. In this case the quantity of heat carried by the Gulf-stream into the Atlantic through the Straits of Florida, is to that received by this entire area from the sun as 1 to 4·12, or in round numbers as 1 to 4. It therefore follows that one-fifth of all the heat possessed by the waters of the Atlantic over that area, even supposing that they absorb every ray that falls upon them, is derived from the Gulf-stream. Would those who call in question the efficiency of the Gulf-stream be willing to admit that a decrease of one-fourth in the total amount of heat received from the sun, over the entire area of the Atlantic from within 200 miles of the tropical zone up to the arctic regions, would not sensibly affect the climate of northern Europe? If they would not willingly admit this, why, then, contend that the Gulf-stream does not affect climate? for the stoppage of the Gulf-stream would deprive the Atlantic of 77,479,650,000,000,000,000 foot-pounds of energy in the form of heat per day, a quantity equal to one-fourth of all the heat received from the sun by that area.
How much, then, of the temperature of the south-west winds derived from the water of the Atlantic is due to the Gulf-stream?
Were the sun extinguished, the temperature over the whole earth would sink to nearly that of stellar space, which, according to the investigations of Sir John Herschel[21] and of M. Pouillet,[22] is not above −239° F. Were the earth possessed of no atmosphere, the temperature of its surface would sink to exactly that of space, or to that indicated by a thermometer exposed to no other heat-influence than that of radiation from the stars. But the presence of the atmospheric envelope would slightly modify the conditions of things; for the heat from the stars (which of course constitutes what is called the temperature of space) would, like the sun’s heat, pass more freely through the atmosphere than the heat radiated back from the earth, and there would in consequence of this be an accumulation of heat on the earth’s surface. The temperature would therefore stand a little higher than that of space; or, in other words, it would stand a little higher than it would otherwise do were the earth exposed in space to the direct radiation of the stars without the atmospheric envelope. But, for reasons which will presently be stated, we may in the meantime, till further light is cast upon this matter, take −239° F. as probably not far from what would be the temperature of the earth’s surface were the sun extinguished.
Suppose now that we take the mean annual temperature of the Atlantic at, say, 56°.[23] Then 239° + 56° = 295° represents the number of degrees of rise due to the heat which it receives. In other words, it takes all the heat that the Atlantic receives to maintain its temperature 295° above the temperature of space. Stop the Gulf-stream, and the Atlantic would be deprived of one-fifth of the heat which it possesses. Then, if it takes five parts of heat to maintain a temperature of 295° above that of space, the four parts which would remain after the stream was stopped would only be able to maintain a temperature of four-fifths of 295°, or 236° above that of space: the stoppage of the Gulf-stream would therefore deprive the Atlantic of an amount of heat which would be sufficient to maintain its temperature 59° above what it would otherwise be, did it depend alone upon the heat received directly from the sun. It does not, of course, follow that the Gulf-stream actually maintains the temperature 59° above what it would otherwise be were there no ocean-currents, because the actual heating-effect of the stream is neutralized to a very considerable extent by cold currents from the arctic regions. But 59° of rise represents its actual power; consequently 59°, minus the lowering effect of the cold currents, represents the actual rise. What the rise may amount to at any particular place must be determined by other means.
This method of calculating how much the temperature of the earth’s surface would rise or fall from an increase or a decrease in the absolute amount of heat received is that adopted by Sir John Herschel in his “Outlines of Astronomy,” § 369a.
About three years ago, in an article in the Reader, I endeavoured to show that this method is not rigidly correct. It has been shown from the experiments of Dulong and Petit, Dr. Balfour Stewart, Professor Draper, and others, that the rate at which a body radiates its heat off into space is not directly proportionate to its absolute temperature. The rate at which a body loses its heat as its temperature rises increases more rapidly than the temperature. As a body rises in temperature the rate at which it radiates off its heat increases; the rate of this increase, however, is not uniform, but increases with the temperature. Consequently the temperature is not lowered in proportion to the decrease of the sun’s heat. But at the comparatively low temperature with which we have at present to deal, the error resulting from assuming the decrease of temperature to be proportionate to the decrease of heat would not be great.
It may be remarked, however, that the experiments referred to were made on solids; but, from certain results arrived at by Dr. Balfour Stewart, it would seem that the radiation of a material particle may be proportionate to its absolute temperature.[24] This physicist found that the radiation of a thick plate of glass increases more rapidly than that of a thin plate as the temperature rises, and that, if we go on continually diminishing the thickness of the plate whose radiation at different temperatures we are ascertaining, we find that as it grows thinner and thinner the rate at which it radiates off its heat as its temperature rises becomes less and less. In other words, as the plate grows thinner and thinner its rate of radiation becomes more and more proportionate to its absolute temperature. And we can hardly resist the conviction that if we could possibly go on diminishing the thickness of the plate till we reached a film so thin as to embrace but only one particle in its thickness, its rate of radiation would be proportionate to its temperature. Dr. Balfour Stewart has very ingeniously suggested the probable reason why the rate of radiation of thick plates increases with rise of temperature more rapidly than that of thin. It is this: all substances are more diathermanous for heat of high temperatures than for heat of low temperatures. When a body is at a low temperature, we may suppose that only the exterior rows of particles supply the radiation, the heat from the interior particles being all stopped by the exterior ones, the substance being very opaque for heat of low temperature; while at a high temperature we may imagine that part of the heat from the interior particles is allowed to pass, thereby swelling the total radiation. But as the plate becomes thinner and thinner, the obstructions to interior radiation become less and less, and as these obstructions are greater for radiation at low temperatures than for radiation at high temperatures, it necessarily follows that, by reducing the thickness of the plate, we assist radiation at low temperatures more than we do at high.
In a gas, where each particle may be assumed to radiate by itself, and where the particles stand at a considerable distance from one another, the obstruction to interior radiation must be far less than in a solid. In this case the rate at which a gas radiates off its heat as its temperature rises must increase more slowly than that of a solid substance. In other words, its rate of radiation must correspond more nearly to its absolute temperature than that of a solid. If this be the case, a reduction in the amount of heat received from the sun, owing to an increase of his distance, should tend to produce a greater lowering effect on the temperature of the air than it does on the temperature of the solid ground. But as the temperature of our climate is determined by the temperature of the air, it must follow that the error of assuming that the decrease of temperature would be proportionate to the decrease in the intensity of the sun’s heat may not be great.
It may be observed here, although it does not bear directly on this point, that although the air in a room, for example, or at the earth’s surface is principally cooled by convection rather than by radiation, yet it is by radiation alone that the earth’s atmosphere parts with its heat to stellar space; and this is the chief matter with which we are at present concerned. Air, like all other gases, is a bad radiator; and this tends to protect it from being cooled to such an extent as it would otherwise be, were it a good radiator like solids. True, it is also a bad absorber; but as it is cooled by radiation into space, and heated, not altogether by absorption, but to a very large extent by convection, it on the whole gains its heat more easily than it loses it, and consequently must stand at a higher temperature than it would do were it heated by absorption alone.
But, to return; the error of regarding the decrease of temperature as proportionate to the decrease in the amount of heat received, is probably neutralized by one of an opposite nature, viz., that of taking space at too high a temperature; for by so doing we make the result too small.
We know that absolute zero is at least 493° below the melting-point of ice. This is 222° below that of space. Consequently, if the heat derived from the stars is able to maintain a temperature of −239°, or 222° of absolute temperature, then nearly as much heat is derived from the stars as from the sun. But if so, why do the stars give so much heat and so very little light? If the radiation from the stars could maintain a thermometer 222° above absolute zero, then space must be far more transparent to heat-rays than to light-rays, or else the stars give out a great amount of heat, but very little light, neither of which suppositions is probably true. The probability is, I venture to presume, that the temperature of space is not very much above absolute zero. At the time when these investigations into the probable temperature of space were made, at least as regards the labours of Pouillet, the modern science of heat had no existence, and little or nothing was then known with certainty regarding absolute zero. In this case the whole matter would require to be reconsidered. The result of such an investigation in all probability would be to assign a lower temperature to stellar space than −239°.
Taking all these various considerations into account, it is probable that if we adopt −239° as the temperature of space, we shall not be far from the truth in assuming that the absolute temperature of a place above that of space is proportionate to the amount of heat received from the sun.
We may, therefore, in this case conclude that 59° of rise is probably not very far from the truth, as representing the influence of the Gulf-stream. The Gulf-stream, instead of producing little or no effect, produces an effect far greater than is generally supposed.
Our island has a mean annual temperature of about 12° above the normal due to its latitude. This excess of temperature has been justly attributed to the influence of the Gulf-stream. But it is singular how this excess should have been taken as the measure of the rise resulting from the influence of the stream. These figures only represent the number of degrees that the mean normal temperature of our island stands above what is called the normal temperature of the latitude.
The mode in which Professor Dove constructed his Tables of normal temperature was as follows:—He took the temperature of thirty-six equidistant points on every ten degrees of latitude. The mean temperature of these thirty-six points he calls in each case the normal temperature of the parallel. The excess above the normal merely represents how much the stream raises our temperature above the mean of all places on the same latitude, but it affords us no information regarding the absolute rise produced. In the Pacific, as well as in the Atlantic, there are immense masses of water flowing from the tropical to the temperate regions. Now, unless we know how much of the normal temperature of a latitude is due to ocean-currents, and how much to the direct heat of the sun, we could not possibly, from Professor Dove’s Tables, form the most distant conjecture as to how much of our temperature is derived from the Gulf-stream. The overlooking of this fact has led to a general misconception regarding the positive influence of the Gulf-stream on temperature. The 12° marked in Tables of normal temperature do not represent the absolute effect of the stream, but merely show how much the stream raises the temperature of our country above the mean of all places on the same latitude. Other places have their temperature raised by ocean-currents as well as this country; only the Gulf-stream produces a rise of several degrees over and above that produced by other streams in the same latitude.
At present there is a difference merely of 80° between the mean temperature of the equator and the poles;[25] but were each part of the globe’s surface to depend only upon the direct heat which it receives from the sun, there ought, according to theory, to be a difference of more than 200°. The annual quantity of heat received at the equator is to that received at the poles (supposing the proportionate quantity absorbed by the atmosphere to be the same in both cases) as 12 to 4·98, or, say, as 12 to 5. Consequently, if the temperatures of the equator and the poles be taken as proportionate to the absolute amount of heat received from the sun, then the temperature of the equator above that of space must be to that of the poles above that of space as 12 to 5. What ought, therefore, to be the temperatures of the equator and the poles, did each place depend solely upon the heat which it receives directly from the sun? Were all ocean and aërial currents stopped, so that there could be no transference of heat from one part of the earth’s surface to another, what ought to be the temperatures of the equator and the poles? We can at least arrive at a rough estimate on this point. If we diminish the quantity of warm water conveyed from the equatorial regions to the temperate and arctic regions, the temperature of the equator will begin to rise, and that of the poles to sink. It is probable, however, that this process would affect the temperature of the poles more than it would that of the equator; for as the warm water flows from the equator to the poles, the area over which it is spread becomes less and less. But as the water from the tropics has to raise the temperature of the temperate regions as well as the polar, the difference of effect at the equator and poles might not, on that account, be so very great. Let us take a rough estimate. Say that, as the temperature of the equator rises one degree, the temperature of the poles sinks one degree and a half. The mean annual temperature of the globe is about 58°. The mean temperature of the equator is 80°, and that of the poles 0°. Let ocean and aërial currents now begin to cease, the temperature of the equator commences to rise and the temperature of the poles to sink. For every degree that the temperature of the equator rises, that of the poles sinks 1½°; and when the currents are all stopped and each place becomes dependent solely upon the direct rays of the sun, the mean annual temperature of the equator above that of space will be to that of the poles, above that of space, as 12 to 5. When this proportion is reached, the equator will be 374° above that of space, and the poles 156°; for 374 is to 156 as 12 is to 5. The temperature of space we have seen to be −239°, consequently the temperature of the equator will in this case be 135°, reckoned from the zero of the Fahrenheit thermometer, and the poles 83° below zero. The equator would therefore be 55° warmer than at present, and the poles 83° colder. The difference between the temperature of the equator and the poles will in this case amount to 218°.
Now, if we take into account the quantity of positive energy in the form of heat carried by warm currents from the equator to the temperate and polar regions, and also the quantity of negative energy (cold) carried by cold currents from the polar regions to the equator, we shall find that they are sufficient to reduce the difference of temperature between the poles and the equator from 218° to 80°.
The quantity of heat received in the latitude of London, for example, is to that received at the equator nearly as 12 to 8. This, according to theory, should produce a difference of about 125°. The temperature of the equator above that of space, as we have seen, would be 374°. Therefore 249° above that of space would represent the temperature of the latitude of London. This would give 10° as its temperature. The stoppage of all ocean and aërial currents would thus increase the difference between the equator and the latitude of London by about 85°. The stoppage of ocean-currents would not be nearly so much felt, of course, in the latitude of London as at the equator and the poles, because, as has been already noticed, in all latitudes midway between the equator and the poles the two sets of currents to a considerable extent compensate each other—the warm currents from the equator raise the temperature, while the cold ones from the poles lower it; but as the warm currents chiefly keep on the surface and the cold return-currents are principally under-currents, the heating effect very greatly exceeds the cooling effect. Now, as we have seen, the stoppage of all currents would raise the temperature of the equator 55°; that is to say, the rise at the equator alone would increase the difference of temperature between the equator and that of London by 55°. But the actual difference, as we have seen, ought to be 85°; consequently the temperature of London would be lowered 30° by the stoppage of the currents. For if we raise the temperature of the equator 55° and lower the temperature of London 30°, we then increase the difference by 85°. The normal temperature of the latitude of London being 40°, the stoppage of all ocean and aërial currents would thus reduce it to 10°. But the Gulf-stream raises the actual mean temperature of London 10° above the normal. Consequently 30° + 10° = 40° represents the actual rise at London due to the influence of the Gulf-stream over and above all the lowering effects resulting from arctic currents. On some parts of the American shores on the latitude of London, the temperature is 10° below the normal. The stoppage of all ocean and aërial currents would therefore lower the temperature there only 20°.
It is at the equator and the poles that the great system of ocean and aërial currents produces its maximum effects. The influence becomes less and less as we recede from those places, and between them there is a point where the influence of warm currents from the equator and of cold currents from the poles exactly neutralize each other. At this point the stoppage of ocean-currents would not sensibly affect temperature. This point, of course, is not situated on the same latitude in all meridians, but varies according to the position of the meridian in relation to land, and ocean-currents, whether cold or hot, and other circumstances. A line drawn round the globe through these various points would be very irregular. At one place, such as on the western side of the Atlantic, where the arctic current predominates, the neutral line would be deflected towards the equator, while on the eastern side, where warm currents predominate, the line would be deflected towards the north. It is a difficult problem to determine the mean position of this line; it probably lies somewhere not far north of the tropics.
CHAPTER III.
OCEAN-CURRENTS IN RELATION TO THE DISTRIBUTION OF HEAT OVER THE GLOBE.—(Continued.)
Influence of the Gulf-stream on the Climate of the Arctic Regions.—Absolute Amount of Heat received by the Arctic Regions from the Sun.—Influence of Ocean-currents shown by another Method.—Temperature of a Globe all Water or all Land according to Professor J. D. Forbes.—An important Consideration overlooked.—Without Ocean-currents the Globe would not be habitable.—Conclusions not affected by Imperfection of Data.
Influence of the Gulf-stream on the Climate of the Arctic Regions.—Does the Gulf-stream pass into the arctic regions? Are the seas around Spitzbergen and North Greenland heated by the warm water of the stream?
Those who deny this nevertheless admit the existence of an arctic current. They admit that an immense mass of cold water is continually flowing south from the polar regions around Greenland into the Atlantic. If it be admitted, then, that a mass of water flows across the arctic circle from north to south, it must also be admitted that an equal mass flows across from south to north. It is also evident that the water crossing from south to north must be warmer than the water crossing from north to south; for the temperate regions are warmer than the arctic, and the ocean in temperate regions warmer than the ocean in the arctic; consequently the current which flows into the arctic seas, to compensate for the cold arctic current, must be a warmer current.
Is the Gulf-stream this warm current? Does this compensating warm current proceed from the Atlantic or from the Pacific? If it proceeds from the Atlantic, it is simply the warm water of the Gulf-stream. We may call it the warm water of the Atlantic if we choose; but this cannot materially affect the question at issue, for the heat which the waters of the Atlantic possess is derived, as we have seen, to an enormous extent from the water brought from the tropics by the Gulf-stream. If we deny that the warm compensating current comes from the Atlantic, then we must assume that it comes from the Pacific. But if the cold current flows from the arctic regions into the Atlantic, and the warm compensating current from the Pacific into the arctic regions, the highest temperature should be found on the Pacific side of the arctic regions and not on the Atlantic side; the reverse, however, is the case. In the Atlantic, for example, the 41° isothermal line reaches to latitude 65°30′, while in the Pacific it nowhere goes beyond latitude 57°. The 27° isotherm reaches to latitude 75° in the Atlantic, but in the Pacific it does not pass beyond 64°. And the 14° isotherm reaches the north of Spitzbergen in latitude 80°, whereas on the Pacific side of the arctic regions it does not reach to latitude 72°.
On no point of the earth’s surface does the mean annual temperature rise so high above the normal as in the northern Atlantic, just at the arctic circle, at a spot believed to be in the middle of the Gulf-stream. This place is no less than 22°·5 above the normal, while in the northern Pacific the temperature does not anywhere rise more than 9° above the normal. These facts prove that the warm current passes up the Atlantic into the arctic regions and not up the Pacific, or at least that the larger amount of warm water must pass into the arctic regions through the Atlantic. In other words, the Gulf-stream is the warm compensating current. Not only must there be a warm stream, but one of very considerable magnitude, in order to compensate for the great amount of cold water that is constantly flowing from the arctic regions, and also to maintain the temperature of those regions so much above the temperature of space as they actually are.
No doubt, when the results of the late dredging expedition are published, they will cast much additional light on the direction and character of the currents forming the north-eastern branch of the Gulf-stream.
The average quantity of heat received by the arctic regions as a whole per unit surface to that received at the equator, as we have already seen, is as 5·45 to 12, assuming that the percentage of rays cut off by the atmosphere is the same at both places. In this case the mean annual temperature of the arctic regions, taken as a whole, would be about −69°, did those regions depend entirely for their temperature upon the heat received directly from the sun. But the temperature would not even reach to this; for the percentage of rays cut off by the atmosphere in arctic regions is generally believed to be greater than at the equator, and consequently the actual mean quantity of heat received by the arctic regions will be less than 5·45−12ths of what is received at the equator.
In the article on Climate in the “Encyclopædia Britannica” there is a Table calculated upon the principle that the quantity of heat cut off is proportionate to the number of aërial particles which the rays have to encounter before reaching the surface of the earth—that, as a general rule, if the tracts of the rays follow an arithmetical progression, the diminished force with which the rays reach the ground will form a decreasing geometrical progression. According to this Table about 75 per cent. of the sun’s rays are cut off by the atmosphere in arctic regions. If 75 per cent. of the rays were cut off by the atmosphere in arctic regions, then the direct rays of the sun could not maintain a mean temperature 100° above that of space. But this is no doubt much too high a percentage for the quantity of heat cut off; for recent discoveries in regard to the absorption of radiant heat by gases and vapours prove that Tables computed on this principle must be incorrect. The researches of Tyndall and Melloni show that when rays pass through any substance, the absorption is rapid at first: but the rays are soon “sifted,” as it is called, and they then pass onwards with but little further obstruction. Still, however, owing to the dense fogs which prevail in arctic regions, the quantity of heat cut off must be considerable. If as much as 50 per cent. of the sun’s rays are cut off by the atmosphere in arctic regions, the amount of heat received directly from the sun would not be sufficient to maintain a mean annual temperature of −100°. Consequently the arctic regions must depend to an enormous extent upon ocean-currents for their temperature.
Influence of Ocean-currents shown by another Method.—That the temperature of the arctic regions would sink enormously, and the temperature of the equator rise enormously, were all ocean-currents stopped, can be shown by another method—viz., by taking the mean annual temperature from the equator to the pole along a meridian passing through the ocean, say, the Atlantic, and comparing it with the mean annual temperature taken along a meridian passing through a great continent, say, the Asiatic.
Professor J. D. Forbes, in an interesting memoir,[26] has endeavoured by this method to determine what would be the temperature of the equator and the poles were the globe all water or all land. He has taken the temperature of the two meridians from the tables and charts of Professor Dove, and ascertained the exact proportion of land and water on every 10° of latitude from the equator to the poles, with the view of determining what proportion of the average temperature of the globe in each parallel is due to the land, and what to the water which respectively belongs to it. He next endeavours to obtain a formula for expressing the mean temperature of a given parallel, and thence arrives at “an approximate answer to the inquiry as to what would have been the equatorial or polar temperature of the globe, or that of any latitude, had its surface been entirely composed of land or of water.”
The result at which he arrived is this: that, were the surface of the globe all water, 71°·7 would be the temperature of the equator, and 12°·5 the temperature of the poles; and were the surface all land, 109°·8 would be the temperature of the equator, and −25°·6 the temperature of the poles.
But in Professor Forbes’s calculations no account whatever is taken of the influence of currents, whether of water or of air, and the difference of temperature is attributed wholly to difference of latitude and the physical properties of land and water in relation to their powers in absorbing and detaining the sun’s rays, and to the laws of conduction and of convection which regulate the internal motion of heat in the one and in the other. He considers that the effects of currents are all compensatory.
“If a current of hot water,” he says, “moderates the cold of a Lapland winter, the counter-current, which brings the cold of Greenland to the shores of the United States, in a great measure restores the balance of temperature, so far as it is disturbed by this particular influence. The prevalent winds, in like manner, including the trade-winds, though they render some portions of continents, on the average, hotter or colder than others, produce just the contrary effect elsewhere. Each continent, if it has a cold eastern shore, has likewise a warm western one; and even local winds have for the most part established laws of compensation. In a given parallel of latitude all these secondary causes of local climate may be imagined to be mutually compensatory, and the outstanding gradation of mean or normal temperature will mainly depend, 1st, upon the effect of latitude simply; 2nd, on the distribution of land and water considered in their primary or statical effect.”
It is singular that a physicist so acute as Professor Forbes should, in a question such as this, leave out of account the influence of currents, under the impression that their effects were compensatory.
If there is a constant transference of hot water from the equatorial regions to the polar, and of cold water from the polar regions to the equatorial (a thing which Professor Forbes admitted), then there can only be one place between the equator and the pole where the two sets of currents compensate each other. At all places on the equatorial side of this point a cooling effect is the result. Starting from this neutral point, the preponderance of the cooling effect over the heating increases as we approach towards the equator, and the preponderance of the heating effect over the cooling increases as we recede from this point towards the pole—the cooling effect reaching a maximum at the equator, and the heating effect a maximum at the pole.
Had Professor Forbes observed this important fact, he would have seen at once that the low temperature of the land in high latitudes, in comparison with that of the sea, was no index whatever as to how much the temperature of those regions would sink were the sea entirely removed and the surface to become land; for the present high temperature of the sea is not due wholly to the mere physical properties of water, but to a great extent is due to the heat brought by currents from the equator. Now, unless it is known how much of the absolute temperature of the ocean in those latitudes is due to currents, we cannot tell how much the removal of the sea would lower the absolute temperature of those places. Were the sea removed, the continents in high latitudes would not simply lose the heating advantages which they presently derive from the mere fact of their proximity to so much sea, but the removal would, in addition to this, deprive them of an enormous amount of heat which they at present receive from the tropics by means of ocean-currents. And, on the other hand, at the equator, were the sea removed, the continents there would not simply lose the cooling influences which result from their proximity to so much water, but, in addition to this, they would have to endure the scorching effects which would result from the heat which is at present carried away from the tropics by ocean-currents.
We have already seen that Professor Forbes concluded that the removal of the sea would raise the mean temperature of the equator 30°, and lower the temperature of the poles 28°; it is therefore perfectly certain that, had he added to his result the effect due to ocean-currents, and had he been aware that about one-fifth of all the heat possessed by the Atlantic is actually derived from the equator by means of the Gulf-stream, he would have assigned a temperature to the equator and the poles, of a globe all land, differing not very far from what I have concluded would be the temperature of those places were all ocean and aërial currents stopped, and each place to depend solely upon the heat which it received directly from the sun.
Without Ocean-currents the Globe would not be habitable.—All these foregoing considerations show to what an extent the climatic condition of our globe is due to the thermal influences of ocean-currents.
As regards the northern hemisphere, we have two immense oceans, the Pacific and the Atlantic, extending from the equator to near the north pole, or perhaps to the pole altogether. Between these two oceans lie two great continents, the eastern and the western. Owing to the earth’s spherical form, far too much heat is received at the equator and far too little at high latitudes to make the earth a suitable habitation for sentient beings. The function of these two great oceans is to remove the heat from the equator and carry it to temperate and polar regions. Aërial currents could not do this. They might remove the heat from the equator, but they could not, as we have already seen, carry it to the temperate and polar regions; for the greater portion of the heat which aërial currents remove from the equator is dissipated into stellar space: the ocean alone can convey the heat to distant shores. But aërial currents have a most important function; for of what avail would it be, though ocean-currents should carry heat to high latitudes, if there were no means of distributing the heat thus conveyed over the land? The function of aërial currents is to do this. Upon this twofold arrangement depends the thermal condition of the globe. Exclude the waters of the Pacific and the Atlantic from temperate and polar regions and place them at the equator, and nothing now existing on the globe could live in high latitudes.
Were these two great oceans placed beside each other on one side of the globe, and the two great continents placed beside each other on the other side, the northern hemisphere would not then be suitable for the present order of things: the land on the central and on the eastern side of the united continent would be far too cold.
The foregoing Conclusions not affected by the Imperfection of the Data.—The general results at which we have arrived in reference to the influence of ocean-currents on the climatic condition of the globe are not affected by the imperfection of the data employed. It is perfectly true that considerable uncertainty prevails regarding some of the data; but, after making the fullest allowance for every possible error, the influence of currents is so enormous that the general conclusion cannot be materially affected. I can hardly imagine that any one familiar with the physics of the subject will be likely to think that, owing to possible errors in the data, the effects have probably been doubled. Even admitting, however, that this were proved to be the case, still that would not materially alter the general conclusion at which we have arrived. The influence of ocean-currents in the distribution of heat over the surface of the globe would still be admittedly enormous, whether we concluded that owing to them the present temperature of the equator is 55° or 27° colder than it would otherwise be, or the poles 83° or 41° hotter than they would be did no currents exist.
Nay, more, suppose we should again halve the result; even in that case we should have to admit that, owing to ocean-currents, the equator is about 14° colder and the poles about 21° hotter than they would otherwise be; in other words, we should have to admit that, were it not for ocean-currents, the mean temperature of the equator would be about 100° and the mean temperature of the poles about −21°.
If the influence of ocean-currents in reducing the difference between the temperature of the equator and poles amounted to only a few degrees, it would of course be needless to put much weight on any results arrived at by the method of calculation which I have adopted; but when it is a matter of two hundred degrees, it is not at all likely that the general results will be very much affected by any errors which may ever be found in the data.
Objections of a palæontological nature have frequently been urged against the opinion that our island is much indebted for its mild climate to the influence of the Gulf-stream; but, from what has already been stated, it must be apparent that all objections of that nature are of little avail. The palæontologist may detect, from the character of the flora and fauna brought up from the sea-bottom by dredging and other means, the presence of a warm or of a cold current; but this can never enable him to prove that the temperate and polar regions are not affected to an enormous extent by warm water conveyed from the equatorial regions. For anything that palæontology can show to the contrary, were ocean-currents to cease, the mean annual temperature of our island might sink below the present midwinter temperature of Siberia. What would be the thermal condition of our globe were there no ocean-currents is a question for the physicist; not for the naturalist.
CHAPTER IV.
OUTLINE OF THE PHYSICAL AGENCIES WHICH LEAD TO SECULAR CHANGES OF CLIMATE.
Eccentricity of the Earth’s Orbit; its Effect on Climate.—Glacial Epoch not the direct Result of an Increase of Eccentricity.—An important Consideration overlooked.—Change of Eccentricity affects Climate only indirectly.—Agencies which are brought into Operation by an Increase of Eccentricity.—How an Accumulation of Snow is produced.—The Effect of Snow on the Summer Temperature.—Reason of the low Summer Temperature of Polar Regions.—Deflection of Ocean-currents the chief Cause of secular Changes of Climate.—How the foregoing Causes deflect Ocean-currents.—Nearness of the Sun in Perigee a Cause of the Accumulation of Ice.—A remarkable Circumstance regarding the Causes which lead to secular Changes of Climate.—The primary Cause an Increase of Eccentricity.—Mean Temperature of whole Earth should be greater in Aphelion than in Perihelion.—Professor Tyndall on the Glacial Epoch.—A general Reduction of Temperature will not produce a Glacial Epoch.—Objection from the present Condition of the Planet Mars.
Primary cause of Change of Eccentricity of the Earth’s Orbit.—There are two causes affecting the position of the earth in relation to the sun, which must, to a very large extent, influence the earth’s climate; viz., the precession of the equinoxes and the change in the eccentricity of the earth’s orbit. If we duly examine the combined influence of these two causes, we shall find that the northern and southern portions of the globe are subject to an excessively slow secular change of climate, consisting in a slow periodic change of alternate warmer and colder cycles.
According to the calculations of Leverrier, the superior limit of the earth’s eccentricity is 0·07775.[27] The eccentricity is at present diminishing, and will continue to do so during 23,980 years, from the year 1800 a.d., when its value will be then ·00314.
The change in the eccentricity of the earth’s orbit may affect the climate in two different ways; viz., by either increasing or diminishing the mean annual amount of heat received from the sun, or by increasing or diminishing the difference between summer and winter temperature.
Let us consider the former case first. The total quantity of heat received from the sun during one revolution is inversely proportional to the minor axis.
The difference of the minor axis of the orbit when at its maximum and its minimum state of eccentricity is as 997 to 1000. This small amount of difference cannot therefore sensibly affect the climate. Hence we must seek for our cause in the second case under consideration.
There is of course as yet some little uncertainty in regard to the exact mean distance of the sun. I shall, however, in the present volume assume it to be 91,400,000 miles. When the eccentricity is at its superior limit, the distance of the sun from the earth, when the latter is in the aphelion of its orbit, is no less than 98,506,350 miles; and when in the perihelion it is only 84,293,650 miles. The earth is therefore 14,212,700 miles further from the sun in the former position than in the latter. The direct heat of the sun being inversely as the square of the distance, it follows that the amount of heat received by the earth when in these two positions will be as 19 to 26. Taking the present eccentricity to be ·0168, the earth’s distance during winter, when nearest to the sun, is 89,864,480 miles. Suppose now that, according to the precession of the equinoxes, winter in our northern hemisphere should happen when the earth is in the aphelion of its orbit, at the time when the orbit is at its greatest eccentricity; the earth would then be 8,641,870 miles further from the sun in winter than at present. The direct heat of the sun would therefore be one-fifth less during that season than at present; and in summer one-fifth greater. This enormous difference would affect the climate to a very great extent. But if winter under these circumstances should happen when the earth is in the perihelion of its orbit, the earth would then be 14,212,700 miles nearer the sun in winter than in summer. In this case the difference between winter and summer in the latitude of this country would be almost annihilated. But as the winter in the one hemisphere corresponds with the summer in the other, it follows that while the one hemisphere would be enduring the greatest extremes of summer heat and winter cold, the other would be enjoying a perpetual summer.
It is quite true that whatever may be the eccentricity of the earth’s orbit, the two hemispheres must receive equal quantities of heat per annum; for proximity to the sun is exactly compensated by the effect of swifter motion—the total amount of heat received from the sun between the two equinoxes is the same in both halves of the year, whatever the eccentricity of the earth’s orbit may be. For example, whatever extra heat the southern hemisphere may at present receive from the sun during its summer months owing to greater proximity to the sun, is exactly compensated by a corresponding loss arising from the shortness of the season; and, on the other hand, whatever deficiency of heat we in the northern hemisphere may at present have during our summer half year in consequence of the earth’s distance from the sun, is also exactly compensated by a corresponding length of season.
It has been shown in the introductory chapter that a simple change in the sun’s distance would not alone produce a glacial epoch, and that those physicists who confined their attention to purely astronomical effects were perfectly correct in affirming that no increase of eccentricity of the earth’s orbit could account for that epoch. But the important fact was overlooked that although the glacial epoch could not result directly from an increase of eccentricity, it might nevertheless do so indirectly. The glacial epoch, as I hope to show, was not due directly to an increase in the eccentricity of the earth’s orbit, but to a number of physical agents that were brought into operation as a result of an increase.
I shall now proceed to give an outline of what these physical agents were, how they were brought into operation, and the way in which they led to the glacial epoch.
When the eccentricity is about its superior limit, the combined effect of all those causes to which I allude is to lower to a very great extent the temperature of the hemisphere whose winters occur in aphelion, and to raise to nearly as great an extent the temperature of the opposite hemisphere, where winter of course occurs in perihelion.
With the eccentricity at its superior limit and the winter occurring in the aphelion, the earth would be 8,641,870 miles further from the sun during that season than at present. The reduction in the amount of heat received from the sun owing to this increased distance would, upon the principle we have stated in [Chapter II.], lower the midwinter temperature to an enormous extent. In temperate regions the greater portion of the moisture of the air is at present precipitated in the form of rain, and the very small portion which falls as snow disappears in the course of a few weeks at most. But in the circumstances under consideration, the mean winter temperature would be lowered so much below the freezing-point that what now falls as rain during that season would then fall as snow. This is not all; the winters would then not only be colder than now, but they would also be much longer. At present the winters are nearly eight days shorter than the summers; but with the eccentricity at its superior limit and the winter solstice in aphelion, the length of the winters would exceed that of the summers by no fewer than thirty-six days. The lowering of the temperature and the lengthening of the winter would both tend to the same effect, viz., to increase the amount of snow accumulated during the winter; for, other things being equal, the larger the snow-accumulating period the greater the accumulation. I may remark, however, that the absolute quantity of heat received during winter is not affected by the decrease in the sun’s heat,[28] for the additional length of the season compensates for this decrease. As regards the absolute amount of heat received, increase of the sun’s distance and lengthening of the winter are compensatory, but not so in regard to the amount of snow accumulated.
The consequence of this state of things would be that, at the commencement of the short summer, the ground would be covered with the winter’s accumulation of snow.
Again, the presence of so much snow would lower the summer temperature, and prevent to a great extent the melting of the snow.
There are three separate ways whereby accumulated masses of snow and ice tend to lower the summer temperature, viz.:—
First. By means of direct radiation. No matter what the intensity of the sun’s rays may be, the temperature of snow and ice can never rise above 32°. Hence the presence of snow and ice tends by direct radiation to lower the temperature of all surrounding bodies to 32°.
In Greenland, a country covered with snow and ice, the pitch has been seen to melt on the side of a ship exposed to the direct rays of the sun, while at the same time the surrounding air was far below the freezing-point; a thermometer exposed to the direct radiation of the sun has been observed to stand above 100°, while the air surrounding the instrument was actually 12° below the freezing-point.[29] A similar experience has been recorded by travellers on the snow-fields of the Alps.[30]
These results, surprising as they no doubt appear, are what we ought to expect under the circumstances. The diathermancy of air has been well established by the researches of Professor Tyndall on radiant heat. Perfectly dry air seems to be nearly incapable of absorbing radiant heat. The entire radiation passes through it almost without any sensible absorption. Consequently the pitch on the side of the ship may be melted, or the bulb of the thermometer raised to a high temperature by the direct rays of the sun, while the surrounding air remains intensely cold. “A joint of meat,” says Professor Tyndall, “might be roasted before a fire, the air around the joint being cold as ice.”[31] The air is cooled by contact with the snow-covered ground, but is not heated by the radiation from the sun.
When the air is humid and charged with aqueous vapour, a similar cooling effect also takes place, but in a slightly different way. Air charged with aqueous vapour is a good absorber of radiant heat, but it can only absorb those rays which agree with it in period. It so happens that rays from snow and ice are, of all others, those which it absorbs best. The humid air will absorb the total radiation from the snow and ice, but it will allow the greater part of, if not nearly all, the sun’s rays to pass unabsorbed. But during the day, when the sun is shining, the radiation from the snow and ice to the air is negative; that is, the snow and ice cool the air by radiation. The result is, the air is cooled by radiation from the snow and ice (or rather, we should say, to the snow and ice) more rapidly than it is heated by the sun; and, as a consequence, in a country like Greenland, covered with an icy mantle, the temperature of the air, even during summer, seldom rises above the freezing-point. Snow is a good reflector, but as simple reflection does not change the character of the rays they would not be absorbed by the air, but would pass into stellar space.
Were it not for the ice, the summers of North Greenland, owing to the continuance of the sun above the horizon, would be as warm as those of England; but, instead of this, the Greenland summers are colder than our winters. Cover India with an ice sheet, and its summers would be colder than those of England.
Second. Another cause of the cooling effect is that the rays which fall on snow and ice are to a great extent reflected back into space.[32] But those that are not reflected, but absorbed, do not raise the temperature, for they disappear in the mechanical work of melting the ice. The latent heat of ice is about 142° F.; consequently in the melting of every pound of ice a quantity of heat sufficient to raise one pound of water 142° disappears, and is completely lost, so far as temperature is concerned. This quantity of heat is consumed, not in raising the temperature of the ice, but in the mechanical work of tearing the molecules separate against the forces of cohesion binding them together into the solid form. No matter what the intensity of the sun’s heat may be, the surface of the ground will remain permanently at 32° so long as the snow and ice continue unmelted. [**P1:missing page number]
Third. Snow and ice lower the temperature by chilling the air and condensing the vapour into thick fogs. The great strength of the sun’s rays during summer, due to his nearness at that season, would, in the first place, tend to produce an increased amount of evaporation. But the presence of snow-clad mountains and an icy sea would chill the atmosphere and condense the vapour into thick fogs. The thick fogs and cloudy sky would effectually prevent the sun’s rays from reaching the earth, and the snow, in consequence, would remain unmelted during the entire summer. In fact, we have this very condition of things exemplified in some of the islands of the Southern Ocean at the present day. Sandwich Land, which is in the same parallel of latitude as the north of Scotland, is covered with ice and snow the entire summer; and in the island of South Georgia, which is in the same parallel as the centre of England, the perpetual snow descends to the very sea-beach. The following is Captain Cook’s description of this dismal place:—“We thought it very extraordinary,” he says, “that an island between the latitudes of 54° and 55° should, in the very height of summer, be almost wholly covered with frozen snow, in some places many fathoms deep.... The head of the bay was terminated by ice-cliffs of considerable height; pieces of which were continually breaking off, which made a noise like a cannon. Nor were the interior parts of the country less horrible. The savage rocks raised their lofty summits till lost in the clouds, and valleys were covered with seemingly perpetual snow. Not a tree nor a shrub of any size were to be seen. The only signs of vegetation were a strong-bladed grass growing in tufts, wild burnet, and a plant-like moss seen on the rocks.... We are inclined to think that the interior parts, on account of their elevation, never enjoy heat enough to melt the snow in such quantities as to produce a river, nor did we find even a stream of fresh water on the whole coast.”[33]
Captain Sir James Ross found the perpetual snow at the sea-level at Admiralty Inlet, South Shetland, in lat. 64°; and while near this place the thermometer in the very middle of summer fell at night to 23° F.; and so rapidly was the young ice forming around the ship that he began, he says, “to have serious apprehensions of the ships being frozen in.”[34] At the comparatively low latitude of 59° S., in long. 171° E. (the corresponding latitude of our Orkney Islands), snow was falling on the longest day, and the surface of the sea at 32°.[35] And during the month of February (the month corresponding to August in our hemisphere) there were only three days in which they were not assailed by snow-showers.[36]
In the Straits of Magellan, in 53° S. lat., where the direct heat of the sun ought to be as great as in the centre of England, MM. Churrca and Galcano have seen snow fall in the middle of summer; and though the day was eighteen hours long, the thermometer seldom rose above 42° or 44°, and never above 51°.[37]
This rigorous condition of climate chiefly results from the rays of the sun being intercepted by the dense fogs which envelope those regions during the entire summer; and the fogs again are due to the air being chilled by the presence of the snow-clad mountains and the immense masses of floating ice which come from the antarctic seas. The reduction of the sun’s heat and lengthening of the winter, which would take place when the eccentricity is near to its superior limit and the winter in aphelion, would in this country produce a state of things perhaps as bad as, if not worse than, that which at present exists in South Georgia and South Shetland.
If we turn our attention to the polar regions, we shall find that the cooling effects of snow and ice are even still more marked. The coldness of the summers in polar regions is owing almost solely to this cause. Captain Scoresby states that, in regard to the arctic regions, the general obscurity of the atmosphere arising from fogs or clouds is such that the sun is frequently invisible during several successive days. At such times, when the sun is near the northern tropic, there is scarcely any sensible quantity of light from noon till midnight.[38] “And snow,” he says, “is so common in the arctic regions, that it may be boldly stated that in nine days out of ten during the months of April, May, and June more or less falls.”[39]
On the north side of Hudson’s Bay, for example, where the quantity of floating ice during summer is enormous, and dense fogs prevail, the mean temperature of June does not rise above the freezing-point, being actually 13°·5 below the normal temperature; while in some parts of Asia under the same latitude, where there is comparatively little ice, the mean temperature of June is as high as 60°.
The mean temperature of Van Rensselaer Harbour, in lat. 78° 37′ N., long. 70° 53′ W., was accurately determined from hourly observations made day and night over a period of two years by Dr. Kane. It was found to be as follows:—
| ° | |
| Winter | −28·59 |
| Spring | −10·59 |
| Summer | +33·38 |
| Autumn | - 4·03 |
But although the quantity of heat received from the sun at that latitude ought to have been greater during the summer than in England,[40] yet nevertheless the temperature is only 1°·38 above the freezing-point.
The temperature of Port Bowen, lat. 73° 14′ N., was found to be as follows:—
| ° | |
| Winter | −25·09 |
| Spring | - 5·77 |
| Summer | +34·40 |
| Autumn | +10·58 |
Here the summer is only 2°·4 above the freezing-point.
The condition of things in the antarctic regions is even still worse than in the arctic. Captain Sir James Ross, when between lat. 66° S. and 77° 5′ S., during the months of January and February, 1841, found the mean temperature to be only 26°·5; and there were only two days when it rose even to the freezing-point. When near the ice-barrier on the 8th of February, 1841, a season of the year equivalent to August in England, he had the thermometer at 12° at noon; and so rapidly was the young ice forming around the ships, that it was with difficulty that he escaped being frozen in for the winter. “Three days later,” he says, “the thick falling snow prevented our seeing to any distance before us; the waves as they broke over the ships froze as they fell on the decks and rigging, and covered our clothes with a thick coating of ice.”[41] On visiting the barrier next year about the same season, he again ran the risk of being frozen in. He states that the surface of the sea presented one unbroken sheet of young ice as far as the eye could discover from the masthead.
Lieutenant Wilkes, of the American Exploring Expedition, says that the temperature they experienced in the antarctic regions surprised him, for they seldom, if ever, had it above 30°, even at midday. Captain Nares, when in latitude 64°S., between the 13th and 25th February last (1874), found the mean temperature of the air to be 31°·5; a lower temperature than is met with in the arctic regions, in August, ten degrees nearer the pole.[42]
These extraordinarily low temperatures during summer, which we have just been detailing, were due solely to the presence of snow and ice. In South Georgia, Sandwich Land, and some other places which we have noticed, the summers ought to be about as warm as those of England; yet to such an extent is the air cooled by means of floating ice coming from the antarctic regions, and the rays of the sun enfeebled by the dense fogs which prevail, that there is actually not heat sufficient even in the very middle of summer to melt the snow lying on the sea-beach.
We read with astonishment that a country in the latitude of England should in the very middle of summer be covered with snow down to the sea-shore—the thermometer seldom rising much above the freezing-point. But we do not consider it so surprising that the summer temperature of the polar regions should be low, for we are accustomed to regard a low temperature as the normal condition of things there. We are, however, mistaken if we suppose that the influence of ice on climate is less marked at the poles than at such places as South Georgia or Sandwich Land.
It is true that a low summer temperature is the normal state of matters in very high latitudes, but it is so only in consequence of the perpetual presence of snow and ice. When we speak of the normal temperature of a place we mean, of course, as we have already seen, the normal temperature under the present condition of things. But were the ice removed from those regions, our present Tables of normal summer temperature would be valueless. These Tables give us the normal June temperature while the ice remains, but they do not afford us the least idea as to what that temperature would be were the ice removed. The mere removal of the ice, all things else remaining the same, would raise the summer temperature enormously. The actual June temperature of Melville Island, for example, is 37°, and Port Franklin, Nova Zembla, 36°·5; but were the ice removed from the arctic regions, we should then find that the summer temperature of those places would be about as high as that of England. This will be evident from the following considerations:—
The temperature of a place, other things being equal, is proportionate to the quantity of heat received from the sun. If Greenland receives per given surface as much heat from the sun as England, its temperature ought to be as high as that of England. Now, from May 10 till August 3, a period of eighty-five days, the quantity of heat received from the sun in consequence of his remaining above the horizon is actually greater at the north pole than at the equator.
Column II. of the following Table, calculated by Mr. Meech,[43] represents the quantity of heat received from the sun on the 15th of June at every 10° of latitude. To simplify the Table, I have taken 100 as the unit quantity received at the equator on that day instead of the unit adopted by Mr. Meech:—
| I. Latitude. | II. Quantity of heat. | III. June temperature. | |
| ° | ° | ||
| Equator | 0 | 100 | 80·0 |
| 10 | 111 | 81·1 | |
| 20 | 118 | 81·1 | |
| 30 | 123 | 77·3 | |
| 40 | 125 | 68·0 | |
| 50 | 125 | 58·8 | |
| 60 | 123 | 51·4 | |
| 70 | 127 | 39·2 | |
| 80 | 133 | 30·2 | |
| North Pole | 90 | 136 | 27·4 |
The calculations are, of course, made upon the supposition that the quantity of rays cut off in passing through the atmosphere is the same at the poles as at the equator, which, as we know, is not exactly the case. But, notwithstanding the extra loss of solar heat in high latitudes caused by the greater amount of rays that are cut off, still, if the temperature of the arctic summers were at all proportionate to the quantity of heat received from the sun, it ought to be very much higher than it actually is. Column III. represents the actual mean June temperature, according to Prof. Dove, at the corresponding latitudes. A comparison of these two columns will show the very great deficiency of temperature in high latitudes during summer. At the equator, for example, the quantity of heat received is represented by 100 and the temperature 80°; while at the pole the temperature is only 27°·4, although the amount of heat received is 136. This low temperature during summer, from what has been already shown, is due chiefly to the presence of snow and ice. If by some means or other we could remove the snow and ice from the arctic regions, they would then enjoy a temperate, if not a hot, summer. In Greenland, as we have already seen, snow falls even in the very middle of summer, more or less, nine days out of ten; but remove the snow from the northern hemisphere, and a snow-shower in Greenland during summer would be as great a rarity as it would be on the plains of India.
Other things being equal, the quantity of solar heat received in Greenland during summer is considerably greater than in England. Consequently, were it not for snow and ice, it would enjoy as warm a climate during summer as that of England. Conversely, let the polar snow and ice extend to the latitude of England, and the summers of that country would be as cold as those of Greenland. Our summers would then be as cold as our winters are at present, and snow in the very middle of summer would perhaps be as common as rain.
Mr. Murphy’s Theory.—In a paper read before the Geological Society by Mr. Murphy[44] he admits that the glacial climate was due to an increase of eccentricity, but maintains in opposition to me that the glaciated hemisphere must be that in which the summer occurs in aphelion during the greatest eccentricity of the earth’s orbit.
I fear that Mr. Murphy must be resting his theory on the mistaken idea that a summer in aphelion ought to melt less snow and ice than one in perihelion. It is quite true that the longer summer in aphelion—other things being equal—is colder than the shorter one in perihelion, but the quantity of heat received from the sun is the same in both cases. Consequently the quantity of snow and ice melted ought also to be the same; for the amount melted is in proportion to the quantity of energy in the form of heat received.
It is true that with us at present less snow and ice are melted during a cold summer than during a warm one. But this is not a case in point, for during a cold summer we have less heat than during a warm summer, the length of both being the same. The coldness of the summers in this case is owing chiefly to a portion of the heat which we ought to receive from the sun being cut off by some obstructing cause.
The reason why we have so little snow, and consequently so little ice, in temperate regions, is not, as Mr. Murphy seems to suppose, that the heat of summer melts it all, but that there is so little to melt. And the reason why we have so little to melt is that, owing to the warmth of our winters, we have generally rain instead of snow. But if you increase the eccentricity very much, and place the winter in perihelion, we should probably have no snow whatever, and, as far as glaciation is concerned, it would then matter very little what sort of summer we had.
But it is not correct to say that the perihelion summer of the glacial epoch must have been hot. There are physical reasons, as we have just seen, which go to prove that, notwithstanding the nearness of the sun at that season, the temperature would seldom, if ever, rise much above the freezing-point.
Besides, Mr. Murphy overlooks the fact that the nearness of the sun during summer was nearly as essential to the production of the ice, as we shall shortly see, as his great distance during winter.
We must now proceed to the consideration of an agency which is brought into operation by the foregoing condition of things, an agency far more potent than any which has yet come under our notice, viz., the Deflection of Ocean-currents.
Deflection of Ocean-currents the chief Cause of secular Changes of Climate.—The enormous extent to which the thermal condition of the globe is affected by ocean-currents seems to cast new light on the mystery of geological climate. What, for example, would be the condition of Europe were the Gulf-stream stopped, and the Atlantic thus deprived of one-fifth of the absolute amount of heat which it is now receiving above what it has in virtue of the temperature of space? If the results just arrived at be at all justifiable, it follows that the stoppage of the stream would lower the temperature of northern Europe to an extent that would induce a condition of climate as severe as that of North Greenland; and were the warm currents of the North Pacific also at the same time to be stopped, the northern hemisphere would assuredly be subjected to a state of general glaciation.
Suppose also that the warm currents, having been withdrawn from the northern hemisphere, should flow into the Southern Ocean: what then would be the condition of the southern hemisphere? Such a transference of heat would raise the temperature of the latter hemisphere about as much as it would lower the temperature of the former. It would consequently raise the mean temperature of the antarctic regions much above the freezing-point, and the ice under which those regions are at present buried would, to a great extent at least, disappear. The northern hemisphere, thus deprived of the heat from the equator, would be under a condition of things similar to that which prevailed during the glacial epoch; while the other hemisphere, receiving the heat from the equator, would be under a condition of climate similar to what we know prevailed in the northern hemisphere during a part of the Upper Miocene period, when North Greenland enjoyed a climate as mild as that of England at the present day.
This is no mere picture of the imagination, no mere hypothesis devised to meet a difficult case; for if what has already been stated be not completely erroneous, all this follows as a necessary consequence from physical principles. If the warm currents of the equatorial regions be all deflected into one hemisphere, such must be the condition of things. How then do the agencies which we have been considering deflect ocean-currents?
How the foregoing Causes deflect Ocean-currents.—A high condition of eccentricity tends, we have seen, to produce an accumulation of snow and ice on the hemisphere whose winters occur in aphelion. This accumulation tends in turn to lower the summer temperature, to cut off the sun’s rays, and so to retard the melting of the snow. In short, it tends to produce on that hemisphere a state of glaciation. Exactly opposite effects take place on the other hemisphere, which has its winter in perihelion. There the shortness of the winters and the highness of the temperature, owing to the sun’s nearness, combine to prevent the accumulation of snow. The general result is that the one hemisphere is cooled and the other heated. This state of things now brings into play the agencies which lead to the deflection of the Gulf-stream and other great ocean-currents.
Owing to the great difference between the temperature of the equator and the poles, there is a constant flow of air from the poles to the equator. It is to this that the trade-winds owe their existence. Now as the strength of these winds, as a general rule, will depend upon the difference of temperature that may exist between the equator and higher latitudes, it follows that the trades on the cold hemisphere will be stronger than those on the warm. When the polar and temperate regions of the one hemisphere are covered to a large extent with snow and ice, the air, as we have just seen, is kept almost at the freezing-point during both summer and winter. The trades on that hemisphere will, of necessity, be exceedingly powerful; while on the other hemisphere, where there is comparatively little snow and ice, and the air is warm, the trades will, as a consequence, be weak. Suppose now the northern hemisphere to be the cold one. The north-east trade-winds of this hemisphere will far exceed in strength the south-east trade-winds of the southern hemisphere. The median-line between the trades will consequently lie to a very considerable distance to the south of the equator. We have a good example of this at the present day. The difference of temperature between the two hemispheres at present is but trifling to what it would be in the case under consideration; yet we find that the south-east trades of the Atlantic blow with greater force than the north-east trades, and the result is that the south-east trades sometimes extend to 10° or 15° N. lat., whereas the north-east trades seldom blow south of the equator. The effect of the northern trades blowing across the equator to a great distance will be to impel the warm water of the tropics over into the Southern Ocean. But this is not all; not only would the median-line of the trades be shifted southwards, but the great equatorial currents of the globe would also be shifted southwards.
Let us now consider how this would affect the Gulf-stream. The South American continent is shaped somewhat in the form of a triangle, with one of its angular corners, called Cape St. Roque, pointing eastwards. The equatorial current of the Atlantic impinges against this corner; but as the greater portion of the current lies a little to the north of the corner, it flows westward into the Gulf of Mexico and forms the Gulf-stream. A considerable portion of the water, however, strikes the land to the south of the Cape and is deflected along the shores of Brazil into the Southern Ocean, forming what is known as the Brazilian current.
Now it is perfectly obvious that the shifting of the equatorial current of the Atlantic only a few degrees to the south of its present position—a thing which would certainly take place under the conditions which we have been detailing—would turn the entire current into the Brazilian branch, and instead of flowing chiefly into the Gulf of Mexico as at present, it would all flow into the Southern Ocean, and the Gulf-stream would consequently be stopped. The stoppage of the Gulf-stream, combined with all those causes which we have just been considering, would place Europe under glacial conditions; while, at the same time, the temperature of the Southern Ocean would, in consequence of the enormous quantity of warm water received, have its temperature (already high from other causes) raised enormously.
Deflection of the Gulf-stream during the Glacial Epoch indicated by the Difference between the Clyde and Canadian Shell-beds.—That the glaciation of north-western Europe resulted to a great extent from the stoppage of the Gulf-stream may, I think, be inferred from a circumstance pointed out by the Rev. Mr. Crosskey, several years ago, in a paper read before the Glasgow Geological Society.[45] He showed that the difference between the glacial shells of Canada and those now existing in the Gulf of St. Lawrence is much less marked than the difference between the glacial shells of the Clyde beds and those now existing in the Firth. And from this he justly infers that the change of climate in Canada since the glacial epoch has been far less complete than in Scotland.
The return of the Gulf-stream has raised the mean annual temperature of our island no less than 15° above the normal, while Canada, deprived of its influence and exposed to a cold stream from polar regions, has been kept nearly as much below the normal.
Let us compare the present temperature of the two countries. In making our comparison we must, of course, compare places on the same latitude. It will not do, for example, to compare Glasgow with Montreal or Quebec, places on the latitude of the south of France and north of Italy. It will be found that the difference of temperature between the two countries is so enormous as to appear scarcely credible to those who have not examined the matter. The temperatures have all been taken from Professor Dove’s work on the “Distribution of Heat over the Surface of the Globe,” and his Tables published in the Report of the British Association for 1847.
The mean temperature of Scotland for January is about 38° F., while in some parts of Labrador, on the same latitude, and all along the central parts of North America lying to the north of Upper Canada, it is actually 10°, and in many places 13° below zero. The January temperature at the Cumberland House, which is situated on the latitude of the centre of England, is more than 13° below zero. Here is a difference of no less than 51°. The normal temperature for the month of January in the latitude of Glasgow, according to Professor Dove, is 10°. Consequently, owing to the influence of the Gulf-stream, we are 28° warmer during that month than we would otherwise be, while vast tracts of country in America are 23° colder than they should be.
The July temperature of Glasgow is 61°, while on the same latitude in Labrador and places to the west it is only 49°. Glasgow during that month is 3° above the normal temperature, while America, owing to the influence of the cold polar stream, is 9° below it. The mean annual temperature of Glasgow is nearly 50°, while in America, on the same latitude, it is only 30°, and in many places as low as 23°. The mean normal temperature for the whole year is 35°. Our mean annual temperature is therefore 15° above the normal, and that of America from 5° to 12° below it. The American winters are excessively cold, owing to the continental character of the climate, and the absence of any benefit from the Gulf-stream, while the summers, which would otherwise be warm, are, in the latitude of Glasgow, cooled down to a great extent by the cold ice from Greenland; and the consequence is, that the mean annual temperature is about 20° or 27° below that of ours. The mean annual temperature of the Gulf of St. Lawrence is as low as that of Lapland or Iceland. It is no wonder, then, that the shells which flourished in Canada during the glacial epoch have not left the gulf and the neighbouring seas.
We have good reason to believe that the climate of America during the glacial epoch was even then somewhat more severe than that of Western Europe, for the erratics of America extend as far south as latitude 40°, while on the old continent they are not found much beyond latitude 50°. This difference may have resulted from the fact that the western side of a continent is always warmer than the eastern.
In order to determine whether the cold was as great in America during the glacial epoch as in Western Europe, we must not compare the fossils found in the glacial beds about Montreal, for example, with those found in the Clyde beds, for Montreal lies much further to the south than the Clyde. The Clyde beds must be compared with those of Labrador, while the beds of Montreal must be compared with those of the south of France and the north of Italy, if any are to be found there.
On the whole, it may be concluded that had the Gulf-stream not returned to our shores at the close of the glacial epoch, and had its place been supplied by a cold stream from the polar regions, similar to that which washes the shores of North America, it is highly probable that nearly every species found in our glacial beds would have had their representatives flourishing in the British seas at the present day.
It is no doubt true that when we compare the places in which the Canadian shell-beds referred to by Mr. Crosskey are situated with places on the same latitude in Europe, the difference of climate resulting from the influence of the Gulf-stream is not so great as between Scotland and those places which we have been considering; but still the difference is sufficiently great to account for why the change of climate in Canada has been less complete than in Scotland.
And what holds true in regard to the currents of the Atlantic holds also true, though perhaps not to the same extent, of the currents of the Pacific.
Nearness of the Sun in Perigee a Cause of the Accumulation of Ice.—But there is still another cause which must be noticed:—A strong under current of air from the north implies an equally strong upper current to the north. Now if the effect of the under current would be to impel the warm water at the equator to the south, the effect of the upper current would be to carry the aqueous vapour formed at the equator to the north; the upper current, on reaching the snow and ice of temperate regions, would deposit its moisture in the form of snow; so that, notwithstanding the great cold of the glacial epoch, it is probable that the quantity of snow falling in the northern regions would be enormous. This would be particularly the case during summer, when the earth would be in the perihelion and the heat at the equator great. The equator would be the furnace where evaporation would take place, and the snow and ice of temperate regions would act as a condenser.
Heat to produce evaporation is just as essential to the accumulation of snow and ice as cold to produce condensation. Now at Midsummer, on the supposition of the eccentricity being at its superior limit, the sun would be 8,641,870 miles nearer than at present during that season. The effect would be that the intensity of the sun’s rays would be one-fifth greater than now. That is to say, for every five rays received by the ocean at present, six rays would be received then, consequently the evaporation during summer would be excessive. But the ice-covered land would condense the vapour into snow. It would, no doubt, be during summer that the greatest snowfall would take place. In fact, the nearness of the sun during that season was as essential to the production of the glacial epoch as was his distance during winter.
The direct effect of eccentricity is to produce on one of the hemispheres a long and cold winter. This alone would not lead to a condition of things so severe as that which we know prevailed during the glacial epoch. But the snow and ice thus produced would bring into operation, as we have seen, a host of physical agencies whose combined efforts would be quite sufficient to do this.
A remarkable Circumstance regarding those Causes which lead to Secular Changes of Climate.—There is one remarkable circumstance connected with those physical causes which deserves special notice. They not only all lead to one result, viz., an accumulation of snow and ice, but they react on one another. It is quite a common thing in physics for the effect to react on the cause. In electricity and magnetism, for example, cause and effect in almost every case mutually act and react upon each other. But it is usually, if not universally, the case that the reaction of the effect tends to weaken the cause. The weakening influences of this reaction tend to impose a limit on the efficiency of the cause. But, strange to say, in regard to the physical causes concerned in the bringing about of the glacial condition of climate, cause and effect mutually reacted so as to strengthen each other. And this circumstance had a great deal to do with the extraordinary results produced.
We have seen that the accumulation of snow and ice on the ground resulting from the long and cold winters tended to cool the air and produce fogs which cut off the sun’s rays. The rays thus cut off diminished the melting power of the sun, and so increased the accumulation. As the snow and ice continued to accumulate, more and more of the rays were cut off; and on the other hand, as the rays continued to be cut off, the rate of accumulation increased, because the quantity of snow and ice melted became thus annually less and less.
Again, during the long and dreary winters of the glacial epoch the earth would be radiating off its heat into space. Had the heat thus lost simply gone to lower the temperature, the lowering of the temperature would have tended to diminish the rate of loss; but the necessary result of this was the formation of snow and ice rather than the lowering of temperature.
And, again, the formation of snow and ice facilitated the rate at which the earth lost its heat; and on the other hand, the more rapidly the earth parted with its heat, the more rapidly were the snow and ice formed.
Further, as the snow and ice accumulated on the one hemisphere, they at the same time continued to diminish on the other. This tended to increase the strength of the trade-winds on the cold hemisphere, and to weaken those on the warm. The effect of this on ocean currents would be to impel the warm water of the tropics more to the warm hemisphere than to the cold. Suppose the northern hemisphere to be the cold one, then as the snow and ice began gradually to accumulate there, the ocean currents of that hemisphere would begin to decrease in volume, while those on the southern, or warm, hemisphere, would pari passu increase. This withdrawal of heat from the northern hemisphere would tend, of course, to lower the temperature of that hemisphere and thus favour the accumulation of snow and ice. As the snow and ice accumulated the ocean currents would decrease, and, on the other hand, as the ocean currents diminished the snow and ice would accumulate,—the two effects mutually strengthening each other.
The same must have held true in regard to aërial currents. The more the polar and temperate regions became covered with snow and ice, the stronger would become the trades and anti-trades of the hemisphere; and the stronger those winds became, the greater would be the amount of moisture transferred from the tropical regions by the anti-trades to the temperate regions; and on the other hand, the more moisture those winds brought to temperate regions, the greater would be the quantity of snow produced.
The same process of mutual action and reaction would take place among the agencies in operation on the warm hemisphere, only the result produced would be diametrically opposite of that produced in the cold hemisphere. On this warm hemisphere action and reaction would tend to raise the mean temperature and diminish the quantity of snow and ice existing in temperate and polar regions.
Had it been possible for each of those various physical agents which we have been considering to produce its direct effects without influencing the other agents or being influenced by them, its real efficiency in bringing about either the glacial condition of climate or the warm condition of climate would not have been so great.
The primary cause that set all those various physical agencies in operation which brought about the glacial epoch, was a high state of eccentricity of the earth’s orbit. When the eccentricity is at a high value, snow and ice begin to accumulate, owing to the increasing length and coldness of the winter on that hemisphere whose winter solstice is approaching toward the aphelion. The accumulating snow then begins to bring into operation all the various agencies which we have been describing; and, as we have just seen, these, when once in full operation, mutually aid one another. As the eccentricity increases century by century, the temperate regions become more and more covered with snow and ice, first by reason of the continued increase in the coldness and length of the winters, and secondly, and chiefly, owing to the continued increase in the potency of those physical agents which have been called into operation. This glacial state of things goes on at an increasing rate, and reaches a maximum when the solstice-point arrives at the aphelion. After the solstice passes the aphelion, a contrary process commences. The snow and ice gradually begin to diminish on the cold hemisphere and to make their appearance on the other hemisphere. The glaciated hemisphere turns, by degrees, warmer and the warm hemisphere colder, and this continues to go on for a period of ten or twelve thousand years, until the winter solstice reaches the perihelion. By this time the conditions of the two hemispheres have been reversed; the formerly glaciated hemisphere has now become the warm one, and the warm hemisphere the glaciated. The transference of the ice from the one hemisphere to the other continues as long as the eccentricity remains at a high value. This will, perhaps, be better understood from an inspection of the frontispiece.
The Mean Temperature of the whole Earth should be greater in Aphelion than in Perihelion.—When the eccentricity becomes reduced to about its present value, its influence on climate is but little felt. It is, however, probable that the present extension of ice on the southern hemisphere may, to a considerable extent, be the result of eccentricity. The difference in the climatic conditions of the two hemispheres is just what should be according to theory:—(1) The mean temperature of that hemisphere is less than that of the northern. (2) The winters of the southern hemisphere are colder than those of the northern. (3) The summers, though occurring in perihelion, are also comparatively cold; this, as we have seen, is what ought to be according to theory. (4) The mean temperature of the whole earth is greater in June, when the earth is in aphelion, than in December, when it is in perihelion. This, I venture to affirm, is also what ought to follow according to theory, although this very fact has been adduced as a proof that eccentricity has at present but little effect on the climatic condition of our globe.
That the mean temperature of the whole earth would, during the glacial epoch, be greater when the earth was in aphelion than when in perihelion will, I think, be apparent from the following considerations:—When the earth was in the perihelion, the sun would be over the hemisphere nearly covered with snow and ice. The great strength of the sun’s rays would in this case have little effect in raising the temperature; it would be spent in melting the snow and ice. But when the earth was in the aphelion, the sun would be over the hemisphere comparatively free, or perhaps wholly free, from snow and ice. Consequently, though the intensity of the sun’s rays would be less than when the earth was in perihelion, still it ought to have produced a higher temperature, because it would be chiefly employed in heating the ground and not consumed in melting snow and ice.
Professor Tyndall on the Glacial Epoch.—“So natural,” says Professor Tyndall, “was the association of ice and cold, that even celebrated men assumed that all that is needed to produce a great extension of our glaciers is a diminution of the sun’s temperature. Had they gone through the foregoing reflections and calculations, they would probably have demanded more heat instead of less for the production of a glacial epoch. What they really needed were condensers sufficiently powerful to congeal the vapour generated by the heat of the sun.” (The Forms of Water, p. 154. See also, to the same effect, Heat Considered as a Mode of Motion, chap. vi.)
I do not know to whom Professor Tyndall here refers, but certainly his remarks have no application to the theory under consideration, for according to it, as we have just seen, the ice of the glacial epoch was about as much due to the nearness of the sun in perigee as to his great distance in apogee.
There is one theory, however, to which his remarks justly apply, viz., the theory that the great changes of climate during geological ages resulted from the passage of our globe through different temperatures of space. What Professor Tyndall says shows plainly that the glacial epoch was not brought about by our earth passing through a cold part of space. A general reduction of temperature over the whole globe certainly would not produce a glacial epoch. Suppose the sun were extinguished and our globe exposed to the temperature of stellar space (−239° F.), this would certainly freeze the ocean solid from its surface to its bottom, but it would not cover the land with ice.
Professor Tyndall’s conclusions are, of course, equally conclusive against Professor Balfour Stewart’s theory, that the glacial epoch may have resulted from a general diminution in the intensity of the sun’s heat.
Nevertheless it would be in direct opposition to the well-established facts of geology to assume that the ice periods of the glacial epoch were warm periods. We are as certain from palæontological evidence that the cold was then much greater than now, as we are from physical evidence that the accumulation of ice was greater than now. Our glacial shell-beds and remains of the mammoth, the reindeer, and musk-ox, tell of cold as truly as the markings on the rocks do of ice.
Objection from the Present Condition of the Planet Mars.—It has been urged as an objection by Professor Charles Martins[46] and others, that if a high state of eccentricity could produce a glacial epoch, the planet Mars ought to be at present under a glacial condition. The eccentricity of its orbit amounts to 0·09322, and one of its southern winter solstices is, according to Dr. Oudemans, of Batavia,[47] within 17° 41′ 8″ of aphelion. Consequently, it is supposed that one of the hemispheres should be in a glacial state and the other free from snow and ice. But it is believed that the snow accumulates around each pole during its winter and disappears to a great extent during its summer.
There would be force in this objection were it maintained that eccentricity alone can produce a glacial condition of climate, but such is not the case, and there is no good ground for concluding that those physical agencies which led to the glacial epoch of our globe exist in the planet Mars. It is perfectly certain that either water must be different in constitution in that planet from what it is in our earth, or else its atmospheric envelope must be totally different from ours. For it is evident from what has been stated in [Chapter II.], that were our globe to be removed to the distance of Mars from the sun, the lowering of the temperature resulting from the decrease in the sun’s heat would not only destroy every living thing, but would convert the ocean into solid ice.
But it must be observed that the eccentricity of Mars’ orbit is at present far from its superior limit of 0·14224, and it may so happen in the economy of nature that when it approaches to that limit a glacial condition of things may supervene.
The truth is, however, that very little seems to be known with certainty regarding the climatic condition of Mars. This is obvious from the fact that some astronomers believe that the planet possesses a dense atmosphere which protects it from cold; while others maintain that its atmosphere is so exceedingly thin that its mean temperature is below the freezing-point. Some assert that the climatic condition of Mars resembles very much that of our earth, while others affirm that its seas are actually frozen solid to the bottom, and the poles covered with ice thirty or forty miles in thickness. For reasons which will be explained in the Appendix, Mars, notwithstanding its greater distance from the sun, may enjoy a climate as warm as that of our earth.
CHAPTER V.
REASON WHY THE SOUTHERN HEMISPHERE IS COLDER THAN THE NORTHERN.
Adhémar’s Explanation.—Adhémar’s Theory founded upon a physical Mistake in regard to Radiation.—Professor J. D. Forbes on Underground Temperature.—Generally accepted Explanation.—Low Temperature of Southern Hemisphere attributed to Preponderance of Sea.—Heat transferred from Southern to Northern Hemisphere by Ocean-current the true Explanation.—A large Portion of the Heat of the Gulf-stream derived from the Southern Hemisphere.
Adhémar’s Explanation.—It has long been known that on the southern hemisphere the temperature is lower and the accumulation of ice greater than on the northern. This difference has usually been attributed to the great preponderance of sea on the southern hemisphere. M. Adhémar, on the other hand, attempts to explain this difference by referring it to the difference in the amount of heat lost by the two hemispheres in consequence of the difference of seven days in the length of their respective winters. As the northern winter is shorter than the summer, he concludes that there is an accumulation of heat on that hemisphere, while, on the other hand, the southern winter being longer than the summer, there is therefore a loss of heat on the southern hemisphere. “The south pole,” he says, “loses in one year more heat than it receives, because the total duration of its night surpasses that of its day by 168 hours; and the contrary takes place for the north pole. If, for example, we take for unity the mean quantity of heat which the sun sends off in one hour, the heat accumulated at the end of the year at the north pole will be expressed by 168, while the heat lost by the south pole will be equal to 168 times what the radiation lessens it by in one hour, so that at the end of the year the difference in the heat of the two hemispheres will be represented by 336 times what the earth receives from the sun or loses in an hour by radiation.”[48]
Adhémar supposes that about 10,000 years hence, when our northern winter will occur in aphelion and the southern in perihelion, the climatic conditions of the two hemispheres will be reversed; the ice will melt at the south pole, and the northern hemisphere will become enveloped in one continuous mass of ice, leagues in thickness, extending down to temperate regions.
This theory seems to be based upon an erroneous interpretation of a principle, first pointed out, so far as I am aware, by Humboldt in his memoir “On Isothermal Lines and Distribution of Heat over the Globe.”[49] This principle may be stated as follows:—
Although the total quantity of heat received by the earth from the sun in one revolution is inversely proportional to the minor axis of the orbit, yet this amount, as was proved by D’Alembert, is equally distributed between the two hemispheres, whatever the eccentricity may be. Whatever extra heat the southern hemisphere may at present receive from the sun daily during its summer months owing to greater proximity to the sun, is exactly compensated by a corresponding loss arising from the shortness of the season; and, on the other hand, whatever daily deficiency of heat we in the northern hemisphere may at present have during our summer half-year, in consequence of the earth’s distance from the sun, is also exactly compensated by a corresponding length of season.
But the surface temperature of our globe depends as much upon the amount of heat radiated into space as upon the amount derived from the sun, and it has been thought by some that this compensating principle holds true only in regard to the latter. In the case of the heat lost by radiation the reverse is supposed to take place. The southern hemisphere, it is asserted, has not only a colder winter than the northern in consequence of the sun’s greater distance, but it has also a longer winter; and the extra loss of heat from radiation during winter is not compensated by its nearness to the sun during summer, for it gains no additional heat from this proximity. And in the same way it is argued that as our winter in the northern hemisphere, owing to the less distance of the sun, is not only warmer than that of the southern hemisphere, but is also at the same time shorter, so our hemisphere is not cooled to such an extent as the southern. And thus the mean temperature of the winter half-year, as well as the intensity of the sun’s heat, is affected by a change in the sun’s distance.
Although I always regarded this cause of Humboldt’s to be utterly inadequate to produce such effects as those attributed to it by Adhémar, still, in my earlier papers[50] I stated it to be a vera causa which ought to produce some sensible effect on climate. But shortly afterwards on a more careful consideration of the whole subject, I was led to suspect that the circumstance in question can, according to theory, produce little or no effect on the climatic condition of our globe.
As there appears to be a considerable amount of misapprehension in reference to this point, which forms the basis of Adhémar’s theory, I may here give it a brief consideration.[51]
The rate at which the earth radiates into space the heat received from the sun depends upon the temperature of its surface; and the temperature of its surface (other things being equal) depends upon the rate at which the heat is received. The greater the rate at which the earth receives heat from the sun, the greater will therefore be the rate at which it will lose that heat by radiation. Now the total quantity of heat received during winter by the southern hemisphere is exactly equal to that received during winter by the northern. But as the southern winter is longer than the northern, the rate at which the heat is received, and consequently the rate of radiation, during that season must be less on the southern hemisphere than on the northern. Thus the southern hemisphere loses heat during a longer period than the northern, and therefore the less rate of radiation (were it not for a circumstance presently to be noticed) would wholly compensate for the longer period, and the total quantity of heat lost during winter would be the same on both hemispheres. The southern summer is shorter than the northern, but the heat is more intense, and the surface of the ground kept at a higher temperature; consequently the rate of radiation into space is greater.
When the rate at which a body receives heat is increased, the temperature of the body rises till the rate of radiation equals the rate of absorption, after which equilibrium is restored; and when the rate of absorption is diminished, the temperature falls till the rate of radiation equals that of absorption.
But notwithstanding all this, owing to the slow conductivity of the ground for heat, more heat will pass into it during the longer summer of aphelion than during the shorter one of perihelion; for the amount of heat which passes into the ground depends on the length of time during which the earth is receiving heat, as well as upon the amount received. In like manner, more heat will pass out of the ground during the longer winter in aphelion than during the shorter one in perihelion. Suppose the length of the days on the one hemisphere (say the northern) to be 23 hours, and the length of the nights, say one hour; while on the other hemisphere the days are one hour and the nights 23 hours. Suppose also that the quantity of heat received from the sun by the southern hemisphere during the day of one hour to be equal to that received by the northern hemisphere during the day of 23 hours. It is evident that although the surface of the ground on the southern hemisphere would receive as much heat from the sun during the short day of one hour as the surface of the northern hemisphere during the long day of 23 hours, yet, owing to the slow conductivity of the ground for heat, the amount absorbed would not be nearly so much on the southern hemisphere as on the northern. The temperature of the surface during the day, it is true, would be far higher on the southern hemisphere than on the northern, and consequently the rate at which the heat would pass into the ground would be greater on that hemisphere than on the northern; but, notwithstanding the greater rate of absorption resulting from the high temperature of the surface, it would not compensate for the shortness of the day. On the other hand, the surface of the ground on the southern hemisphere would be colder during the long night of 23 hours than it would be on the northern during the short night of only one hour; and the low temperature of the ground would tend to lessen the rate of radiation into space. But the decrease in the rate of radiation would not compensate fully for the great length of the night. The general and combined result of all those causes would be that a slight accumulation of heat would take place on the northern hemisphere and a slight loss on the southern. But this loss of heat on the one hemisphere and gain on the other would not go on accumulating at a uniform rate year by year, as Adhémar supposes.
Of course we are at present simply considering the earth as an absorber and radiator of heat, without taking into account the effects of distribution of sea and land and other modifying causes, and are assuming that everything is the same in both hemispheres, with the exception that the winter of the one hemisphere is longer than that of the other.
What, then, is the amount of heat stored up by the one hemisphere and lost by the other? Is it such an amount as to sensibly affect climate?
The experiments and observations which have been made on underground temperature afford us a means of making at least a rough estimate of the amount. And from these it will be seen that the influence of an excess of seven or eight days in the length of the southern winter over the northern could hardly produce an effect that would be sensible.
Observations were made at Edinburgh by Professor J. D. Forbes on three different substances; viz., sandstone, sand, and trap-rock. By calculation, we find from the data afforded by those observations that the total quantity of heat accumulated in the ground during the summer above the mean temperature was as follows:—In the sandstone-rock, a quantity sufficient to raise the temperature of the rock 1° C. to a depth of 85 feet 6 inches; in the sand a quantity sufficient to raise the temperature 1° C. to a depth of 72 feet 6 inches; and in the trap-rock a quantity only sufficient to raise the temperature 1° C. to a depth of 61 feet 6 inches.
Taking the specific heat of the sandstone per unit volume, as determined by Regnault, at ·4623, and that of sand at ·3006, and trap at ·5283, and reducing all the results to one standard, viz., that of water, we find that the quantity of heat stored up in the sandstone would, if applied to water, raise its temperature 1° C. to a depth of 39 feet 6 inches; that stored up in the sand would raise the temperature of the water 1° C. to a depth of 21 feet 8 inches, and that stored up in the trap would raise the water 1° C. to the depth of 32 feet 6 inches. We may take the mean of these three results as representing pretty accurately the quantity stored up in the general surface of the country. This would be equal to 31 feet 3 inches depth of water raised 1° C. The quantity of heat lost by radiation during winter below the mean was found to be about equal to that stored up during summer.
The total quantity of heat per square foot of surface received by the equator from sunrise till sunset at the time of the equinoxes, allowing 22 per cent. for the amount cut off in passing through the atmosphere, is 1,780,474 foot-pounds. In the latitude of Edinburgh about 938,460 foot-pounds per square foot of surface is received, assuming that not more than 22 per cent. is cut off by the atmosphere. At this rate a quantity of heat would be received from the sun in two days ten hours (say, three days) sufficient to raise the temperature of the water 1° C. to the required depth of 31 feet 3 inches. Consequently the total quantity of heat stored up during summer in the latitude of Edinburgh is only equal to what we receive from the sun during three days at the time of the equinoxes. Three days’ sunshine during the middle of March or September, if applied to raise the temperature of the ground, would restore all the heat lost during the entire winter; and another three days’ sunshine would confer on the ground as much heat as is stored up during the entire summer. But it must be observed that the total duration of sunshine in winter is to that of summer in the latitude of Edinburgh only about as 4 to 7. Here is a difference of two months. But this is not all; the quantity of heat received during winter is scarcely one-third of that received during summer; yet, notwithstanding this enormous difference between summer and winter, the ground during winter loses only about six days’ sun-heat below the maximum amount possessed by it in summer.
But if what has already been stated is correct, this loss of heat sustained by the earth during winter is not chiefly owing to radiation during the longer absence of the sun, but to the decrease in the quantity of heat received in consequence of his longer absence combined with the obliquity of his rays during that season. Now in the case of the two hemispheres, although the southern winter is longer than the northern, yet the quantity of heat received by each is the same. But supposing it held true, which it does not, that the loss of heat sustained by the earth in winter is as much owing to radiation resulting from the excess in the length of the winter nights over those of the summer as to the deficiency of heat received in winter from that received in summer, three days’ heat would then in this case be the amount lost by radiation in consequence of this excess in the length of the winter nights. The total length of the winter nights to those of the summer is, as we have seen, about as 7 to 4. This is a difference of nearly 1200 hours. But the excess of the south polar winter over the north amounts to only about 184 hours. Now if 1200 hours give a loss of three days’ sun-heat, 184 hours will give a loss of scarcely 5½ hours.
It is no doubt true that the two cases are not exactly analogous; but it is obvious that any error which can possibly arise from regarding them as such cannot materially alter the conclusion to which we have arrived. Supposing the effect were double, or even quadruple, what we have concluded it to be, still it would not amount to a loss of two days’ heat, which could certainly have little or no influence on climate.
But even assuming all the preceding reasoning to be incorrect, and that the southern hemisphere, in consequence of its longer winter, loses heat to the extravagant extent of 168 hours, supposed by Adhémar, still this could not materially affect climate. The climate is influenced by the mere temperature of the surface of the ground, and not by the quantity of heat or cold that may be stored up under the surface. The climate is determined, so far as the ground is concerned, by the temperature of the surface, and is wholly independent of the temperature which may exist under the surface. Underground temperature can only affect climate through the surface. If the surface could, for example, be kept covered with perpetual snow, we should have a cold and sterile climate, although the temperature of the ground under the snow was actually at the boiling-point. Let the ground to a depth of, say 40 or 50 feet, be deprived of an amount of heat equal to that received from the sun in 168 hours. This could produce little or no sensible effect on climate; for, owing to the slow conductivity of the ground for heat, this loss would not sensibly affect the temperature of the surface, as it would take several months for the sun’s heat to penetrate to that depth and restore the lost heat. The cold, if I may be allowed to use the expression, would come so slowly out to the surface that its effect in lowering the temperature of the surface would scarcely be sensible. And, again, if we suppose the 168 hours’ heat to be lost by the mere surface of the ground, the effect would certainly be sensible, but it would only be so for a few days. We might in this case have a week’s frozen soil, but that would be all. Before the air had time to become very sensibly affected by the low temperature of the surface the frozen soil would be thawed.
The storing up of heat or cold in the ground has in reality very little to do with climate. Some physicists explain, for example, why the month of July is warmer than June by referring it to the fact that by the month of July the ground has become possessed of a larger accumulation of heat than it possessed in June. This explanation is evidently erroneous. The ground in July certainly possesses a greater store of heat than it did in June; but this is not the reason why the former month is hotter than the latter. July is hotter than June because the air (not the ground) has become possessed of a larger store of heat than it had in June. Now the air is warmer in July than in June because, receiving little increase of temperature from the direct rays of the sun, it is heated chiefly by radiation from the earth and by contact with its warm surface. Consequently, although the sun’s heat is greater in June than it is in July, it is near the middle of July before the air becomes possessed of its maximum store of heat. We therefore say that July is hotter than June because the air is hotter, and consequently the temperature in the shade is greater in the former month than in the latter.
It is therefore, I presume, quite apparent that Adhémar’s theory fails to explain why the southern hemisphere is colder than the northern.
The generally accepted Explanation.—The difference in the mean temperature of the two hemispheres is usually attributed to the proportion of sea to land in the southern hemisphere and of land to sea in the northern hemisphere. This, no doubt, will account for the greater annual range of temperature on the northern hemisphere, but it seems to me that it will not account for the excess of mean temperature possessed by that hemisphere over the southern.
The general influence of land on climate is to exaggerate the variation of temperature due to the seasons. On continents the summers are hotter and the winters colder than on the ocean. The days are also hotter and the nights colder on land than on sea. This is a result which follows from the mere physical properties of land and water, independently of currents, whether of ocean or of air. But it nevertheless follows, according to theory (and this is a point which has been overlooked), that the mean annual temperature of the ocean ought to be greater than that of the land in equatorial regions as well as in temperate and polar regions. This will appear obvious for the following reasons:—(1) The ground stores up heat only by the slow process of conduction, whereas water, by the mobility of its particles and its transparency for heat-rays, especially those from the sun, becomes heated to a considerable depth rapidly. The quantity of heat stored up in the ground is thus comparatively small, while the quantity stored up in the ocean is great. (2) The air is probably heated more rapidly by contact with the ground than with the ocean; but, on the other hand, it is heated far more rapidly by radiation from the ocean than from the land. The aqueous vapour of the air is to a great extent diathermanous to radiation from the ground, while it absorbs the rays from water and thus becomes heated. (3) The air radiates back a considerable portion of its heat, and the ocean absorbs this radiation from the air more readily than the ground does. The ocean will not reflect the heat from the aqueous vapour of the air, but absorbs it, while the ground does the opposite. Radiation from the air, therefore, tends more readily to heat the ocean than it does the land. (4) The aqueous vapour of the air acts as a screen to prevent the loss by radiation from water, while it allows radiation from the ground to pass more freely into space; the atmosphere over the ocean consequently throws back a greater amount of heat than is thrown back by the atmosphere over the land. The sea in this case has a much greater difficulty than the land has in getting quit of the heat received from the sun; in other words, the land tends to lose its heat more rapidly than the sea. The consequence of all these circumstances is that the ocean must stand at a higher mean temperature than the land. A state of equilibrium is never gained until the rate at which a body is receiving heat is equal to the rate at which it is losing it; but as equal surfaces of sea and land receive from the sun the same amount of heat, it therefore follows that, in order that the sea may get quit of its heat as rapidly as the land, it must stand at a higher temperature than the land. The temperature of the sea must continue to rise till the amount of heat thrown off into space equals that received from the sun; when this point is reached, equilibrium is established and the temperature remains stationary. But, owing to the greater difficulty that the sea has in getting rid of its heat, the mean temperature of equilibrium of the ocean must be higher than that of the land; consequently the mean temperature of the ocean, and also of the air immediately over it, in tropical regions should be higher than the mean temperature of the land and the air over it.
The greater portion of the southern hemisphere, however, is occupied by water, and why then, it may be asked, is this water hemisphere colder than the land hemisphere? Ought it not also to follow that the sea in inter-tropical regions should be warmer than the land under the same parallels; yet, as we know, the reverse is actually found to be the case. How then is all this to be explained, if the foregoing reasoning be correct? We find when we examine Professor Dove’s charts of mean annual temperature, that the ocean in inter-tropical regions has a mean annual temperature below the normal, and the land a mean annual temperature above the normal. Both in the Pacific and in the Atlantic the mean temperature sinks to 2°·3 below the normal, while on the land it rises 4°·6 above the normal. The explanation in this case is obviously this: the temperature of the ocean in inter-tropical regions, as we have already seen, is kept much lower than it would otherwise be by the enormous amount of heat that is being constantly carried away from those regions into temperate and polar regions, and of cold that is being constantly carried from temperate and polar regions to the tropical regions by means of ocean-currents. The same principle which explains why the sea in inter-tropical regions has a lower mean annual temperature than the land, explains also why the southern hemisphere has a lower mean annual temperature than the northern. The temperature of the southern hemisphere is lowered by the transference of heat by means of ocean-currents.
Heat transferred from the Southern to the Northern Hemisphere by Ocean-currents the true Explanation.—The great ocean-currents of the globe take their rise in three immense streams from the Southern Ocean, which, on reaching the tropical regions, become deflected in a westerly direction and flow along the southern side of the equator for thousands of miles. Perhaps more than one half of this mass of moving water returns into the Southern Ocean without ever crossing the equator, but the quantity which crosses over to the northern hemisphere is enormous. This constant flow of water from the southern hemisphere to the northern in the form of surface currents must be compensated by under currents of equal magnitude from the northern hemisphere to the southern. The currents, however, which cross the equator are far higher in temperature than their compensating under currents; consequently there is a constant transference of heat from the southern hemisphere to the northern. Any currents taking their rise in the northern hemisphere and flowing across into the southern are comparatively trifling, and the amount of heat transferred by them is also trifling. There are one or two currents of considerable size, such as the Brazilian branch of the great equatorial current of the Atlantic, and a part of the South Equatorial Drift-current of the Pacific, which cross the equator from north to south; but these cannot be regarded as northern currents; they are simply southern currents deflected back after crossing over to the northern hemisphere. The heat which these currents possess is chiefly obtained on the southern hemisphere before crossing over to the northern; and although the northern hemisphere may not gain much heat by means of them, it, on the other hand, does not lose much, for the heat which they give out in their progress along the southern hemisphere does not belong to the northern hemisphere.
But, after making the fullest allowance for the amount of heat carried across the equator from the northern hemisphere to the southern, we shall find, if we compare the mean temperature of the currents from south to north with that of the great compensating under currents and the one or two small surface currents, that the former is very much higher than the latter. The mean temperature of the water crossing the equator from south to north is probably not under 65°, that of the under currents is probably not over 39°. But to the under currents we must add the surface currents from north to south; and assuming that this will raise the mean temperature of the entire mass of water flowing south to, say, 45°, we have still a difference of 20° between the temperature of the masses flowing north and south. Each cubic foot of water which crosses the equator will in this case transfer about 965,000 foot-pounds of heat from the southern hemisphere to the northern. If we had any means of ascertaining the volume of those great currents crossing the equator, we should then be able to make a rough estimate of the total amount of heat transferred from the southern hemisphere to the northern; but as yet no accurate estimate has been made on this point. Let us assume, what is probably below the truth, that the total amount of water crossing the equator is at least double that of the Gulf-stream as it passes through the Straits of Florida, which amount we have already found to be equal to 66,908,160,000,000 cubic feet daily. Taking the quantity of heat conveyed by each cubic foot of water of the Gulf-stream as 1,158,000 foot-pounds, it is found, as we have seen, that an amount of heat is conveyed by this current equal to all the heat that falls within 32 miles on each side of the equator. Then, if each cubic foot of water crossing the equator transfers 965,000 foot-pounds, and the quantity of water be double that of the Gulf-stream, it follows that the amount of heat transferred from the southern hemisphere to the northern is equal to all the heat falling within 52 miles on each side of the equator, or equal to all the heat falling on the southern hemisphere within 104 miles of the equator. This quantity taken from the southern hemisphere and added to the northern will therefore make a difference in the amount of heat possessed by the two hemispheres equal to all the heat which falls on the southern hemisphere within somewhat more than 208 miles of the equator.
A large Portion of the Heat of the Gulf-stream derived from the Southern Hemisphere.—It can be proved that a very large portion of the heat conveyed by the Gulf-stream comes from the southern hemisphere. The proof is as follows:—
If all the heat came from the northern hemisphere, it could only come from that portion of the Atlantic, Caribbean Sea, and Gulf of Mexico which lies to the north of the equator. The entire area of these seas, extending to the Tropic of Cancer, is about 7,700,000 square miles. But this area is not sufficient to supply the current passing through the “Narrows” with the necessary heat. Were the heat which passes through the Straits of Florida derived exclusively from this area, the following table would then represent the relative quantity per unit surface possessed by the Atlantic in the three zones, assuming that one half of the heat of the Gulf-stream passes into the arctic regions and the other half remains to warm the temperate regions[52]:—
| From the equator to the Tropic of Cancer | 773 |
| From the Tropic of Cancer to the Arctic Circle | 848 |
| From the Arctic Circle to the North Pole | 610 |
These figures show that the Atlantic, from the equator to the Tropic of Cancer, would be as cold as from the Tropic of Cancer to the North Pole, were it not that a large proportion of the heat possessed by the Gulf-stream is derived from the southern hemisphere.
CHAPTER VI.
EXAMINATION OF THE GRAVITATION THEORY OF OCEANIC CIRCULATION.—LIEUT. MAURY’S THEORY.
Introduction.—Ocean-currents, according to Maury, due to Difference of Specific Gravity.—Difference of Specific Gravity resulting from Difference of Temperature.—Difference of Specific Gravity resulting from Difference of Saltness.—Maury’s two Causes neutralize each other.—How, according to him, Difference in Saltness acts as a Cause.
Introduction.—Few subjects have excited more interest and attention than the cause of ocean circulation; and yet few are in a more imperfect and unsatisfactory condition, nor is there any question regarding which a greater diversity of opinion has prevailed. Our incomplete acquaintance with the facts relating to the currents of the ocean and the modes of circulation actually in operation, is no doubt one reason for this state of things. But doubtless the principal cause of such diversity of opinion lies in the fact that the question is one which properly belongs to the domain of physics and mechanics, while as yet no physicist of note (if we except Dr. Colding, of Copenhagen) has given, as far as I know, any special attention to the subject. It is true that in works of meteorology and physical geography reference is continually made to such eminent physicists as Herschel, Pouillet, Buff, and others; but when we turn to the writings of these authors we find merely a few remarks expressive of their opinions on the subject, and no special discussion or investigation of the matter, nor anything which could warrant us in concluding that such investigations have ever been made. At present the question cannot be decided by a reference to authorities.
The various theories on the subject may be classed under two divisions; the first of these attributes the motion of the water to the impulse of the wind, and the second to the force of gravity resulting from difference of density. But even amongst those who adopt the former theory, it is generally held that the winds are not the sole cause, but that, to a certain extent at least, difference of specific gravity contributes to produce motion of the waters. This is a very natural conclusion; and in the present state of physical geography on this subject one can hardly be expected to hold any other view.
The supporters of the latter theory may be subdivided into two classes. The first of these (of which Maury may be regarded as the representative) attributes the Gulf-stream, and other sensible currents of the ocean, to difference of specific gravity. The other class (at present the more popular of the two, and of which Dr. Carpenter may be considered the representative) denies altogether that such currents can be produced by difference of specific gravity,[53] and affirms that there is a general movement of the upper portion of the ocean from the equator to the poles, and a counter-movement of the under portion from the poles to the equator. This movement is attributed to difference of specific gravity between equatorial and polar water, resulting from difference of temperature.
The widespread popularity of the gravitation theory is no doubt, to a great extent, owing to the very great prominence given to it by Lieut. Maury in his interesting and popular work, “The Physical Geography of the Sea.” Another cause which must have favoured the reception of this theory is the ease with which it is perceived how, according to it, circulation of the waters of the ocean is supposed to follow. One has no difficulty, for example, in perceiving that if the inter-tropical waters of the ocean are expanded by heat, and the waters around the poles contracted by cold, the surface of the ocean will stand at a higher level at the equator than at the poles. Equilibrium being thus disturbed, the water at the equator will tend to flow towards the poles as a surface current, and the water at the poles towards the equator as an under current. This, at first sight, looks well, especially to those who take but a superficial view of the matter.
We shall examine this theory at some length, for two reasons: 1, because it lies at the root of a great deal of the confusion and misconception which have prevailed in regard to the whole subject of ocean-currents: 2, because, if the theory is correct, it militates strongly against the physical theory of secular changes of climate advanced in this volume. We have already seen ([Chapter IV.]) that when the eccentricity of the earth’s orbit reaches a high value, a combination of physical circumstances tends to lower the temperature of the hemisphere which has its winter solstice in aphelion, and to raise the temperature of the opposite hemisphere, whose winter solstice will, of course, be in perihelion. The direct result of this state of things, as was shown, is to strengthen the force of the trade-winds on the cold hemisphere, and to weaken their strength on the warm hemisphere: and this, in turn, we also saw, tends to impel the warm water of the inter-tropical region on to the warm hemisphere, and to prevent it, in a very large degree, from passing into the cold hemisphere. This deflection of the ocean-currents tends to an enormous extent to increase the difference of temperature previously existing between the two hemispheres. In other words, the warm and equable condition of the one hemisphere, and the cold and glacial condition of the other, are, to a great extent, due to this deflection of ocean-currents. But if the theory be correct which attributes the motion of ocean-currents to a difference in density between the sea in inter-tropical and polar regions, then it follows that these currents (other things being equal) ought to be stronger on the cold hemisphere than on the warm, because there is a greater difference of temperature and, consequently, a greater difference of density, between the polar seas of the cold hemisphere and the equatorial seas, than between the polar seas of the warm hemisphere and the equatorial seas. And this being the case, notwithstanding the influence of the trade-winds of the cold hemisphere blowing over upon the warm, the currents will, in all probability, be stronger on the cold hemisphere than on the warm. In other words, the influence of the powerful trade-winds of the cold hemisphere to transfer the warm water of the equator to the warm hemisphere will probably be more than counterbalanced by the tendency of the warm and buoyant waters of the equator to flow towards the dense and cold waters around the pole of the cold hemisphere. But if ocean-currents are due not to difference in specific gravity, but to the influence of the winds, then it is evident that the waters at the equator will be impelled, not into the cold hemisphere, but into the warm.
For this reason I have been the more anxious to prove that inter-tropical heat is conveyed to temperate and polar regions by ocean-currents, and not by means of any general movement of the ocean resulting from difference of gravity. I shall therefore on this account enter more fully into this part of the subject than I otherwise would have done. Irrespective of all this, however, the important nature of the whole question, and the very general interest it excites, warrant a full consideration of the subject.
I shall consider first that form of the gravitation theory advocated by Maury in his work on the “Physical Geography of the Sea,” which attributes the motion of the Gulf-stream and other sensible currents of the ocean to differences of specific gravity. One reason which has induced me to select Maury’s work is, that it not only contains a much fuller discussion on the cause of the motion of ocean-currents than is to be found anywhere else, but also that it has probably passed through a greater number of editions than any other book of a scientific character in the English language in the same length of time.
Examination of Lieut. Maury’s Gravitation Theory.—Although Lieut. Maury has expounded his views on the cause of ocean-currents at great length in the various editions of his work, yet it is somewhat difficult to discover what they really are. This arises chiefly from the generally confused and sometimes contradictory nature of his hydrodynamical conceptions. After a repeated perusal of several editions of his book, the following, I trust, will be found to be a pretty accurate representation of his theory:—
Ocean-currents, according to Maury, due to Difference of Specific Gravity.—Although Maury alludes to a number of causes which, he thinks, tend to produce currents, yet he deems their influence so small that, practically, all currents may be referred to difference of specific gravity.
“If we except,” he says, “the tides, and the partial currents of the sea, such as those that may be created by the wind, we may lay it down as a rule that all the currents of the ocean owe their origin to the differences of specific gravity between sea-water at one place and sea-water at another; for wherever there is such a difference, whether it be owing to difference of temperature or to difference of saltness, &c., it is a difference that disturbs equilibrium, and currents are the consequence” (§ 467)[54]. To the same effect see §§ 896, 37, 512, 520, and 537.
Notwithstanding the fact that he is continually referring to difference of specific gravity as the great cause of currents, it is difficult to understand in what way he conceives this difference to act as a cause.
Difference of specific gravity between the waters of the ocean at one place and another can give rise to currents only through the influence of the earth’s gravity. All currents resulting from difference of specific gravity can be ultimately resolved into the general principle that the molecules that are specifically heavier descend and displace those that are specifically lighter. If, for example, the ocean at the equator be expanded by heat or by any other cause, it will be forced by the denser waters in temperate and polar regions to rise so that its surface shall stand at a higher level than the surface of the ocean in these regions. The surface of the ocean will become an inclined plane, sloping from the equator to the poles. Hydro-statically, the ocean, considered as a mass, will then be in a state of equilibrium; but the individual molecules will not be in equilibrium. The molecules at the surface in this case may be regarded as lying on an inclined plane sloping from the equator down to the poles, and as these molecules are at liberty to move they will not remain at rest, but will descend the incline towards the poles. When the waters at the equator are expanded, or the waters at the poles contracted, gravitation makes, as it were, a twofold effort to restore equilibrium. It in the first place sinks the waters at the poles, and raises the waters at the equator, in order that the two masses may balance each other; but this very effort of gravitation to restore equilibrium to the mass destroys the equilibrium of the molecules by disturbing the level of the ocean. It then, in the second place, endeavours to restore equilibrium to the molecules by pulling the lighter surface water at the equator down the incline towards the poles. This tends not only to restore the level of the ocean, but to bring the lighter water to occupy the surface and the denser water the bottom of the ocean; and when this is done, complete equilibrium is restored, both to the mass of the ocean and to its individual molecules, and all further motion ceases. But if heat be constantly applied to the waters of the equatorial regions, and cold to those of the polar regions, and a permanent disturbance of equilibrium maintained, then the continual effort of gravitation to restore equilibrium will give rise to a constant current. In this case, the heat and the cold (the agents which disturb the equilibrium of the ocean) may be regarded as causes of the current, inasmuch as without them the current would not exist; but the real efficient cause, that which impels the water forward, is the force of gravity. But the force of gravity, as has already been noticed, cannot produce motion (perform work) unless the thing acted upon descend. Descent is implied in the very conception of a current produced by difference of specific gravity.
But Maury speaks as if difference of specific gravity could give rise to a current without any descent.
“It is not necessary,” he says, “to associate with oceanic currents the idea that they must of necessity, as on land, run from a higher to a lower level. So far from this being the case, some currents of the sea actually run up hill, while others run on a level. The Gulf-stream is of the first class” (§ 403). “The top of the Gulf-stream runs on a level with the ocean; therefore we know it is not a descending current” (§ 18). And in § 9 he says that between the Straits of Florida and Cape Hatteras the waters of the Gulf-stream “are actually forced up an inclined plane, whose submarine ascent is not less than 10 inches to the mile.” To the same effect see §§ 25, 59.
It is perfectly true that “it is not necessary to associate with ocean-currents the idea that they must of necessity, as on land, run from a higher to a lower level.” But the reason of this is that ocean-currents do not, like the currents on land, owe their motion to the force of gravitation. If ocean-currents result from difference of specific gravity between the waters in tropical and polar regions, as Maury maintains, then it is necessary to assume that they are descending currents. Whatever be the cause which may give rise to a difference of specific gravity, the motion which results from this difference is due wholly to the force of gravity; but gravity can produce no motion unless the water descend.
This fact must be particularly borne in mind while we are considering Maury’s theory that currents are the result of difference of specific gravity.
Ocean-currents, then, according to that writer, owe their existence to the difference of specific gravity between the waters of inter-tropical and polar regions. This difference of specific gravity he attributes to two causes—(1) to difference as to temperature, (2) to difference as to saltness. There are one or two causes of a minor nature affecting the specific gravity of the sea, to which he alludes; but these two determine the general result. Let us begin with the consideration of the first of these two causes, viz.:—
Difference of Specific Gravity resulting from Difference of Temperature.—Maury explains his views on this point by means of an illustration. “Let us now suppose,” he says, “that all the water within the tropics, to the depth of one hundred fathoms, suddenly becomes oil. The aqueous equilibrium of the planet would thereby be disturbed, and a general system of currents and counter currents would be immediately commenced—the oil, in an unbroken sheet on the surface, running toward the poles, and the water, in an under current, toward the equator. The oil is supposed, as it reaches the polar basin, to be reconverted into water, and the water to become oil as it crosses Cancer and Capricorn, rising to the surface in inter-tropical regions, and returning as before” (§ 20). “Now,” he says (§ 22), “do not the cold waters of the north, and the warm waters of the Gulf, made specifically lighter by tropical heat, and which we see actually preserving such a system of counter currents, hold, at least in some degree, the relation of the supposed water and oil?”
In § 24 he calculates that at the Narrows of Bemini the difference in weight between the volume of the Gulf-water that crosses a section of the stream in one second, and an equal volume of water at the ocean temperature of the latitude, supposing the two volumes to be equally salt, is fifteen millions of pounds. Consequently the force per second operating to propel the waters of the Gulf towards the pole would in this case, he concludes, be the “equilibrating tendency due to fifteen millions of pounds of water in the latitude of Bemini.” In §§ 511 and 512 he states that the effect of expanding the waters at the torrid zone by heat, and of contracting the waters at the frigid zone by cold, is to produce a set of surface-currents of warm and light water from the equator towards the poles, and another set of under currents of cooler and heavy water from the poles towards the equator. (See also to the same effect §§ 513, 514, 896.)
There can be no doubt that his conclusion is that the waters in inter-tropical regions are expanded by heat, while those in polar regions are contracted by cold, and that this tends to produce a surface current from the equator to the poles, and an under current from the poles to the equator.
“We shall now consider his second great cause of ocean currents, viz.:—
Difference of Specific Gravity resulting from Difference in Degree of Saltness.—Maury maintains, and that correctly, that saltness increases the density of water—that, other things being equal, the saltest water is the densest. He suggests “that one of the purposes which, in the grand design, it was probably intended to accomplish by having the sea salt and not fresh, was to impart to its waters the forces and powers necessary to make their circulation complete” (§ 495).
Now it is perfectly obvious that if difference in saltness is to co-operate with difference in temperature in the production of ocean-currents, the saltest waters, and consequently the densest, must be in the polar regions, and the waters least salt, and consequently lightest, must be in equatorial and inter-tropical regions. Were the saltest waters at the equator, and the freshest at the poles, it would tend to neutralize the effect due to heat, and, instead of producing a current, would simply tend to prevent the existence of the currents which otherwise would result from difference of temperature.
A very considerable portion of his work, however, is devoted to proving that the waters of equatorial and inter-tropical regions are salter and heavier than those of the polar regions; and yet, notwithstanding this, he endeavours to show that this difference in respect to saltness between the waters of the equatorial and the polar regions is one of the chief causes, if not the chief cause, of ocean-currents. In fact, it is for this special end that so much labour is bestowed in proving that the saltest water is in the equatorial and inter-tropical regions, and the freshest in the polar.
“In the present state of our knowledge,” he says, “concerning this wonderful phenomenon (for the Gulf-stream is one of the most marvellous things in the ocean) we can do little more than conjecture. But we have two causes in operation which we may safely assume are among those concerned in producing the Gulf-stream. One of these is the increased saltness of its water after the trade-winds have been supplied with vapour from it, be it much or little; and the other is the diminished quantum of salt which the Baltic and the Northern Seas contain” (§ 37). “Now here we have, on one side, the Caribbean Sea and Gulf of Mexico, with their waters of brine; on the other, the great Polar Basin, the Baltic, and the North Sea, the two latter with waters that are but little more than brackish. In one set of these sea-basins the water is heavy, in the other it is light. Between them the ocean intervenes; but water is bound to seek and to maintain its level; and here, therefore, we unmask one of the agents concerned in causing the Gulf-stream” (§ 38). To the same effect see §§ 52, 522, 523, 524, 525, 526, 528, 530, 554, 556.
Lieut. Maury’s two causes neutralize each other. Here we have two theories put forth regarding the cause of ocean-currents, the one in direct opposition to the other. According to the one theory, ocean-currents exist because the waters of equatorial regions, in consequence of their higher temperature, are less dense than the waters of the polar regions; but according to the other theory, ocean-currents exist because the waters of equatorial regions, in consequence of their greater saltness, are more dense than the waters of the polar regions. If the one cause be assigned as a reason why ocean-currents exist, then the other can be equally assigned as a reason why they should not exist. According to both theories it is the difference of density between the equatorial and polar waters that gives rise to currents; but while the one theory maintains that the equatorial waters are lighter than the polar, the other holds that they are heavier. Either the one theory or the other may be true, or neither; but it is logically impossible that both of them can. Let it be observed that it is not two currents, the one contrary to the other, with which we have at present to do; it is not temperature producing currents in one direction, and saltness producing currents in the contrary direction. We have two theories regarding the origin of currents, the one diametrically opposed to the other. The tendency of the one cause assigned is to prevent the action of the other. If temperature is allowed to act, it will make the inter-tropical waters lighter than the polar, and then, according to theory, a current will result. But if we bring saltness into play (the other cause) it will do the reverse: it will increase the density of the inter-tropical waters and diminish the density of the polar; and so far as it acts it will diminish the currents produced by temperature, because it will diminish the difference of specific gravity between the inter-tropical and polar regions which had been previously caused by temperature. And when the effects of saltness are as powerful as those of temperature, the difference of specific gravity produced by temperature will be completely effaced, or, in other words, the waters of the equatorial and polar seas will be of the same density, and consequently no current will exist. And so long as the two causes continue in action, no current can arise, unless the energy of the one cause should happen to exceed that of the other; and even then a current will only exist to the extent by which the strength of the one exceeds that of the other.
The contrary nature of the two theories will be better seen by considering the way in which it is supposed that difference in saltness is produced and acts as a cause.
If there is a constant current resulting from the difference in saltness between the equatorial and polar waters, then there must be a cause which maintains this difference. The current is simply the effort to restore the equilibrium lost by the difference; and the current would very soon do this, and then all motion would cease, were there not a constantly operating cause maintaining the disturbance. What, then, according to Maury, is the cause of this disturbance, or, in other words, what is it that keeps the equatorial waters salter than the polar?
The agencies in operation are stated by him to be heat, radiation, evaporation, precipitation, and secretion of solid matter in the form of shells, &c. The two most important, however, are evaporation and precipitation.
The trade-winds enter the equatorial regions as relatively dry winds thirsting for vapour; consequently they absorb far more moisture than they give out; and the result is that in inter-tropical regions, evaporation is much in excess of precipitation; and as fresh water only is taken up, the salt being left behind, the process, of course, tends to increase the saltness of the inter-tropical seas. Again, in polar and extra-tropical regions the reverse is the case; precipitation is in excess of evaporation. This tends in turn to diminish the saltness of the waters of those regions. (See on these points §§ 31, 33, 34, 37, 179, 517, 526, and 552.)
In the system of circulation produced by difference of temperature, as we have already seen, the surface-currents flow from the equator to the poles, and the under or return currents from the poles to the equator; but in the system produced by difference of saltness, the surface currents flow from the poles to the equator, and the return under currents from the equator to the poles. That the surface currents produced by difference of saltness flow from the poles to the equator, Maury thinks is evident for the two following reasons:—
(1) As evaporation is in excess of precipitation in inter-tropical regions, more water is taken off the surface of the ocean in those regions than falls upon it in the form of rain. This excess of water falls in the form of rain on temperate and polar regions, where, consequently, precipitation is in excess of evaporation. The lifting of the water off the equatorial regions and its deposit on the polar tend to lower the level of the ocean in equatorial regions and to raise the level in polar; consequently, in order to restore the level of the ocean, the surface water at the polar regions flows towards the equatorial regions.
(2) As the water taken up at the equator is fresh, and the salt is left behind, the ocean, in inter-tropical regions, is thus made saltier and consequently denser. This dense water, therefore, sinks and passes away as an under current. This water, evaporated from inter-tropical regions, falls as fresh and lighter water in temperate and polar regions; and therefore not only is the level of the ocean raised, but the waters are made lighter. Hence, in order to restore equilibrium, the waters in temperate and polar regions will flow as a surface current towards the equator. Under currents will flow from the equator to the poles, and surface or upper currents from the poles to the equator. Difference in temperature and difference in saltness, therefore, in every respect tend to produce opposite effects.
That the above is a fair representation of the way in which Maury supposes difference in saltness to act as a cause in the production of ocean-currents will appear from the following quotations:—
“In those regions, as in the trade-wind region, where evaporation is in excess of precipitation, the general level of this supposed sea would be altered, and immediately as much water as is carried off by evaporation would commence to flow in from north and south toward the trade-wind or evaporation region, to restore the level” (§ 509). “On the other hand, the winds have taken this vapour, borne it off to the extra-tropical regions, and precipitated it, we will suppose, where precipitation is in excess of evaporation. Here is another alteration of sea-level, by elevation instead of by depression; and hence we have the motive power for a surface current from each pole towards the equator, the object of which is only to supply the demand for evaporation in the trade-wind regions” (§ 510).
The above result would follow, supposing the ocean to be fresh. He then proceeds to consider an additional result that follows in consequence of the saltness of the ocean.
“Let evaporation now commence in the trade-wind region, as it was supposed to do in the case of the freshwater seas, and as it actually goes on in nature—and what takes place? Why a lowering of the sea-level as before. But as the vapour of salt water is fresh, or nearly so, fresh water only is taken up from the ocean; that which remains behind is therefore more salt. Thus, while the level is lowered in the salt sea, the equilibrium is destroyed because of the saltness of the water; for the water that remains after evaporation takes place is, on account of the solid matter held in solution, specifically heavier than it was before any portion of it was converted into vapour” (§ 517).
“The vapour is taken from the surface-water; the surface-water thereby becomes more salt, and, under certain conditions, heavier. When it becomes heavier, it sinks; and hence we have, due to the salts of the sea, a vertical circulation, namely, a descent of heavier—because salter and cooler—water from the surface, and an ascent of water that is lighter—because it is not so salt—from the depths below” (§ 518).
In section 519 he goes on to show that this vapour removed from the inter-tropical region is precipitated in the polar regions, where precipitation is in excess of evaporation. “In the precipitating regions, therefore, the level is destroyed, as before explained, by elevation, and in the evaporating regions by depression; which, as already stated, gives rise to a system of surface currents, moved by gravity alone, from the poles towards the equator” (§ 520).
“This fresh water being emptied into the Polar Sea and agitated by the winds, becomes mixed with the salt; but as the agitation of the sea by the winds is supposed to extend to no great depth, it is only the upper layer of salt water, and that to a moderate depth, which becomes mixed with the fresh. The specific gravity of this upper layer, therefore, is diminished just as much as the specific gravity of the sea-water in the evaporating regions was increased. And thus we have a surface current of saltish water from the poles towards the equator, and an under current of water salter and heavier from the equator to the poles” (§ 522).
“This property of saltness imparts to the waters of the ocean another peculiarity, by which the sea is still better adapted for the regulation of climates, and it is this: by evaporating fresh water from the salt in the tropics, the surface water becomes heavier than the average of sea-water. This heavy water is also warm water; it sinks, and being a good retainer, but a bad conductor, of heat, this water is employed in transporting through under currents heat for the mitigation of climates in far distant regions” (§ 526).
“For instance, let us suppose the waters in a certain part of the torrid zone to be 90°, but by reason of the fresh water which has been taken from them in a state of vapour, and consequently, by reason of the proportionate increase of salts, these waters are heavier than waters that may be cooler, but not so salt. This being the case, the tendency would be for this warm but salt and heavy water to flow off as an under current towards the polar or some other regions of lighter water” (§ 554).
That Maury supposes the warm water at the equator to flow to the polar regions as an under current is further evident from the fact that he maintains that the climate of the arctic regions is mitigated by a warm under current, which comes from the equatorial regions, and passes up through Davis Straits (see §§ 534−544).
The question now suggests itself: to which of these two antagonistic causes does Maury really suppose ocean-currents must be referred? Whether does he suppose, difference in temperature or difference in saltness, to be the real cause? I have been unable to find anything from which we can reasonably conclude that he prefers the one cause to the other. It would seem that he regards both as real causes, and that he has failed to perceive that the one is destructive of the other. But it is difficult to conceive how he could believe that the sea in equatorial regions, by virtue of its higher temperature, is lighter than the sea in polar regions, while at the same time it is not lighter but heavier, in consequence of its greater saltness—how he could believe that the warm water at the equator flows to the poles as an upper current, and the cold water at the poles to the equator as an under current, while at the same time the warm water at the equator does not flow to the poles as a surface current, nor the cold water at the poles to the equator as an under current, but the reverse. And yet, unless these absolute impossibilities be possible, how can an ocean-current be the result of both causes?
The only explanation of the matter appears to be that Maury has failed to perceive the contradictory nature of his two theories. This fact is particularly seen when he comes to apply his two theories to the case of the Gulf-stream. He maintains, as has already been stated, that the waters of the Gulf-stream are salter than the waters of the sea through which they flow (see §§ 3, 28, 29, 30, 34, and several other places). And he states, as we have already seen (see p. 104), that the existence of the Gulf-stream is due principally to the difference of density of the water of the Caribbean Sea and the Gulf of Mexico as compared with that of the great Polar Basin and the North Sea. There can be no doubt whatever that it is the density of the waters of the Gulf-stream at its fountain-head, the Gulf of Mexico, resulting from its superior saltness, and the deficiency of density of the waters in polar regions and the North Sea, &c., that is here considered to be unmasked as one of the agents. If this be a cause of the motion of the Gulf-stream, how then can the difference of temperature between the waters of inter-tropical and polar regions assist as a cause? This difference of temperature will simply tend to undo all that has been done by difference of saltness: for it will tend to make the waters of the Gulf of Mexico lighter, and the waters of the polar regions heavier. But Maury maintains, as we have seen, that this difference of temperature is also a cause, which shows that he does not perceive the contradiction.
This is still further apparent. He holds, as stated, that “the waters of the Gulf-stream are salter than the waters of the sea through which they flow,” and that this excess in saltness, by making the water heavier, is a cause of the motion of the stream. But he maintains that, notwithstanding the effect which greater saltness has in increasing the density of the waters of the Gulf-stream, yet, owing to their higher temperature, they are actually lighter than the water through which they flow; and as a proof that this is the case, he adduces the fact that the surface of the Gulf-stream is roof-shaped (§§ 39−41), which it could not be were its waters not actually lighter than the waters through which the stream flows. So it turns out that, in contradiction to what he had already stated, it is the lesser density of the waters of the Gulf-stream that is the real cause of their motion. The greater saltness of the waters, to which he attributes so much, can in no way be regarded as a cause of motion. Its effect, so far as it goes, is to stop the motion of the stream rather than to assist it.
But, again, although he asserts that difference of saltness and difference of temperature are both causes of ocean-currents, yet he appears actually to admit that temperature and saltness neutralize each other so as to prevent change in the specific gravity of the ocean, as will be seen from the following quotation:—
“It is the trade-winds, then, which prevent the thermal and specific gravity curves from conforming with each other in inter-tropical seas. The water they suck up is fresh water; and the salt it contained, being left behind, is just sufficient to counterbalance, by its weight, the effect of thermal dilatation upon the specific gravity of sea-water between the parallels of 34° north and south. As we go from 34° to the equator, the water grows warmer and expands. It would become lighter; but the trade-winds, by taking up vapour without salt, make the water salter, and therefore heavier. The conclusion is, the proportion of salt in sea-water, its expansibility between 62° and 82°, and the thirst of the trade-winds for vapour are, where they blow, so balanced as to produce perfect compensation; and a more beautiful compensation cannot, it appears to me, be found in the mechanism of the universe than that which we have here stumbled upon. It is a triple adjustment; the power of the sun to expand, the power of the winds to evaporate, and the quantity of salts in the sea—these are so proportioned and adjusted that when both the wind and the sun have each played with its forces upon the inter-tropical waters of the ocean, the residuum of heat and of salt should be just such as to balance each other in their effects; and so the aqueous equilibrium of the torrid zone is preserved” (§ 436, eleventh edition).
“Between 35° or 40° and the equator evaporation is in excess of precipitation; and though, as we approach the equator on either side from these parallels, the solar ray warms and expands the surface-water of the sea, the winds, by the vapour they carry off, and the salt they leave behind, prevent it from making that water lighter” (§ 437, eleventh edition).
“Philosophers have admired the relations between the size of the earth, the force of gravity, and the strength of fibre in the flower-stalks of plants; but how much more exquisite is the system of counterpoises and adjustments here presented between the sea and its salts, the winds and the heat of the sun!” (§ 438, eleventh edition).
How can this be reconciled with all that precedes regarding ocean-currents being the result of difference of specific gravity caused by a difference of temperature and difference of saltness? Here is a distinct recognition of the fact that difference in saltness, instead of producing currents, tends rather to prevent the existence of currents, by counteracting the effects of difference in temperature. And so effectually does it do this, that for 40°, or nearly 3,000 miles, on each side of the equator there is absolutely no difference in the specific gravity of the ocean, and consequently nothing, either as regards difference of temperature or difference of saltness, that can possibly give rise to a current.
But it is evident that, if between the equator and latitude 40° the two effects completely neutralize each other, it is not at all likely that between latitude 40° and the poles they will not to a large extent do the same thing. And if so, how can ocean-currents be due either to difference in temperature or to difference in saltness, far less to both. If there be any difference of specific gravity of the ocean between latitude 40° and the poles, it must be only to the extent by which the one cause has failed to neutralize the other. If, for example, the waters in latitude 40°, by virtue of higher temperature, are less dense than the waters in the polar regions, they can be so only to the extent that difference in saltness has failed to neutralize the effect of difference in temperature. And if currents result, they can do so only to the extent that difference in saltness has thus fallen short of being able to produce complete compensation. Maury, after stating his views on compensation, seems to become aware of this; but, strangely, he does not appear to perceive, or, at least, he does not make any allusion to the fact, that all this is fatal to his theories about ocean-currents being the combined result of differences of temperature and of saltness. For, in opposition to all that he had previously advanced regarding the difficulty of finding a cause sufficiently powerful to account for such currents as the Gulf-stream, and the great importance that difference in saltness had in their production, he now begins to maintain that so great is the influence of difference in temperature that difference in saltness, and a number of other compensating causes are actually necessary to prevent the ocean-currents from becoming too powerful.
“If all the inter-tropical heat of the sun,” he says, “were to pass into the seas upon which it falls, simply raising the temperature of their waters, it would create a thermo-dynamical force in the ocean capable of transporting water scalding hot from the torrid zone, and spreading it while still in the tepid state around the poles.... Now, suppose there were no trade-winds to evaporate and to counteract the dynamical force of the sun, this hot and light water, by becoming hotter and lighter, would flow off in currents with almost mill-tail velocity towards the poles, covering the intervening sea with a mantle of warmth as a garment. The cool and heavy water of the polar basin, coming out as under currents, would flow equatorially with equal velocity.”
“Thus two antagonistic forces are unmasked, and, being unmasked, we discover in them a most exquisite adjustment—a compensation—by which the dynamical forces that reside in the sunbeam and the trade-wind are made to counterbalance each other, by which the climates of inter-tropical seas are regulated, and by which the set, force, and volume of oceanic currents are measured” (§§ 437 and 438, eleventh edition).
CHAPTER VII.
EXAMINATION OF THE GRAVITATION THEORY OF OCEANIC CIRCULATION.—LIEUT. MAURY’S THEORY (continued).
Methods of determining the Question.—The Force resulting from Difference of Specific Gravity.—Sir John Herschel’s Estimate of the Force.—Maximum Density of Sea-Water.—Rate of Decrease of Temperature of Ocean at Equator.—-The actual Amount of Force resulting from Difference of Specific Gravity.—M. Dubuat’s Experiments.
How the Question may be Determined.—Whether the circulation of the ocean is due to difference in specific gravity or not may be determined in three ways: viz. (1) by direct experiment; (2) by ascertaining the absolute amount of force acting on the water to produce motion, in virtue of difference of specific gravity, and thereafter comparing it with the force which has been shown by experiment to be necessary to the production of sensible motion; or (3) by determining the greatest possible amount of work which gravity can perform on the waters in virtue of difference of specific gravity, and then ascertaining if the work of gravity does or does not equal the work of the resistances in the required motion. But Maury has not adopted either of these methods.
The Force resulting from Difference of Specific Gravity.—I shall consider first whether the force resulting from difference of specific gravity be sufficient to account for the motion of ocean-currents.
The inadequacy of this cause has been so clearly shown by Sir John Herschel, that one might expect that little else would be required than simply to quote his words on the subject, which are as follows:—
“First, then, if there were no atmosphere, there would be no Gulf-stream, or any other considerable ocean-current (as distinguished from a mere surface-drift) whatever. By the action of the sun’s rays, the surface of the ocean becomes most heated, and the heated water will, therefore, neither directly tend to ascend (which it could not do without leaving the sea) nor to descend, which it cannot do, being rendered buoyant, nor to move laterally, no lateral impulse being given, and which it could only do by reason of a general declivity of surface, the dilated portion occupying a higher level. Let us see what this declivity would amount to. The equatorial surface-water has a temperature of 84°. At 7,200 feet deep the temperature is 39°, the level of which temperature rises to the surface in latitude 56°. Taking the dilatability of sea-water to be the same as that of fresh, a uniformly progressive increase of temperature, from 39° to 84° Fahr., would dilate a column of 7,200 feet by 10 feet, to which height, therefore, above the spheroid of equilibrium (or above the sea-level in lat. 56°), the equatorial surface is actually raised by dilatation. An arc of 56° on the earth’s surface measures 3,360 geographical miles; so that we have a slope of 1/28th of an inch per geographical mile, or 1/32nd of an inch per statute mile for the water so raised to run down. As the accelerating force corresponding to such a slope (of 1/10th of a second, 0″·1) is less than one two-millionth part of gravity, we may dismiss this as a cause capable of creating only a very trifling surface-drift, and not worth considering, even were it in the proper direction to form, by concentration, a current from east to west, which it could not be, but the very reverse.”[55]
It is singular how any one, even though he regarded this conclusion as but a rough approximation to the truth, could entertain the idea that ocean-currents can be the result of difference in specific gravity. There are one or two reasons, however, which may be given for the above not having been generally received as conclusive. Herschel’s calculations refer to the difference of gravity resulting from difference of temperature; but this is only one of the causes to which Maury appeals, and even not the one to which he most frequently refers. He insists so strongly on the effects of difference of saltness, that many might think that, although Herschel may have shown that difference in specific gravity arising from difference of temperature could not account for the motion of ocean-currents, yet nevertheless that this, combined with the effects resulting from difference in saltness, might be a sufficient explanation of the phenomena. Such, of course, would not be the case with those who perceived the contradictory nature of Maury’s two causes; but probably many read the “Physical Geography of the Sea” without being aware that the one cause is destructive of the other. Again, a few plausible objections, which have never received due consideration, have been strongly urged by Maury and others against the theory that ocean-currents can be caused by the impulses of the winds; and probably these objections appear to militate as strongly against this theory as Herschel’s arguments against Maury’s.
There is one trifling objection to Herschel’s result: he takes 39° as the temperature of maximum density. This, however, as we shall see, does not materially affect his conclusions.
Observations on the temperature of the maximum density of sea-water have been made by Erman, Despretz, Rossetti, Neumann, Marcet, Hubbard, Horner, and others. No two of them have arrived at exactly the same conclusion. This probably arises from the fact that the temperature of maximum density depends upon the amount of salt held in solution. No two seas, unless they are equal as to saltness, have the same temperature of maximum density. The following Table of Despretz will show how rapidly the temperature of both the freezing-point and of maximum density is lowered by additional amounts of salt:—
| Amount of salt. | Temperature of freezing-point. | Temperature of Maximum density. |
|---|---|---|
| ° | ° | |
| 0·000123 | −1·21 C. | + 1·19 C. |
| 0·0246 | −2·24 | − 1·69 |
| 0·0371 | −2·77 | − 4·75 |
| 0·0741 | −5·28 | −16·00 |
He found the temperature of maximum density of sea-water, whose density at 20°C. was 1·0273, to be −3°·67C. (25°·4F.), and the temperature of freezing-point −2°·55C. (27°·4F.).[56] Somewhere between 25° and 26° F. may therefore be regarded as the temperature of maximum density of sea-water of average saltness. We have no reason to believe that the ocean, from the surface to the bottom, even at the poles, is at 27°·4F., the freezing-point.
The actual slope resulting from difference of specific gravity, as we shall presently see, does not amount to 10 feet. Herschel’s estimate was, however, made on insufficient data, both as to the rate of expansion of sea-water and that at which the temperature of the ocean at the equator decreases from the surface downwards. We are happily now in the possession of data for determining with tolerable accuracy the amount of slope due to difference of temperature between the equatorial and polar seas. The rate of expansion of sea-water from 0°C. to 100°C. has been experimentally determined by Professor Muncke, of Heidelberg.[57] The valuable reports of Captain Nares, of H.M.S. Challenger, lately published by the Admiralty, give the rate at which the temperature of the Atlantic at the equator decreases from the surface downwards. These observations show clearly that the super-heating effect of the sun’s rays does not extend to any great depth. They also prove that at the equator the temperature decreases as the depth increases so rapidly that at 60 fathoms from the surface the temperature is 62°·4, the same as at Madeira at the same depth; while at the depth of 150 fathoms it is only 51°, about the same as that in the Bay of Biscay (Reports, p. 11). Here at the very outset we have broad and important facts hostile to the theory of a flow of water resulting from difference of temperature between the ocean in equatorial and temperate and polar regions.
Through the kindness of Staff-Captain Evans, Hydrographer of the Admiralty, I have been favoured with a most valuable set of serial temperature soundings made by Captain Nares of the Challenger, close to the equator, between long. 14° 49′ W. and 32° 16′ W. The following Table represents the mean of the whole of these observations:—
| Fathoms. | Temperature. |
|---|---|
| ° | |
| Surface. | 77·9 |
| 10 | 77·2 |
| 20 | 77·1 |
| 30 | 76·9 |
| 40 | 71·7 |
| 50 | 64·0 |
| 60 | 60·4 |
| 70 | 59·4 |
| 80 | 58·0 |
| 90 | 58·0 |
| 100 | 55·6 |
| 150 | 51·0 |
| 200 | 46·6 |
| 300 | 42·2 |
| 400 | 40·3 |
| 500 | 38·9 |
| 600 | 39·2 |
| 700 | 39·0 |
| 800 | 39·1 |
| 900 | 38·2 |
| 1000 | 36·9 |
| 1100 | 37·6 |
| 1200 | 36·7 |
| 1300 | 35·8 |
| 1400 | 36·4 |
| 1500 | 36·1 |
| Bottom. | 34·7 |
We have in this Table data for determining the height at which the surface of the ocean at the equator ought to stand above that of the poles. Assuming 32°F. to be the temperature of the ocean at the poles from the surface to the bottom and the foregoing to be the rate at which the temperature of the ocean at the equator decreases from the surface downwards, and then calculating according to Muncke’s Table of the expansion of sea-water, we have only 4 feet 6 inches as the height to which the level of the ocean at the equator ought to stand above that at the poles in order that the ocean may be in static equilibrium. In other words, the equatorial column requires to be only 4 feet 6 inches higher than the polar in order that the two may balance each other.
Taking the distance from the equator to the poles at 6,200 miles, the force resulting from the slope of 4½ feet in 6,200 will amount to only 1/7,340,000th that of gravity, or about 1/1000th of a grain on a pound of water. But, as we shall shortly see, there can be no permanent current resulting from difference of temperature while the two columns remain in equilibrium, for the current is simply an effort to the retardation of equilibrium. In order to have permanent circulation there must be a permanent disturbance of equilibrium. Or, in other words, the weight of the polar column must be kept in excess of that of the equatorial. Suppose, then, that the weight of the polar column exceeds that of the equatorial by 2 feet of water, the difference of level between the two columns will, in that case, amount to only 2 feet 6 inches. This would give a force of only 1/13,200,000th that of gravity, or not much over 1/1,900th of a grain on a pound of water, tending to draw the water down the slope from the equator to the poles, a force which does not much exceed the weight of a grain on a ton of water. But it must be observed that this force of a grain per ton would affect only the water at the surface; a very short distance below the surface the force, small as it is, would be enormously reduced. If water were a perfect fluid, and offered no resistance to motion, it would not only flow down an incline, however small it might be, but would flow down with an accelerated motion. But water is not a perfect fluid, and its molecules do offer considerable resistance to motion. Water flowing down an incline, however steep it may be, soon acquires a uniform motion. There must therefore be a certain inclination below which no motion can take place. Experiments were made by M. Dubuat with the view of determining this limit.[58] He found that when the inclination was 1 in 500,000, the motion of the water was barely perceptible; and he came to the conclusion that when the inclination is reduced to 1 in 1,000,000, all motion ceases. But the inclination afforded by the difference of temperature between the sea in equatorial and polar regions does not amount to one-seventh of this, and consequently it can hardly produce even that “trifling surface-drift” which Sir John Herschel is willing to attribute to it.
There is an error into which some writers appear to fall to which I may here refer. Suppose that at the equator we have to descend 10,000 feet before water equal in density to that at the poles is reached. We have in this case a plain with a slope of 10,000 feet in 6,200 miles, forming the upper surface of the water of maximum density. Now this slope exercises no influence in the way of producing a current, as some seem to think; for it is not a case of disturbed equilibrium, but the reverse. It is the condition of static equilibrium resulting from a difference between the temperature of the water at the equator and the poles. The only slope that has any tendency to produce motion is that which is formed by the surface of the ocean in the equatorial regions being higher than the surface at the poles; but this is an inclination of only 4 feet 6 inches, and is therefore wholly inadequate to produce such currents as the Gulf-stream.
CHAPTER VIII.
EXAMINATION OF THE GRAVITATION THEORY OF OCEANIC CIRCULATION.—DR. CARPENTER’S THEORY.
Gulf-stream according to Dr. Carpenter not due to Difference of Specific Gravity.—Facts to be Explained.—The Explanation of the Facts.—The Explanation hypothetical.—The Cause assigned for the hypothetical Mode of Circulation.—Under currents account for all the Facts better than the Gravitation Hypothesis.—Known Condition of the Ocean inconsistent with that Hypothesis.
Dr. Carpenter does not suppose, with Lieut. Maury, that the difference of temperature between the ocean in equatorial and polar regions can account for the Gulf-stream and other great currents of the ocean. He maintains, however, that this difference is quite sufficient to bring about a slow general interchange of water between the polar and inter-tropical areas—to induce a general movement of the upper portion of the ocean from the equator to the poles and a counter-movement of the under portion in a contrary direction. It is this general movement which, according to that author, is the great agent by which heat is distributed over the globe.[59]
In attempting to estimate the adequacy of this hypothesis as an explanation of the phenomena involved, there are obviously two questions to be considered: namely, (1) is the difference of temperature between the sea in inter-tropical and polar regions sufficiently great to produce the required movement? and (2) assuming that there is such a movement, does it convey the amount of heat which Dr. Carpenter supposes? I shall begin with the consideration of the first of these two points.
But before doing so let us see what the facts are which this gravitation theory is intended to explain.
The Facts to be Explained.—Dr. Carpenter considers that the great mass of warm water proved during recent dredging expeditions to occupy the depths of the North Atlantic, must be referred, not to the Gulf-stream, but to a general movement of water from the equator. “The inference seems inevitable,” he says, “that the bulk of the water in the warm area must have come thither from the south-west. The influence of the Gulf-stream proper (meaning by this the body of super-heated water which issues through the ‘Narrows’ from the Gulf of Mexico), if it reaches this locality at all (which is very doubtful), could only affect the most superficial stratum; and the same may be said of the surface-drift caused by the prevalence of south-westerly winds, to which some have attributed the phenomena usually accounted for by the extension of the Gulf-stream to these regions. And the presence of the body of water which lies between 100 and 600 fathoms deep, and the range of whose temperature is from 48° to 42°, can scarcely be accounted for on any other hypothesis than that of a great general movement of equatorial water towards the polar area, of which movement the Gulf-stream constitutes a peculiar case modified by local conditions. In like manner the Arctic stream which underlies the warm superficial stratum in our cold area constitutes a peculiar case, modified by the local conditions to be presently explained, of a great general movement of polar water towards the equatorial area, which depresses the temperature of the deepest parts of the great oceanic basins nearly to the freezing-point.”
It is well-known that, wherever temperature-observations have been made in the Atlantic, the bottom of that ocean has been found to be occupied by water of an ice-cold temperature. And this holds true not merely of the Atlantic, but also of the ocean in inter-tropical regions—a fact which has been proved by repeated observations, and more particularly of late by those of Commander Chimmo in the China Sea and Indian Ocean, where a temperature as low as 32° Fahr. was found at a depth of 2,656 fathoms. In short, the North Atlantic, and probably the inter-tropical seas also, may be regarded, Dr. Carpenter considers, as divided horizontally into two great layers or strata—an upper warm, and a lower cold stratum. All these facts I, of course, freely admit; nor am I aware that their truth has been called in question by any one, no matter what his views may have been as to the mode in which they are to be explained.
The Explanation of the Facts.—We have next the explanation of the facts, which is simply this:—The cold water occupying the bottom of the Atlantic and of inter-tropical seas is to be accounted for by the supposition that it came from the polar regions. This is obvious, because the cold possessed by the water could not have been derived from the crust of the earth beneath: neither could it have come from the surface; for the temperature of the bottom water is far below the normal temperature of the latitude in which it is found. Consequently “the inference seems irresistible that this depression must be produced and maintained by the convection of cold from the polar towards the equatorial area.” Of course, if we suppose a flow of water from the poles towards the equator, we must necessarily infer a counter flow from the equator towards the poles; and while the water flowing from equatorial to polar regions will be warm, that flowing from polar to equatorial regions will be cold. The doctrine of a mutual interchange of equatorial and polar water is therefore a necessary consequence from the admission of the foregoing facts. With this explanation of the facts I need hardly say that I fully agree; nor am I aware that its correctness has ever been disputed. Dr. Carpenter surely cannot charge me with overlooking the fact of a mutual interchange of equatorial and polar water, seeing that my estimate of the thermal power of the Gulf-stream, from which it is proved that the amount of heat conveyed from equatorial to temperate and polar regions is enormously greater than had ever been anticipated, was made a considerable time before he began to write on the subject of oceanic circulation.[60] And in my paper “On Ocean-currents in relation to the Distribution of Heat over the Globe”[61] (the substance of which is reproduced in Chapters [II.] and [III.] of this volume), I have endeavoured to show that, were it not for the raising of the temperature of polar and high temperate regions and the lowering of the temperature of inter-tropical regions by means of this interchange of water, these portions of the globe would not be habitable by the present existing orders of beings.
The explanation goes further:—“It is along the surface and upper portion of the ocean that the equatorial waters flow towards the poles, and it is along the bottom and under portion of the ocean that polar waters flow towards the equator; or, in other words, the warm water keeps the upper portion of the ocean and the cold water the under portion.” With this explanation I to a great extent agree. It is evident that, in reference to the northern hemisphere at least, the most of the water which flows from inter-tropical to polar regions (as, for example, the Gulf-stream) keeps to the surface and upper portion of the ocean; but for reasons which I have already stated, a very large proportion of this water must return in the form of under currents; or, which is the same thing, the return compensating current, whether it consist of the identical water which originally came from the equator or not, must flow towards the equator as an under current. That the cold water which is found at the bottom of the Atlantic and of inter-tropical seas must have come as under currents is perfectly obvious, because water which should come along the surface of the ocean from the polar regions would not be cold when it reached inter-tropical regions.
The Explanation hypothetical.—Here the general agreement between us in a great measure terminates, for Dr. Carpenter is not satisfied with the explanation generally adopted by the advocates of the wind theory, viz., that the cold water found in temperate and inter-tropical areas comes from polar regions as compensating under currents, but advances a hypothetical form of circulation to account for the phenomenon. He assumes that there is a general set or flow of the surface and upper portion of the ocean from the equator to polar regions, and a general set or flow of the bottom and under portion of the ocean from polar regions to the equator. Mr. Ferrel (Nature, June 13, 1872) speaks of that “interchanging motion of the water between the equator and the pole discovered by Dr. Carpenter.” In this, however, Mr. Ferrel is mistaken; for Dr. Carpenter not only makes no claim to any discovery of the kind, but distinctly admits that none such has yet been made. Although in some of his papers he speaks of a “set of warm surface-water in the southern oceans toward the Antarctic pole” as being well known to navigators, yet he nowhere affirms, as far as I know, that the existence of such a general oceanic circulation as he advocates has ever been directly determined from observations. This mode of circulation is simply inferred or assumed in order to account for the facts referred to above. “At present,” Dr. Carpenter says, “I claim for it no higher character than that of a good working hypothesis to be used as a guide in further inquiry” (§ 16); and lest there should be any misapprehension on this point, he closes his memoir thus:—“At present, as I have already said, I claim for the doctrine of a general oceanic circulation no higher a character than that of a good working hypothesis consistent with our present knowledge of facts, and therefore entitled to be provisionally adopted for the purpose of stimulating and directing further inquiry.”
I am unable to agree with him, however, on this latter point. It seems to me that there is no necessity for adopting any hypothetical mode of circulation to account for the facts, as they can be quite well accounted for by means of that mode of circulation which does actually exist. It has been determined from direct observation that surface-currents flow from equatorial to polar regions, and their paths have been actually mapped out. But if it is established that currents flow from equatorial to polar regions, it is equally so that return currents flow from polar to equatorial regions; for if the one actually exists, the other of necessity must exist. We know also on physical grounds, to which I have already referred, and which fall to be considered more fully in a subsequent chapter, that a very large portion of the water flowing from polar to equatorial regions must be in the form of under currents. If there are cold under currents, therefore, flowing from polar to temperate and equatorial regions, this is all that we really require to account for the cold water which is found to occupy the bed of the ocean in those regions. It does not necessarily follow, because cold water may be found at the bottom of the ocean all along the equator, that there must be a direct flow from the polar regions to every point of the equator. Water brought constantly from the polar regions to various points along the equator by means of under currents will necessarily accumulate, and in course of time spread over the bottom of the inter-tropical seas. It must either do this, or the currents on reaching the equator must bend upwards and flow to the surface in an unbroken mass. Considerable portions of some of those currents may no doubt do so and join surface-currents; but probably the greater portion of the water coming from polar regions extends itself over the floor of the equatorial seas. In a letter in Nature, January 11, 1872, I endeavoured to show that the surface-currents of the ocean are not separate and independent of one another, but form one grand system of circulation, and that the impelling cause keeping up this system of circulation is not the trade-winds alone, as is generally supposed, but the prevailing winds of the entire globe considered also as one grand system. The evidence for this opinion, however, will be considered more fully in the sequel.
Although the under currents are parts of one general system of oceanic circulation produced by the impulse of the system of prevailing winds, yet their direction and position are nevertheless, to a large extent, determined by different laws. The water at the surface, being moved by the force of the wind, will follow the path of greatest pressure and traction,—the effects resulting from the general contour of the land, which to a great extent are common to both sets of currents, not being taken into account; while, on the other hand, the under currents from polar regions (which to a great extent are simply “indraughts” compensating for the water drained from equatorial regions by the Gulf-stream and other surface currents) will follow, as a general rule, the path of least resistance.
The Cause assigned for the Hypothetical Mode of Circulation.—Dr. Carpenter assigns a cause for his mode of circulation; and that cause he finds in the difference of specific gravity between equatorial and polar waters, resulting from the difference of temperature between these two regions. “Two separate questions,” he says, “have to be considered, which have not, perhaps, been kept sufficiently distinct, either by Mr. Croll or by myself;—first, whether there is adequate evidence of the existence of a general vertical oceanic circulation; and second, whether, supposing its existence to be provisionally admitted, a vera causa can be found for it in the difference of temperature between the oceanic waters of the polar and equatorial areas” (§ 17). It seems to me that the facts adduced by Dr. Carpenter do not necessarily require the assumption of any such mode of circulation as that advanced by him. The phenomena can be satisfactorily accounted for otherwise; and therefore there does not appear to be any necessity for considering whether his hypothesis be sufficient to produce the required effect or not.
An important Consideration overlooked.—But there is one important consideration which seems to have been overlooked—namely, the fact that the sea is salter in inter-tropical than in polar regions, and that this circumstance, so far as it goes, must tend to neutralize the effect of difference of temperature. It is probable, indeed, that the effect produced by difference of temperature is thus entirely neutralized, and that no difference of density whatever exists between the sea in inter-tropical and polar regions, and consequently that there is no difference of level nor anything to produce such a general motion as Dr. Carpenter supposes. This, I am glad to find, is the opinion of Professor Wyville Thomson.
“I am greatly mistaken,” says that author, “if the low specific gravity of the polar sea, the result of the condensation and precipitation of vapour evaporated from the inter-tropical area, do not fully counterbalance the contraction of the superficial film by arctic cold.... Speaking in the total absence of all reliable data, it is my general impression that if we were to set aside all other agencies, and to trust for an oceanic circulation to those conditions only which are relied upon by Dr. Carpenter, if there were any general circulation at all, which seems very problematical, the odds are rather in favour of a warm under current travelling northwards by virtue of its excess of salt, balanced by a surface return current of fresher though colder arctic water.”[62]
This is what actually takes place on the west and north-west of Spitzbergen. There the warm water of the Gulf-stream flows underneath the cold polar current. And it is the opinion of Dr. Scoresby, Mr. Clements Markham, and Lieut. Maury that this warm water, in virtue of its greater saltness, is denser than the polar water. Mr. Leigh Smith found on the north-west of Spitzbergen the temperature at 500 fathoms to be 52°, and once even 64°, while the water on the surface was only a degree or two above freezing.[63] Mr. Aitken, of Darroch, in a paper lately read before the Royal Scottish Society of Arts, showed experimentally that the polar water in regions where the ice is melting is actually less dense than the warm and more salt tropical waters. Nor will it help the matter in the least to maintain that difference of specific gravity is not the reason why the warm water of the Gulf-stream passes under the polar stream—because if difference of specific gravity be not the cause of the warm water underlying the cold water in polar regions, then difference of specific gravity may likewise not be the cause of the cold water underlying the warm at the equator; and if so, then there is no necessity for the gravitation hypothesis of oceanic circulation.
There is little doubt that the super-heated stratum at the surface of the inter-tropical seas, which stratum, according to Dr. Carpenter, is of no great thickness, is less dense than the polar water: but if we take a column extending from the surface down to the bottom of the ocean, this column at the equator will be found to be as heavy as one of equal length in the polar area. And if this be the case, then there can be no difference of level between the equator and the poles, and no disturbance of static equilibrium nor anything else to produce circulation.
Under Currents account for all the Facts better than Dr. Carpenter’s Hypothesis.—Assuming, for the present, the system of prevailing winds to be the true cause of oceanic currents, it necessarily follows (as will be shown hereafter) that a large quantity of Atlantic water must be propelled into the Arctic Ocean; and such, as we know, is actually the case. The Arctic Ocean, however, as Professor Wyville Thomson remarks, is a well-nigh closed basin, not permitting of a free outflow into the Pacific Ocean of the water impelled into it.
But it is evident that the water which is thus being constantly carried from the inter-tropical to the arctic regions must somehow or other find its way back to the equator; in other words, there must be a return current equal in magnitude to the direct current. Now the question to be determined is, what path must this return current take? It appears to me that it will take the path of least resistance, whether that path may happen to be at the surface or under the surface. But that the path of least resistance will, as a general rule, lie at a very considerable distance below the surface is, I think, evident from the following considerations. At the surface the general direction of the currents is opposite to that of the return current. The surface motion of the water in the Atlantic is from the equator to the pole; but the return current must be from the pole to the equator. Consequently the surface currents will oppose the motion of any return current unless that current lie at a considerable depth below the surface currents. Again, the winds, as a general rule, blow in an opposite direction to the course of the return current, because, according to supposition, the winds blow in the direction of the surface currents. From all these causes the path of least resistance to the return current will, as a general rule, not be at the surface, but at a very considerable depth below it.
A large portion of the water from the polar regions no doubt leaves those regions as surface currents; but a surface current of this kind, on meeting with some resistance to its onward progress along the surface, will dip down and continue its course as an under current. We have an example of this in the case of the polar current, which upon meeting the Gulf-stream on the banks of Newfoundland divides—a portion of it dipping down and pursuing its course underneath that stream into the Gulf of Mexico and the Caribbean Sea. And that this under current is a real and tangible current, in the proper sense of the term, and not an imperceptible movement of the water, is proved by the fact that large icebergs deeply immersed in it are often carried southward with considerable velocity against the united force of the wind and the Gulf-stream.
Dr. Carpenter refers at considerable length (§ 134) to Mr. Mitchell’s opinion as to the origin of the polar current, which is the same as that advanced by Maury, viz., that the impelling cause is difference of specific gravity. But although Dr. Carpenter quotes Mr. Mitchell’s opinion, he nevertheless does not appear to adopt it: for in §§ 90−93 and various other places he distinctly states that he does not agree with Lieut. Maury’s view that the Gulf-stream and polar current are caused by difference of density. In fact, Dr. Carpenter seems particularly anxious that it should be clearly understood that he dissents from the theory maintained by Maury. But he does not merely deny that the Gulf-stream and polar current can be caused by difference of density; he even goes so far as to affirm that no sensible current whatever can be due to that cause, and adduces the authority of Sir John Herschel in support of that opinion:—“The doctrine of Lieut. Maury,” he says, “was powerfully and convincingly opposed by Sir John Herschel; who showed, beyond all reasonable doubt, first, that the Gulf-stream really has its origin in the propulsive force of the trade-winds, and secondly, that the greatest disturbance of equilibrium which can be supposed to result from the agencies invoked by Lieut. Maury would be utterly inadequate to generate and maintain either the Gulf-stream or any other sensible current” (§ 92). This being Dr. Carpenter’s belief, it is somewhat singular that he should advance the case of the polar current passing under the Gulf-stream as evidence in favour of his theory; for in reality he could hardly have selected a case more hostile to that theory. In short, it is evident that, if a polar current impelled by a force other than that of gravity can pass from the banks of Newfoundland to the Gulf of Mexico (a distance of some thousands of miles) under a current flowing in the opposite direction and, at the same time, so powerful as the Gulf-stream, it could pass much more easily under comparatively still water, or water flowing in the same direction as itself. And if this be so, then all our difficulties disappear, and we satisfactorily explain the presence of cold polar water at the bottom of inter-tropical seas without having recourse to the hypothesis advanced by Dr. Carpenter.
But we have an example of an under current more inexplicable on the gravitation hypothesis than even that of the polar current, viz., the warm under current of Davis Strait.
There is a strong current flowing north from the Atlantic through Davis Strait into the Arctic Ocean underneath a surface current passing southwards in an opposite direction. Large icebergs have been seen to be carried northwards by this under current at the rate of four knots an hour against both the wind and the surface current, ripping and tearing their way with terrific force through surface ice of great thickness.[64] A current so powerful and rapid as this cannot, as Dr. Carpenter admits, be referred to difference of specific gravity. But even supposing that it could, still difference of temperature between the equatorial and polar seas would not account for it; for the current in question flows in the wrong direction. Nor will it help the matter the least to adopt Maury’s explanation, viz., that the warm under current from the south, in consequence of its greater saltness, is denser than the cold one from the polar regions. For if the water of the Atlantic, notwithstanding its higher temperature, is in consequence of its greater saltness so much denser than the polar water on the west of Greenland as to produce an under current of four knots an hour in the direction of the pole, then surely the same thing to a certain extent will hold true in reference to the ocean on the east side of Greenland. Thus instead of there being, as Dr. Carpenter supposes, an underflow of polar water south into the Atlantic in virtue of its greater density, there ought, on the contrary, to be a surface flow in consequence of its lesser density.
The true explanation no doubt is, that the warm under current from the south and the cold upper current from the north are both parts of one grand system of circulation produced by the winds, difference of specific gravity having no share whatever either in impelling the currents, or in determining which shall be the upper and which the lower.
The wind in Baffin’s Bay and Davis Strait blows nearly always in one direction, viz. from the north. The tendency of this is to produce a surface or upper current from the north down into the Atlantic, and to prevent or retard any surface current from the south. The warm current from the Atlantic, taking the path of least resistance, dips under the polar current and pursues its course as an under current.
Mr. Clements Markham, in his “Threshold of the Unknown Region,” is inclined to attribute the motion of the icebergs to tidal action or to counter under currents. That the motion of the icebergs cannot reasonably be attributed to the tides is, I think, evident from the descriptions given both by Midshipman Griffin and by Captain Duncan, who distinctly saw the icebergs moving at the rate of about four knots an hour against a surface current flowing southwards. And Captain Duncan states that the bergs continued their course northwards for several days, till they ultimately disappeared. The probability is that this northward current is composed partly of Gulf-stream water and partly of that portion of polar water which is supposed to flow round Cape Farewell from the east coast of Greenland. This stream, composed of both warm and cold water, on reaching to about latitude 65°N., where it encounters the strong northerly winds, dips down under the polar current and continues its northward course as an under current.
We have on the west of Spitzbergen, as has already been noticed, a similar example of a warm current from the south passing under a polar current. A portion of the Gulf-stream which passes round the west coast of Spitzbergen flows under an arctic current coming down from the north; and it does so no doubt because it is here in the region of prevailing northerly winds, which favour the polar current but oppose the Gulf-stream. Again, we have a cold and rapid current sweeping round the east and south of Spitzbergen, a current of which Mr. Lamont asserts that he is positive he has seen it running at the rate of seven or eight miles an hour. This current, on meeting the Gulf-stream about the northern entrance to the German Ocean, dips down under that stream and pursues its course southwards as an under current.
Several other cases of under currents might be adduced which cannot be explained on the gravitation theory, and which must be referred to a system of oceanic circulation produced by the impulse of the wind; but these will suffice to show that the assumption that the winds can produce only a mere surface-drift is directly opposed to facts. And it will not do to affirm that a current which forms part of a general system of circulation produced by the impulse of the winds cannot possibly be an under current; for in the case referred to we have proof that the thing is not only possible but actually exists. This point, however, will be better understood after we have considered the evidence in favour of a general system of oceanic currents.
Much of the difficulty experienced in comprehending how under currents can be produced by the wind, or how an impulse imparted to the surface of the ocean can ever be transmitted to the bottom, appears to me to result, to a considerable extent at least, from a slight deception of the imagination. The thing which impresses us most forcibly in regard to the ocean is its profound depth. A mean depth of, say, three miles produces a striking impression; but if we could represent to the mind the vast area of the ocean as correctly as we can its depth, shallowness rather than depth would be the impression produced. If in crossing a meadow we found a sheet of water one hundred yards in diameter and only an inch in depth, we should not call that a deep, but a very shallow pool. The probability is that we should speak of it as simply a piece of ground covered with a thin layer of water. Yet such a thin layer of water would be a correct representation in miniature of the ocean; for the ocean in relation to its superficial area is as shallow as the pool of our illustration. In reference to such a pool or thin film of water, we have no difficulty in conceiving how a disturbance on its surface would be transmitted to its bottom. In fact our difficulty is in conceiving how any disturbance extending over its entire surface should not extend to the bottom. Now if we could form as accurate a sensuous impression of the vast area of the ocean as we do of such a pool, all our difficulty in understanding how the impulses of the wind acting on the vast area of the ocean should communicate motion down to its bottom would disappear. It is certainly true that sudden commotions caused by storms do not generally extend to great depths. Neither will winds of short continuance produce a current extending far below the surface. But prevailing winds which can produce such immense surface-flow as that of the great equatorial currents of the globe and the Gulf-stream, which follow definite directions, must communicate their motion to great depths, unless water be frictionless, a thing which it is not. Suppose the upper layer of the ocean to be forced on by the direct action of the winds with a constant velocity of, say, four miles an hour, the layer immediately below will be dragged along with a constant velocity somewhat less than four miles an hour. The layer immediately below this second layer will in turn be also dragged along with a constant velocity somewhat less than the one above it. The same will take place in regard to each succeeding layer, the constant velocity of each layer being somewhat less than the one immediately above it, and greater than the one below it. The question to be determined is, at what depth will all motion cease? I presume that at present we have not sufficient data for properly determining this point. The depth will depend, other things being equal, upon the amount of molecular resistance offered by the water to motion—in other words, on the amount of the shearing-force of the one layer over the other. The fact, however, that motion imparted to the surface will extend to great depths can be easily shown by direct experiment. If a constant motion be imparted to the surface of water, say, in a vessel, motion will ultimately be communicated to the bottom, no matter how wide or how deep the vessel may be. The same effect will take place whether the vessel be 5 feet deep or 500 feet deep.
The known Condition of the Ocean inconsistent with Dr. Carpenter’s Hypothesis.—Dr. Carpenter says that he looks forward with great satisfaction to the results of the inquiries which are being prosecuted by the Circumnavigation Expedition, in the hope that the facts brought to light may establish his theory of a general oceanic circulation; and he specifies certain of these facts which, if found to be correct, will establish his theory. It seems to me, however, that the facts to which he refers are just as explicable on the theory of under currents as on the theory of a general oceanic circulation. He begins by saying, “If the views I have propounded be correct, it may be expected that near the border of the great antarctic ice-barrier a temperature below 30° will be met with (as it has been by Parry, Martens, and Weyprecht near Spitzbergen) at no great depth beneath the surface, and that instead of rising at still greater depths, the thermometer will fall to near the freezing-point of salt water” (§ 39).
Dr. Carpenter can hardly claim this as evidence in favour of his theory; for near the borders of the ice-barrier the water, as a matter of course, could not be expected to have a much higher temperature than the ice itself. And if the observations be made during summer months, the temperature of the water at the surface will no doubt be found to be higher than that of the bottom; but if they be carried on during winter, the surface-temperature will doubtless be found to be as low as the bottom-temperature. These are results which do not depend upon any particular theory of oceanic circulation.
“The bottom temperature of the North Pacific,” he continues, “will afford a crucial test of the truth of the doctrine. For since the sole communication of this vast oceanic area with the arctic basin is a strait so shallow as only to permit an inflow of warm surface water, its deep cold stratum must be entirely derived from the antarctic area; and if its bottom temperature is not actually higher than that of the South Pacific, the glacial stratum ought to be found at a greater depth north of the equator than south of it” (§ 39).
This may probably show that the water came from the antarctic regions, but cannot possibly prove that it came in the manner which he supposes.
“In the North Atlantic, again, the comparative limitation of communication with the arctic area may be expected to prevent its bottom temperature from being reduced as low as that of the Southern Atlantic” (§ 39). Supposing the bottom temperature of the South Atlantic should be found to be lower than the bottom temperature of the North Atlantic, this fact will be just as consistent with the theory of under currents as with his theory of a general movement of the ocean.
I am also wholly unable to comprehend how he should imagine, because the bottom temperature of the South Atlantic happens to be lower, and the polar water to lie nearer to the surface in this ocean than in the North Atlantic, that therefore this proves the truth of his theory. This condition of matters is just as consistent, and even more so, as will be shown in [Chapter XIII.], with my theory as with his. When we consider the immense quantity of warm surface water which, as has been shown ([Chapter V.]), is being constantly transferred from the South into the North Atlantic, we readily understand how the polar water comes nearer to the surface in the former ocean than in the latter. Every pound of water, of course, passing from the southern to the northern hemisphere must be compensated by an equal amount passing from the northern to the southern hemisphere. But nevertheless the warm water drained off the South Atlantic is not replaced directly by water from the north, but by that cold antarctic current, the existence of which is, unfortunately, too well known to navigators from the immense masses of icebergs which it brings along with it. In fact, the whole of the phenomena are just as easily explained upon the principle of under currents as upon Dr. Carpenter’s theory. But we shall have to return to this point in [Chapter XIII.], when we come to discuss a class of facts which appear to be wholly irreconcilable with the gravitation theory.
Indeed I fear that even although Dr. Carpenter’s expectations should eventually be realised in the results of the Circumnavigation Expedition, yet the advocates of the wind theory will still remain unconverted. In fact the Director of this Expedition has already, on the wind theory, offered an explanation of nearly all the phenomena on which Dr. Carpenter relies;[65] and the same has also been done by Dr. Petermann,[66] who, as is well known, is equally opposed to Dr. Carpenter’s theory. Dr. Carpenter directs attention to the necessity of examining the broad and deep channel separating Iceland from Greenland. The observations which have already been made, however, show that nearly the entire channel is occupied, on the surface at least, by water flowing southward from the polar area—a direction the opposite of what it ought to be according to the gravitation theory. In fact the surface of one half of the entire area of the ocean, extending from Greenland to the North Cape, is moving in a direction the opposite of that which it ought to take according to the theory under review. The western half of this area is occupied by water which at the surface is flowing southwards; while the eastern half, which has hitherto been regarded by almost everybody but Dr. Carpenter himself and Mr. Findlay as an extension of the Gulf-stream, is moving polewards. The motion of the western half must be attributed to the winds and not to gravity; for it is moving in the wrong direction to be accounted for by the latter cause; but had it been moving in the opposite direction, no doubt its motion would have been referred to gravitation. To this cause the motion of the eastern half, which is in the proper direction, is attributed;[67] but why not assign this motion also to the impulse of the winds, more especially since the direction of the prevailing winds blowing over that area coincides with that of the water? If the wind can produce the motion of the water in the western half, why may not it do the same in the eastern half?
If there be such a difference of density between equatorial and polar waters as to produce a general flow of the upper portion of the ocean poleward, how does it happen that one half of the water in the above area is moving in opposition to gravity? How is it that in a wide open sea gravitation should act so powerfully in the one half of it and with so little effect in the other half? There is probably little doubt that the ice-cold water of the western half extends from the surface down to the bottom. And it is also probable that the bottom water is moving southwards in the same direction as the surface water. The bottom water in such a case would be moving in harmony with the gravitation theory; but would Dr. Carpenter on this account attribute its motion to gravity? Would he attribute the motion of the lower half to gravity and the upper half to the wind? He could not in consistency with his theory attribute the motion of the upper half to gravity: for although the ice-cold water extended to the surface, this could not explain how gravity should move it southward instead of polewards, as according to theory it ought to move. He might affirm, if he chose, that the surface water moves southwards because it is dragged forward by the bottom water; but if this view be held, he is not entitled to affirm, as he does, that the winds can only produce a mere surface drift. If the viscosity and molecular resistance of water be such that, when the lower strata of the ocean are impelled forward by gravity or by any other cause, the superincumbent strata extending to the surface are perforce dragged after them, then, for the same reason, when the upper strata are impelled forward by the wind or any other cause, the underlying strata must also be dragged along after them.
If the condition of the ocean between Greenland and the north-western shore of Europe is irreconcilable with the gravitation theory, we find the case even worse for that theory when we direct our attention to the condition of the ocean on the southern hemisphere; for according to the researches of Captain Duperrey and others on the currents of the Southern Ocean, a very large portion of the area of that ocean is occupied by water moving on the surface more in a northward than a poleward direction. Referring to the deep trough between the Shetland and the Faroe Islands, called by him the “Lightning Channel,” Dr. Carpenter says, “If my view be correct, a current-drag suspended in the upper stratum ought to have a perceptible movement in the N.E. direction; whilst another, suspended in the lower stratum, should move S.W.” (§ 40).
Any one believing in the north-eastern extension of the Gulf-stream and in the Spitsbergen polar under current, to which I have already referred, would not feel surprised to learn that the surface strata have a perceptible north-eastward motion, and the bottom strata a perceptible south-westward motion. North-east and east of Iceland there is a general flow of cold polar water in a south-east direction towards the left edge of the Gulf-stream. This water, as Professor Mohn concludes, “descends beneath the Gulf-stream and partially finds an outlet in the lower half of the Faroe-Shetland channel.”[68]
An Objection Considered.—In Nature, vol. ix. p. 423, Dr. Carpenter has advanced the following objection to the foregoing theory of under-currents:—“According to Mr. Croll’s doctrine, the whole of that vast mass of water in the North Atlantic, averaging, say, 1,500 fathoms in thickness and 3,600 miles in breadth, the temperature of which (from 40° downwards), as ascertained by the Challenger soundings, clearly shows it to be mainly derived from a polar source, is nothing else than the reflux of the Gulf-stream. Now, even if we suppose that the whole of this stream, as it passes Sandy Hook, were to go on into the closed arctic basin, it would only force out an equivalent body of water. And as, on comparing the sectional areas of the two, I find that of the Gulf-stream to be about 1/900th that of the North Atlantic underflow; and as it is admitted that a large part of the Gulf-stream returns into the Mid-Atlantic circulation, only a branch of it going on to the north-east, the extreme improbability (may I not say impossibility?) that so vast a mass of water can be put in motion by what is by comparison a mere rivulet (the north-east motion of which, as a distinct current, has not been traced eastward of 30° W. long.) seems still more obvious.”
In this objection three things are assumed: (1) that the mass of cold water 1,500 fathoms deep and 3,600 miles in breadth is in a state of motion towards the equator; (2) that it cannot be the reflux of the Gulf-stream, because its sectional area is 900 times as great as that of the Gulf-stream; (3) that the immense mass of water is, according to my views, set in motion by the Gulf-stream.
As this objection has an important bearing on the question under consideration, I shall consider these three assumptions separately and in their order: (1) That this immense mass of cold water came originally from the polar regions I, of course, admit, but that the whole is in a state of motion I certainly do not admit. There is no warrant whatever for any such assumption. According to Dr. Carpenter himself, the heating-power of the sun does not extend to any great depth below the surface; consequently there is nothing whatever to heat this mass but the heat coming through the earth’s crust. But the amount of heat derived from this source is so trifling, that an under current from the arctic regions far less in volume than that of the Gulf-stream would be quite sufficient to keep the mass at an ice-cold temperature. Taking the area of the North Atlantic between the equator and the Tropic of Cancer, including also the Caribbean Sea and the Gulf of Mexico, to be 7,700,000 square miles, and the rate at which internal heat passes through the earth’s surface to be that assigned by Sir William Thomson, we find that the total quantity of heat derived from the earth’s crust by the above area is equal to about 88 × 1015 foot-pounds per day. But this amount is equal to only 1/894th that conveyed by the Gulf-stream, on the supposition that each pound of water carries 19,300 foot-pounds of heat. Consequently an under current from the polar regions of not more than 1/35th the volume of the Gulf-stream would suffice to keep the entire mass of water of that area within 1° of what it would be were there no heat derived from the crust of the earth; that is to say, were the water conveyed by the under current at 32°, internal heat would not maintain the mass of the ocean in the above area at more than 33°. The entire area of the North Atlantic from the equator to the arctic circle is somewhere about 16,000,000 square miles. An under current of less than 1/17th that of the Gulf-stream coming from the arctic regions would therefore suffice to keep the entire North Atlantic basin filled with ice-cold water. In short, whatever theory we adopt regarding oceanic circulation, it follows equally as a necessary consequence that the entire mass of the ocean below the stratum heated by the sun’s rays must consist of cold water. For if cold water be continually coming from the polar regions either in the form of under currents, or in the form of a general underflow as Dr. Carpenter supposes, the entire under portion of the ocean must ultimately become occupied by cold water; for there is no source from which this influx of water can derive heat, save from the earth’s crust. But the amount thus derived is so trifling as to produce no sensible effect. For example, a polar under current one half the size of the Gulf-stream would be sufficient to keep the entire water of the globe (below the stratum heated by the sun’s rays) at an ice-cold temperature. Internal heat would not be sufficient under such circumstances to maintain the mass 1° Fahr. above the temperature it possessed when it left the polar regions.
It follows therefore that the presence of the immense mass of ice-cold water in the great depths of the ocean is completely accounted for by under currents, and there is no necessity for supposing it to be all in a state of motion towards the equator. In fact, this very state of things, which the general oceanic circulation hypothesis was devised to explain, results as a necessary consequence of polar under currents. Unless these were entirely stopped it is physically impossible that the ocean could be in any other condition.
But suppose that this immense mass of cold water occupying the great depths of the ocean were, as Dr. Carpenter assumes it to be, in a state of constant motion towards the equator, and that its sectional area were 900 times that of the Gulf-stream, it would not therefore follow that the quantity of water passing through this large sectional area must be greater than that flowing through a sectional area of the Gulf-stream; for the quantity of water flowing through this large sectional area depends entirely on the rate of motion.
I am wholly unable to understand how it could be supposed that this underflow, according to my view, is set in motion by the Gulf-stream, seeing that I have shown that the return under current is as much due to the impulse of the wind as the Gulf-stream itself.
Dr. Carpenter lays considerable stress on the important fact established by the Challenger expedition, that the great depths of the sea in equatorial regions are occupied by ice-cold water, while the portion heated by the sun’s rays is simply a thin stratum at the surface. It seems to me that it would be difficult to find a fact more hostile to his theory than this. Were it not for this upper stratum of heated water there would be no difference between the equatorial and polar columns, and consequently nothing to produce motion. But the thinner this stratum is the less is the difference, and the less there is to produce motion.
CHAPTER IX.
EXAMINATION OF THE GRAVITATION THEORY OF OCEANIC CIRCULATION.—THE MECHANICS OF DR. CARPENTER’S THEORY.
Experimental Illustration of the Theory.—The Force exerted by Gravity.—Work performed by Gravity.—Circulation not by Convection.—Circulation depends on Difference in Density of the Equatorial and Polar Columns.—Absolute Amount of Work which can be performed by Gravity.—How Underflow is produced.—How Vertical Descent at the Poles and Ascent at the Equator is produced.—The Gibraltar Current.—Mistake in Mechanics concerning it.—The Baltic Current.
Experiment to illustrate Theory.—In support of the theory of a general movement of water between equatorial and polar regions, Dr. Carpenter adduces the authority of Humboldt and of Prof. Buff.[69] I have been unable to find anything in the writings of either from which it can be inferred that they have given this matter special consideration. Humboldt merely alludes to the theory, and that in the most casual manner; and that Prof. Buff has not carefully investigated the subject is apparent from the very illustration quoted by Dr. Carpenter from the “Physics of the Earth.” “The water of the ocean at great depths,” says Prof. Buff, “has a temperature, even under the equator, nearly approaching to the freezing-point. This low temperature cannot depend on any influence of the sea-bottom.... The fact, however, is explained by a continual current of cold water flowing from the polar regions towards the equator. The following well-known experiment clearly illustrates the manner of this movement. A glass vessel is to be filled with water with which some powder has been mixed, and is then to be heated at bottom. It will soon be seen, from the motion of the particles of powder, that currents are set up in opposite directions through the water. Warm water rises from the bottom up through the middle of the vessel, and spreads over the surface, while the colder and therefore heavier liquid falls down at the sides of the glass.”
This illustration is evidently intended to show not merely the form and direction of the great system of oceanic circulation, but also the mode in which the circulation is induced by heat. It is no doubt true that if we apply heat (say that of a spirit-lamp) to the bottom of a vessel filled with water, the water at the bottom of the vessel will become heated and rise to the surface; and if the heat be continued an ascending current of warm water will be generated; and this, of course, will give rise to a compensating under current of colder water from all sides. In like manner it is also true that, if heat were applied to the bottom of the ocean in equatorial regions, an ascending current of hot water would be also generated, giving rise to an under current of cold water from the polar regions. But all this is the diametrically opposite of what actually takes place in nature. The heat is not applied to the bottom of the ocean, so as to make the water there lighter than the water at the surface, and thus to generate an ascending current; but the heat is applied to the surface of the ocean, and the effect of this is to prevent an ascending current rather than to produce one, for it tends to keep the water at the surface lighter than the water at the bottom. In order to show how the heat of the sun produces currents in the ocean, Prof. Buff should have applied the heat, not to the bottom of his vessel, but to the upper surface of the water. But this is not all, the form of the vessel has something to do with the matter. The wider we make the vessel in proportion to its depth, the more difficult it is to produce currents by means of heat. But in order to represent what takes place in nature, we ought to have the same proportion between the depth and the superficial area of the water in our vessel as there is between the depth and the superficial area of the sea. The mean depth of the sea may be taken roughly to be about three miles.[70] The distance between pole and pole we shall take in round numbers to be 12,000 miles. The sun may therefore be regarded as shining upon a circular sea 12,000 miles in diameter and three miles deep. The depth of the sea to its diameter is therefore as 1 to 4,000. Suppose, now, that in our experiment we make the depth of our vessel one inch, we shall require to make its diameter 4,000 inches, or 333 feet, say, in round numbers, 100 yards in diameter. Let us, then, take a pool of water 100 yards in diameter, and one inch deep. Suppose the water to be at 32°. Apply heat to the upper surface of the pool, so as to raise the temperature of the surface of the water to 80° at the centre of the pool, the temperature diminishing towards the edge, where it is at 32°. It is found that at a depth of two miles the temperature of the water at the equator is about as low as that of the poles. We must therefore suppose the water at the centre of our pool to diminish in temperature from the surface downwards, so that at a depth of half an inch the water is at 32°. We have in this case a thin layer of warm water half an inch thick at the centre, and gradually thinning off to nothing at the edge of the pool. The lightest water, be it observed, is at the surface, so that an ascending or a descending current is impossible. The only way whereby the heat applied can have any tendency to produce motion is this:—The heating of the water expands it, consequently the surface of the pool must stand at a little higher level at its centre than at its edge, where no expansion takes place; and therefore, in order to restore the level of the pool, the water at the centre will tend to flow towards the sides. But what is the amount of this tendency? Its amount will depend upon the amount of slope, but the slope in the case under consideration amounts to only 1 in 7,340,000.
Dr. Carpenter’s Experiment.—In order to obviate the objection to Professor Buff’s experiment Dr. Carpenter has devised another mode. But I presume his experiment was intended rather to illustrate the way in which the circulation of the ocean, according to his theory, takes place, than to prove that it actually does take place. At any rate, all that can be claimed for the experiment is the proof that water will circulate in consequence of difference of specific gravity resulting from difference of temperature. But this does not require proof, for no physicist denies it. The point which requires to be proved is this. Is the difference of specific gravity which exists in the ocean sufficient to produce the supposed circulation? Now his mode of experimenting will not prove this, unless he makes his experiment agree with the conditions already stated.
But I decidedly object to the water being heated in the way in which it has been done by him in his experiment before the Royal Geographical Society; for I feel somewhat confident that in this experiment the circulation resulted not from difference of specific gravity, as was supposed, but rather from the way in which the heat was applied. In that experiment the one half of a thick metallic plate was placed in contact with the upper surface of the water at one end of the trough; the other half, projecting over the end of the trough, was heated by means of a spirit-lamp. It is perfectly obvious that though the temperature of the great mass of the water under the plate might not be raised over 80° or so, yet the molecules in contact with the metal would have a very high temperature. These molecules, in consequence of their expansion, would be unable to sink into the cooler and denser water underneath, and thus escape the heat which was being constantly communicated to them from the heated plate. But escape they must, or their temperature would continue to rise until they would ultimately burst into vapour. They cannot ascend, neither can they descend: they therefore must be expelled by the heat from the plate in a horizontal direction. The next layer of molecules from beneath would take their place and would be expelled in a similar manner, and this process would continue so long as the heat was applied to the plate. A circulation would thus be established by the direct expansive force of vapour, and not in any way due to difference of specific gravity, as Dr. Carpenter supposes.
But supposing the heated bar to be replaced by a piece of ice, circulation would no doubt take place; but this proves nothing more than that difference of density will produce circulation, which is what no one calls in question.
The case referred to by Dr. Carpenter of the heating apparatus in London University is also unsatisfactory. The water leaves the boiler at 120° and returns to it at 80°. The difference of specific gravity between the water leaving the boiler and the water returning to it is supposed to produce the circulation. It seems to me that this difference of specific gravity has nothing whatever to do with the matter. The cause of the circulation must be sought for in the boiler itself, and not in the pipes. The heat is applied to the bottom of the boiler, not to the top. What is the temperature of the molecules in contact with the bottom of the boiler directly over the fire, is a question which must be considered before we can arrive at a just determination of the causes which produce circulation in the pipes of a heating apparatus such as that to which Dr. Carpenter refers. But, in addition to this, as the heat is applied to the bottom of the boiler and not to the top, convection comes into play, a cause which, as we shall find, does not come into play in the theory of oceanic circulation at present under our consideration.
The Force exerted by Gravity.—Dr. Carpenter speaks of his doctrine of a general oceanic circulation sustained by difference of temperature alone, “as one of which physical geographers could not recognise the importance, so long as they remained under the dominant idea that the temperature of the deep sea is everywhere 39°.” And he affirms that “until it is clearly apprehended that sea-water becomes more and more dense as its temperature is reduced, the immense motive power of polar cold cannot be understood.” But in chap. vii. and also in the Phil. Mag. for October, 1870 and 1871, I proved that if we take 39° as the temperature of maximum density the force exerted by gravity tending to produce circulation is just as great as when we take 32°. The reason for this is that when we take 32° as the temperature of maximum density, although we have, it is true, a greater elevation of the ocean above the place of maximum density, yet this latter occurs at the poles; while on the other hand, when we take 39°, the difference of level is less—the place not being at the poles but in about lat. 56°. Now the shorter slope from the equator to lat. 56° is as steep as the larger one from the equator to the poles, and consequently gravity exerts as much force in the production of motion in the one case as in the other. Sir John Herschel, taking 39° as the temperature of maximum density, estimated the slope at 1/32nd of an inch per mile, whereas we, taking 32° as the actual temperature of maximum density of the polar seas and calculating from modern data, find that the slope is not one-half that amount, and that the force of gravity tending to produce circulation is much less than Herschel concluded it to be. The reason, therefore, why physical geographers did not adopt the theory that oceanic circulation is the result of difference of temperature could not possibly be the one assigned by Dr. Carpenter, viz., that they had under-estimated the force of gravity by taking 39° instead of 32° as the temperature of maximum density.
The Work performed by Gravity.—But in order clearly to understand this point, it will be better to treat the matter according to the third method, and consider not the mere force of gravity impelling the waters, but the amount of work which gravitation is capable of performing.
Let us then assume the correctness of my estimate, that the height of the surface of the ocean at the equator above that at the poles is 4 feet 6 inches, for in representing the mode in which difference of specific gravity produces circulation it is of no importance what we may fix upon as the amount of the slope. In order, therefore, to avoid fractions of a foot, I shall take the slope at 4 feet instead of 4½ feet, which it actually is. A pound of water in flowing down this slope from the equator to either of the poles will perform 4 foot-pounds of work; or, more properly speaking, gravitation will. Now it is evident that when this pound of water has reached the pole, it is at the bottom of the slope, and consequently cannot descend further. Gravity, therefore, cannot perform any more work upon it; as it can only do so while the thing acted upon continues to descend—that is, moves under the force exerted. But the water will not move under the influence of gravity unless it move downward; it being in this direction only that gravity acts on the water. “But,” says Dr. Carpenter, “the effect of surface-cold upon the water of the polar basin will be to reduce the temperature of its whole mass below the freezing-point of fresh water, the surface-stratum sinking as it is cooled in virtue of its diminished bulk and increased density, and being replaced by water not yet cooled to the same degree.”[71] By the cooling of the whole mass of polar water by cold and the heating of the water at the equator by the sun’s rays the polar column of water, as we have seen, is rendered denser than the equatorial one, and in order that the two may balance each other, the polar column is necessarily shorter than the equatorial by 4 feet; and thus it is that the slope of 4 feet is formed. It is perfectly true that the water which leaves the equator warm and light, becomes by the time it reaches the pole cold and dense. But unless it be denser than the underlying polar water it will not sink down through it.[72] We are not told, however, why it should be colder than the whole mass underneath, which, according to Dr. Carpenter, is cooled by polar cold. But that he does suppose it to sink to the bottom in consequence of its contraction by cold would appear from the following quotation:—
“Until it is clearly apprehended that sea-water becomes more and more dense as its temperature is reduced, and that it consequently continues to sink until it freezes, the immense motor power of polar cold cannot be apprehended. But when this has been clearly recognised, it is seen that the application of cold at the surface is precisely equivalent as a moving power to that application of heat at the bottom by which the circulation of water is sustained in every heating apparatus that makes use of it” (§ 25).
The application of cold at the surface is thus held to be equivalent as a motor power to the application of heat at the bottom. But heat applied to the bottom of a vessel produces circulation by convection. It makes the molecules at the bottom expand, and they, in consequence of buoyancy, rise through the water in the vessel. Consequently if the action of cold at the surface in polar regions is equivalent to that of heat, the cold must contract the molecules at the surface and make them sink through the mass of polar water beneath. But assuming this to be the meaning in the passage just quoted, how much colder is the surface water than the water beneath? Let us suppose the difference to be one degree. How much work, then, will gravity perform upon this one pound of water which is one degree colder than the mass beneath supposed to be at 32°? The force with which the pound of water will sink will not be proportional to its weight, but to the difference of weight between it and a similar bulk of the water through which it sinks. The difference between the weight of a pound of water at 31° and an equal volume of water at 32° is 1/29,000th of a pound. Now this pound of water in sinking to a depth of 10,000 feet, which is about the depth at which a polar temperature is found at the equator, would perform only one-third of a foot-pound of work. And supposing it were three degrees colder than the water beneath, it would in sinking perform only one foot-pound. This would give us only 4 + 1 = 5 foot-pounds as the total amount that could be performed by gravitation on the pound of water from the time that it left the equator till it returned to the point from which it started. The amount of work performed in descending the slope from the equator to the pole and in sinking to a depth of 10,000 feet or so through the polar water assumed to be warmer than the surface water, comprehends the total amount of work that gravitation can possibly perform; so that the amount of force gained by such a supposition over and above that derived from the slope is trifling.
It would appear, however, that this is not what is meant after all. What Dr. Carpenter apparently means is this: when a quantity of water, say a layer one foot thick, flows down from the equator to the pole, the polar column becomes then heavier than the equatorial by the weight of this additional layer. A layer of water equal in quantity is therefore pressed away from the bottom of the column and flows off in the direction of the equator as an under current, the polar column at the same time sinking down one foot until equilibrium of the polar and equatorial columns is restored. Another foot of water now flows down upon the polar column and another foot of water is displaced from below, causing, of course, the column to descend an additional foot. The same process being continually repeated, a constant downward motion of the polar column is the result. Or, perhaps, to express the matter more accurately, owing to the constant flow of water from the equatorial regions down the slope, the weight of the polar column is kept always in excess of that of the equatorial; therefore the polar column in the effort to restore equilibrium is kept in a constant state of descent. Hence he terms it a “vertical” circulation. The following will show Dr. Carpenter’s theory in his own words:—
“The action of cold on the surface water of each polar area will be exerted as follows:—
“(a) In diminishing the height of the polar column as compared with that of the equatorial, so that a lowering of its level is produced, which can only be made good by a surface-flow from the latter towards the former.
“(b) In producing an excess in the downward pressure of the column when this inflow has restored its level, in virtue of the increase of specific gravity it has gained by its reduction in volume; whereby a portion of its heavy bottom-water is displaced laterally, causing a further reduction of level, which draws in a further supply of the warmer and lighter water flowing towards its surface.
“(c) In imparting a downward movement to each new surface-stratum as its temperature undergoes reduction; so that the entire column may be said to be in a state of constant descent, like that which exists in the water of a tall jar when an opening is made at its bottom, and the water which flows away through it is replaced by an equivalent supply poured into the top of the jar” (§ 23).
But if this be his theory, as it evidently is, then the 4 foot-pounds (the amount of work performed by the descent of the water down the slope) comprehends all the work that gravitation can perform on a pound of water in making a complete circuit from the equator to the pole and from the pole back to the equator.
This, I trust, will be evident from the following considerations. When a pound of water has flowed down from the equator to the pole, it has descended 4 feet, and is then at the foot of the slope. Gravity has therefore no more power to pull it down to a lower level. It will not sink through the polar water, for it is not denser than the water beneath on which it rests. But it may be replied that although it will not sink through the polar water, it has nevertheless made the polar column heavier than the equatorial, and this excess of pressure forces a pound of water out from beneath and allows the column to descend. Suppose it may be argued that a quantity of water flows down from the equator, so as to raise the level of the polar water by, say, one foot. The polar column will now be rendered heavier than the equatorial by the weight of one foot of water. The pressure of the one foot will thus force a quantity of water laterally from the bottom and cause the entire column to descend till the level of equilibrium is restored. In other words, the polar column will sink one foot. Now in the sinking of this column work is performed by gravity. A certain amount of work is performed by gravity in causing the water to flow down the slope from the equator to the pole, and, in addition to this, a certain amount is performed by gravity in the vertical descent of the column.
I freely admit this to be sound reasoning, and admit that so much is due to the slope and so much to the vertical descent of the water. But here we come to the most important point, viz., is there the full slope of 4 feet and an additional vertical movement? Dr. Carpenter seems to conclude that there is, and that this vertical force is something in addition to the force which I derive from the slope. And here, I venture to think, is a radical error into which he has fallen in regard to the whole matter. Let it be observed that, when water circulates from difference of specific gravity, this vertical movement is just as real a part of the process as the flow down the slope; but the point which I maintain is that there is no additional power derived from this vertical movement over and above what is derived from the full slope—or, in other words, that this primum mobile, which he says I have overlooked, has in reality no existence.
Perhaps the following diagram will help to make the point still clearer:—
Fig. 1.
Let P (fig. 1) be the surface of the ocean at the pole, and E the surface at the equator; P O a column of water at the pole, and E Q a column at the equator. The two columns are of equal weight, and balance each other; but as the polar water is colder, and consequently denser than the equatorial, the polar column is shorter than the equatorial, the difference in the length of the two columns being 4 feet. The surface of the ocean at the equator E is 4 feet higher than the surface of the ocean at the pole P; there is therefore a slope of 4 feet from E to P. The molecules of water at E tend to flow down this slope towards P. The amount of work performed by gravity in the descent of a pound of water down this slope from E to P is therefore 4 foot-pounds.
But of course there can be no permanent circulation while the full slope remains. In order to have circulation the polar column must be heavier than the equatorial. But any addition to the weight of the polar column is at the expense of the slope. In proportion as the weight of the polar column increases the less becomes the slope. This, however, makes no difference in the amount of work performed by gravity.
Suppose now that water has flowed down till an addition of one foot of water is made to the polar column, and the difference of level, of course, diminished by one foot. The surface of the ocean in this case will now be represented by the dotted line P′ E, and the slope reduced from 4 feet to 3 feet. Let us then suppose a pound of water to leave E and flow down to P′; 3 foot-pounds will be the amount of work performed. The polar column being now too heavy by the extent of the mass of water P′ P one foot thick, its extra pressure causes a mass of water equal to P′ P to flow off laterally from the bottom of the column. The column therefore sinks down one foot till P′ reaches P. Now the pound of water in this vertical descent from P′ to P has one foot-pound of work performed on it by gravity; this added to the 3 foot-pounds derived from the slope, gives a total of 4 foot-pounds in passing from E to P′ and then from P′ to P. This is the same amount of work that would have been performed had it descended directly from E to P. In like manner it can be proved that 4 foot-pounds is the amount of work performed in the descent of every pound of water of the mass P′ P. The first pound which left E flowed down the slope directly to P, and performed 4 foot-pounds of work. The last pound flowed down the slope E P′, and performed only 3 foot-pounds; but in descending from P′ to P it performed the other one foot-pound. A pound leaving at a period exactly intermediate between the two flowed down 3½ feet of slope and descended vertically half a foot. Whatever path a pound of water might take, by the time that it reached P, 4 foot-pounds of work would be performed. But no further work can be performed after it reaches P.
But some will ask, in regard to the vertical movement, is it only in the descent of the water from P′ to P that work is performed? Water cannot descend from P′ to P, it will be urged, unless the entire column P O underneath descend also. But the column P O descends by means of gravity. Why, then, it will be asked, is not the descent of the column a motive power as real as the descent of the mass of water P′ P?
That neither force nor energy can be derived from the mere descent of the polar column P O is demonstrable thus:—The reason why the column P O descends is because, in consequence of the mass of water P′ P resting on it, its weight is in excess of the equatorial column E Q. But the force with which the column descends is equal, not to the weight of the column, but to the weight of the mass P′ P; consequently as much work would be performed by gravity in the descent of the mass P′ P (the one foot of water) alone as in the descent of the entire column P′ O, 10,000 feet in height. Suppose a ton weight is placed in each scale of a balance: the two scales balance each other. Place a pound weight in one of the scales along with the ton weight and the scale will descend. But it descends, not with the pressure of a ton and a pound, but with the pressure of the pound weight only. In the descent of the scale, say, one foot, gravity can perform only one foot-pound of work. In like manner, in the descent of the polar column, the only work available is the work of the mass P′ P laid on the top of the column. But it must be observed that in the descent of the column from P′ to P, a distance of one foot, each pound of water of the mass P′ P does not perform one foot-pound of work; for the moment that a molecule of water reaches P, it then ceases to perform further work. The molecules at the surface P′ descend one foot before reaching P; the molecules midway between P′ and P descend only half a foot before reaching P, and the molecules at the bottom of the mass are already at P, and therefore cannot perform any work. The mean distance through which the entire mass performs work is therefore half a foot. One foot-pound per pound of water represents in this case the amount of work derived from the vertical movement.
That such is the case is further evident from the following considerations. Before the polar column begins to descend, it is heavier than the equatorial by the weight of one foot of water; but when the column has descended half a foot, the polar column is heavier than the equatorial by the weight of only half a foot of water; and, as the column continues to descend, the force with which it descends continues to diminish, and when it has sunk to P the force is zero. Consequently the mean pressure or weight with which the one foot of water P′ P descended was equal to that of a layer of half a foot of water; in other words, each pound of water, taking the mass as a whole, descended with the pressure or weight of half a pound. But a half pound descending one foot performs half a foot-pound; so that whether we consider the full pressure acting through the mean distance, or the mean pressure acting through the full distance, we get the same result, viz. a half foot-pound as the work of vertical descent.
Now it will be found, as we shall presently see, that if we calculate the mean amount of work performed in descending the slope from the equator to the pole, 3½ foot-pounds per pound of water is the amount. The water at the bottom of the mass P P′ moved, of course, down the full slope E P 4 feet. The water at the top of the mass which descended from E to P′ descended a slope of only 3 feet. The mean descent of the whole mass is therefore 3½ feet. And this gives 3½ foot-pounds as the mean amount of work per pound of water in descending the slope; this, added to the half foot-pound derived from vertical descent, gives 4 foot-pounds as the total amount of work per pound of the mass.
I have in the above reasoning supposed one foot of water accumulated on the polar column before any vertical descent takes place. It is needless to remark that the same conclusion would have been arrived at, viz., that the total amount of work performed is 4 foot-pounds per pound of water, supposing we had considered 2 feet, or 3 feet, or even 4 feet of water to have accumulated on the polar column before vertical motion took place.
I have also, in agreement with Dr. Carpenter’s mode of representing the operation, been considering the two effects, viz., the flowing of the water down the slope and the vertical descent of the polar column as taking place alternately. In nature, however, the two effects take place simultaneously; but it is needless to add that the amount of work performed would be the same whether the effects took place alternately or simultaneously.
I have also represented the level of the ocean at the equator as remaining permanent while the alterations of level were taking place at the pole. But in representing the operation as it would actually take place in nature, we should consider the equatorial column to be lowered as the polar one is being raised. We should, for example, consider the one foot of water P′ P put upon the polar column as so much taken off the equatorial column. But in viewing the problem thus we arrive at exactly the same results as before.
Let P (Fig. 2), as in Fig. 1, be the surface of the ocean at the pole, and E the surface at the equator, there being a slope of 4 feet from E to P. Suppose now a quantity of water, E E′, say, one foot thick, to flow from off the equatorial regions down upon the polar. It will thus lower the level of the equatorial column by one foot, and raise the level of the polar column by the same amount. I may, however, observe that the one foot of water in passing from E to P would have its temperature reduced from 80° to 32°, and this would produce a slight contraction. But as the weight of the mass would not be affected, in order to simplify our reasoning we may leave this contraction out of consideration. Any one can easily satisfy himself that the assumption that E E′ is equal to P′ P does not in any way affect the question at issue—the only effect of the contraction being to increase by an infinitesimal amount the work done in descending the slope, and to diminish by an equally infinitesimal amount the work done in the vertical descent. If, for example, 3 foot-pounds represent the amount of work performed in descending the slope, and one foot-pound the amount performed in the vertical descent, on the supposition that E′ E does not contract in passing to the pole, then 3·0024 foot-pounds will represent the work of the slope, and 0·9976 foot-pounds the work of vertical descent when allowance is made for the contraction. But the total amount of work performed is the same in both cases. Consequently, to simplify our reasoning, we may be allowed to assume P′ P to be equal to E E′.
Fig. 2.
The slope E P being 4 feet, the slope E′ P′ is consequently 2 feet; the mean slope for the entire mass is therefore 3 feet. The mean amount of work performed by the descent of the mass will of course be 3 foot-pounds per pound of water. The amount of work performed by the vertical descent of P′ P ought therefore to be one foot-pound per pound. That this is the amount will be evident thus:—The transference of the one foot of water from the equatorial column to the polar disturbs the equilibrium by making the equatorial column too light by one foot of water and the polar column too heavy by the same amount of water. The polar column will therefore tend to sink, and the equatorial to rise till equilibrium is restored. The difference of weight of the two columns being equal to 2 feet of water, the polar column will begin to descend with a pressure of 2 feet of water; and the equatorial column will begin to rise with an equal amount of pressure. When the polar column has descended half a foot the equatorial column will have risen half a foot. The pressure of the descending polar column will now be reduced to one foot of water. And when the polar column has descended another foot, P′ will have reached P, and E′ will have reached E; the two columns will then be in equilibrium. It therefore follows that the mean pressure with which the polar column descended the one foot was equal to the pressure of one foot of water. Consequently the mean amount of work performed by the descent of the mass was equal to one foot-pound per pound of water; this, added to the 3 foot-pounds derived from the slope, gives a total of 4 foot-pounds.
In whatever way we view the question, we are led to the conclusion that if 4 feet represent the amount of slope between the equatorial and polar columns when the two are in equilibrium, then 4 foot-pounds is the total amount of work that gravity can perform upon a pound of water in overcoming the resistance to motion in its passage from the equator to the pole down the slope, and then in its vertical descent to the bottom of the ocean.
But it will be replied, not only does the one foot of water P′ P descend, but the entire column P O, 10,000 feet in length, descends also. What, then, it will be asked, becomes of the force which gravity exerts in the descent of this column? We shall shortly see that this force is entirely applied in work against gravity in other parts of the circuit; so that not a single foot-pound of this force goes to overcome cohesion, friction, and other resistances; it is all spent in counteracting the efforts which gravity exerts to stop the current in another part of the circuit.
I shall now consider the next part of the movement, viz., the under or return current from the bottom of the polar to the bottom of the equatorial column. What produces this current? It is needless to say that it cannot be caused directly by gravity. Gravitation cannot directly draw any body horizontally along the earth’s surface. The water that forms this current is pressed out laterally by the weight of the polar column, and flows, or rather is pushed, towards the equator to supply the vacancy caused by the ascent of the equatorial column. There is a constant flow of water from the equator to the poles along the surface, and this draining of the water from the equator is supplied by the under or return current from the poles. But the only power which can impel the water from the bottom of the polar column to the bottom of the equatorial column is the pressure of the polar column. But whence does the polar column derive its pressure? It can only press to the extent that its weight exceeds that of the equatorial column. That which exerts the pressure is therefore the mass of water which has flowed down the slope from the equator upon the polar column. It is in this case the vertical movement that causes this under current. The energy which produces this current must consequently be derived from the 4 foot-pounds resulting from the slope; for the energy of the vertical movement, as has already been proved, is derived from this source; or, in other words, whatever power this vertical movement may exert is so much deducted from the 4 foot-pounds derived from the full slope.
Let us now consider the fourth and last movement, viz., the ascent of the under current to the surface of the ocean at the equator. When this cold under current reaches the equatorial regions, it ascends to the surface to the point whence it originally started on its circuit. What, then, lifts the water from the bottom of the equatorial column to its top? This cannot be done directly, either by heat or by gravity. When heat, for example, is applied to the bottom of a vessel, the heated water at the bottom expands and, becoming lighter than the water above, rises through it to the surface; but if the heat be applied to the surface of the water instead of to the bottom, the heat will not produce an ascending current. It will tend rather to prevent such a current than to produce one—the reason being that each successive layer of water will, on account of the heat applied, become hotter and consequently lighter than the layer below it, and colder and consequently heavier than the layer above it. It therefore cannot ascend, because it is too heavy; nor can it descend, because it is too light. But the sea in equatorial regions is heated from above, and not from below; consequently the water at the bottom does not rise to the surface at the equator in virtue of any heat which it receives. A layer of water can never raise the temperature of a layer below it to a higher temperature than itself; and since it cannot do this, it cannot make the layer under it lighter than itself. That which raises the water at the equator, according to Dr. Carpenter’s theory, must be the downward pressure of the polar column. When water flows down the slope from the equator to the pole, the polar column, as we have seen, becomes too heavy and the equatorial column too light; the former then sinks and the latter rises. It is the sinking of the polar column which raises the equatorial one. When the polar column descends, as much water is pressed in underneath the equatorial column as is pressed from underneath the polar column. If one foot of water is pressed from under the polar column, a foot of water is pressed in under the equatorial column. Thus, when the polar column sinks a foot, the equatorial column rises to the same extent. The equatorial water continuing to flow down the slope, the polar column descends: a foot of water is again pressed from underneath the polar column and a foot pressed in under the equatorial. As foot after foot is thus removed from the bottom of the polar column while it sinks, foot after foot is pushed in under the equatorial column while it rises; so by this means the water at the surface of the ocean in polar regions descends to the bottom, and the water at the bottom in equatorial regions ascends to the surface—the effect of solar heat and polar cold continuing, of course, to maintain the surface of the ocean in equatorial regions at a higher level than at the poles, and thus keeping up a constant state of disturbed equilibrium. Or, to state the matter in Dr. Carpenter’s own words, “The cold and dense polar water, as it flows in at the bottom of the equatorial column, will not directly take the place of that which has been drafted off from the surface; but this place will be filled by the rising of the whole superincumbent column, which, being warmer, is also lighter than the cold stratum beneath. Every new arrival from the poles will take its place below that which precedes it, since its temperature will have been less affected by contact with the warmer water above it. In this way an ascending movement will be imparted to the whole equatorial column, and in due course every portion of it will come under the influence of the surface-heat of the sun.”[73]
But the agency which raises up the water of the under current to the surface is the pressure of the polar column. The equatorial column cannot rise directly by means of gravity. Gravity, instead of raising the column, exerts all its powers to prevent its rising. Gravity here is a force acting against the current. It is the descent of the polar column, as has been stated, that raises the equatorial column. Consequently the entire amount of work performed by gravity in pulling down the polar column is spent in raising the equatorial column. Gravity performs exactly as much work in preventing motion in the equatorial column as it performs in producing motion in the polar column; so that, so far as the vertical parts of Dr. Carpenter’s circulation are concerned, gravity may be said neither to produce motion nor to prevent it. And this remark, be it observed, applies not only to P O and E Q, but also to the parts P′ P and E E′ of the two columns. When a mass of water E E′, say one foot deep, is removed off the equatorial column and placed upon the polar column, the latter column is then heavier than the former by the weight of two feet of water. Gravity then exerts more force in pulling the polar column down than it does in preventing the equatorial column from rising; and the consequence is that the polar column begins to descend and the equatorial column to rise. But as the polar column continues to descend and the equatorial to rise, the power of gravity to produce motion in the polar column diminishes, and the power of gravity to prevent motion in the equatorial column increases; and when P′ descends to P and E′ rises to E, the power of gravity to prevent motion in the equatorial column is exactly equal to the power of gravity to produce motion in the polar column, and consequently motion ceases. It therefore follows that the entire amount of work performed by the descent of P′ P is spent in raising E′ E against gravity.
It follows also that inequalities in the sea-bottom cannot in any way aid the circulation; for although the cold under current should in its progress come to a deep trough filled with water less dense than itself, it would no doubt sink to the bottom of the hollow; yet before it could get out again as much work would have to be performed against gravity as was performed by gravity in sinking it. But whilst inequalities in the bed of the ocean would not aid the current, they would nevertheless very considerably retard it by the obstructions which they would offer to the motion of the water.
We have been assuming that the weight of P′ P is equal to that of E E′; but the mass P′ P must be greater than E E′ because P′ P has not only to raise E E′, but to impel the under current—to push the water along the sea-bottom from the pole to the equator. So we must have a mass of water, in addition to P′ P, placed on the polar column to enable it to produce the under current in addition to the raising of the equatorial column.
It follows also that the amount of work which can be performed by gravity depends entirely on the difference of temperature between the equatorial and the polar waters, and is wholly independent of the way in which the temperature may decrease from the equator to the poles. Suppose, in agreement with Dr. Carpenter’s idea,[74] that the equatorial heat and polar cold should be confined to limited areas, and that through the intermediate space no great difference of temperature should prevail. Such an arrangement as this would not increase the amount of work which gravity could perform; it would simply make the slope steeper at the two extremes and flatter in the intervening space. It would no doubt aid the surface-flow of the water near the equator and the poles, but it would retard in a corresponding degree the flow of the water in the intermediate regions. In short, it would merely destroy the uniformity of the slope without aiding in the least degree the general motion of the water.
It is therefore demonstrable that the energy derived from the full slope, whatever that slope may be, comprehends all that can possibly be obtained from gravity.
It cannot be urged as an objection to what has been advanced that I have determined simply the amount of the force acting on the water at the surface of the ocean and not that on the water at all depths—that I have estimated the amount of work which gravity can perform on a given quantity of water at the surface, but not the total amount of work which gravity can perform on the entire ocean. This objection will not stand, because it is at the surface of the ocean where the greatest difference of temperature, and consequently of density, exists between the equatorial and polar waters, and therefore there that gravity exerts its greatest force. And if gravity be unable to move the water at the surface, it is much less able to do so under the surface. So far as the question at issue is concerned, any calculations as to the amount of force exerted by gravity at various depths are needless.
It is maintained also that the winds cannot produce a vertical current except under some very peculiar conditions. We have already seen that, according to Dr. Carpenter’s theory, the vertical motion is caused by the water flowing off the equatorial column, down the slope, upon the polar column, thus destroying the equilibrium between the two by diminishing the weight of the equatorial column and increasing that of the polar column. In order that equilibrium may be restored, the polar column sinks and the equatorial one rises. Now must not the same effect occur, supposing the water to be transferred from the one column to the other, by the influence of the winds instead of by the influence of gravity? The vertical descent and ascent of these columns depend entirely upon the difference in their weights, and not upon the nature of the agency which makes this difference. So far as difference of weight is concerned, 2 feet of water, propelled down the slope from the equatorial column to the polar by the winds, will produce just the same effect as though it had been propelled by gravity. If vertical motion follows as a necessary consequence from a transference of water from the equator to the poles by gravity, it follows equally as a necessary consequence from the same transference by the winds; so that one is not at liberty to advocate a vertical circulation in the one case and to deny it in the other.
Gravitation Theory of the Gibraltar Current.—If difference of specific gravity fails to account for the currents of the ocean in general, it certainly fails in a still more decided manner to account for the Gibraltar current. The existence of the submarine ridge between Capes Trafalgar and Spartel, as was shown in the Phil. Mag. for October, 1871, p. 269, affects currents resulting from difference of specific gravity in a manner which does not seem to have suggested itself to Dr. Carpenter. The pressure of water and other fluids is not like that of a solid—not like that of the weight in the scale of a balance, simply a downward pressure. Fluids press downwards like the solids, but they also press laterally. The pressure of water is hydrostatic. If we fill a basin with water or any other fluid, the fluid remains in perfect equilibrium, provided the sides of the basin be sufficiently strong to resist the pressure. The Mediterranean and Atlantic, up to the level of the submarine ridge referred to, may be regarded as huge basins, the sides of which are sufficiently strong to resist all pressure. It follows that, however much denser the water of the Mediterranean may be than that of the Atlantic, it is only the water above the level of the ridge that can possibly exercise any influence in the way of disturbing equilibrium, so as to cause the level of the Mediterranean to stand lower than that of the Atlantic. The water of the Atlantic below the level of this ridge might be as light as air, and that of the Mediterranean as heavy as molten lead, but this could produce no disturbance of equilibrium; and if there be no difference of density between the Atlantic and the Mediterranean waters from the surface down to the level of the top of the ridge, then there can be nothing to produce the circulation which Dr. Carpenter infers. Suppose both basins empty, and dense water to be poured into the Mediterranean, and water less dense into the Atlantic, until they are both filled up to the level of the ridge, it is evident that the heavier water in the one basin can exercise no influence in raising the level of the lighter water in the other basin, the entire pressure being borne by the sides of the basins. But if we continue to pour in water till the surface is raised, say one foot, above the level of the ridge, then there is nothing to resist the lateral pressure of this one foot of water in the Mediterranean but the counter pressure of the one foot in the Atlantic. But as the Mediterranean water is denser than the Atlantic, this one foot of water will consequently exert more pressure than the one foot of water of the Atlantic. We must therefore continue to pour more water into the Atlantic until its lateral pressure equals that of the Mediterranean. The two seas will then be in equilibrium, but the surface of the Atlantic will of course be at a higher level than the surface of the Mediterranean. The difference of level will be proportionate to the difference in density of the waters of the two seas. But here we come to the point of importance. In determining the difference of level between the two seas, or, which is the same thing, the difference of level between a column of the Atlantic and a column of the Mediterranean, we must take into consideration only the water which lies above the level of the ridge. If there be one foot of water above the ridge, then there is a difference of level proportionate to the difference of pressure between the one foot of water of the two seas. If there be 2 feet, 3 feet, or any number of feet of water above the level of the ridge, the difference of level is proportionate to the 2 feet, 3 feet, or whatever number of feet there may be of water above the ridge. If, for example, 13 should represent the density of the Mediterranean water and 12 the density of the Atlantic water, then if there were one foot of water in the Mediterranean above the level of the ridge, there would require to be one foot one inch of water in the Atlantic above the ridge in order that the two might be in equilibrium. The difference of level would therefore be one inch. If there were 2 feet of water, the difference of level would be 2 inches; if 3 feet, the difference would be 3 inches, and so on. And this would follow, no matter what the actual depth of the two basins might be; the water below the level of the ridge exercising no influence whatever on the level of the surface.
Taking Dr. Carpenter’s own data as to the density of the Mediterranean and Atlantic waters, what, then, is the difference of density? The submarine ridge comes to within 167 fathoms of the surface; say, in round numbers, to within 1,000 feet. What are the densities of the two basins down to the depth of 1,000 feet? According to Dr. Carpenter there is little, if any, difference. His own words on this point are these:—“A comparison of these results leaves no doubt that there is an excess of salinity in the water of the Mediterranean above that of the Atlantic; but that this excess is slight in the surface-water, whilst somewhat greater in the deeper water” (§ 7). “Again, it was found by examining samples of water taken from the surface, from 100 fathoms, from 250 fathoms, and from 400 fathoms respectively, that whilst the first two had the characteristic temperature and density of Atlantic water, the last two had the characteristics and density of Mediterranean water” (§ 13). Here, at least to the depth of 100 fathoms or 600 feet, there is little difference of density between the waters of the two basins. Consequently down to the depth of 600 feet, there is nothing to produce any sensible disturbance of equilibrium. If there be any sensible disturbance of equilibrium, it must be in consequence of difference of density which may exist between the depths of 600 feet and the surface of the ridge. We have nothing to do with any difference which may exist between the water of the Mediterranean and the Atlantic below the ridge; the water in the Mediterranean basin may be as heavy as mercury below 1,000 feet: but this can have no effect in disturbing equilibrium. The water to the depth of 600 feet being of the same density in both seas, the length of the two columns acting on each other is therefore reduced to 400 feet—that is, to that stratum of water lying at a depth of from 600 to the surface of the ridge 1,000 feet below the surface. But, to give the theory full justice, we shall take the Mediterranean stratum at the density of the deep water of the Mediterranean, which he found to be about 1·029, and the density of the Atlantic stratum at 1·026. The difference of density between the two columns is therefore ·003. Consequently, if the height of the Mediterranean column be 400 feet, it will be balanced by the Atlantic column of 401·2 feet; the difference of level between the Mediterranean and the Atlantic cannot therefore be more than 1·2 foot. The amount of work that can be performed by gravity in the case of the Gibraltar current is little more than one foot-pound per pound of water, an amount of energy evidently inadequate to produce the current.
It is true that in his last expedition Dr. Carpenter found the bottom-water on the ridge somewhat denser than Atlantic water at the same depth, the former being 1·0292 and the latter 1·0265; but it also proved to be denser than Mediterranean water at the same depth. He found, for example, that “the dense Mediterranean water lies about 100 fathoms nearer the surface over a 300-fathoms bottom, than it does where the bottom sinks to more than 500 fathoms” (§ 51). But any excess of density which might exist at the ridge could have no tendency whatever to make the Mediterranean column preponderate over the Atlantic column, any more than could a weight placed over the fulcrum of a balance have a tendency to make the one scale weigh down the other.
If the objection referred to be sound, it shows the mechanical impossibility of the theory. It proves that whether there be an under current or not, or whether the dense water lying in the deep trough of the Mediterranean be carried over the submarine ridge into the Atlantic or not, the explanation offered by Dr. Carpenter is one which cannot be admitted. It is incumbent on him to explain either (1) how the almost infinitesimal difference of density which exists between the Atlantic and Mediterranean columns down to the level of the ridge can produce the upper and under currents carrying the deep and dense water of the Mediterranean over the ridge, or (2) how all this can be done by means of the difference of density which exists below the level of the ridge.[75] What the true cause of the Gibraltar current really is will be considered in Chap. XIII.
The Baltic Current.—The entrance to the Baltic Sea is in some places not over 50 or 60 feet deep. It follows, therefore, from what has already been proved in regard to the Gibraltar current, that the influence of gravity must be even still less in causing a current in the Baltic strait than in the Gibraltar strait.
CHAPTER X.
EXAMINATION OF THE GRAVITATION THEORY OF OCEANIC CIRCULATION.—DR. CARPENTER’S THEORY.—OBJECTIONS CONSIDERED.
Modus Operandi of the Matter.—Polar Cold considered by Dr. Carpenter the Primum Mobile.—Supposed Influence of Heat derived from the Earth’s Crust.—Circulation without Difference of Level.—A Confusion of Ideas in Reference to the supposed Agency of Polar Cold.—M. Dubuat’s Experiments.—A Begging of the Question at Issue.—Pressure as a Cause of Circulation.
In the foregoing chapter, the substance of which appeared in the Phil. Mag. for October, 1871, I have represented the manner in which difference of specific gravity produces circulation. But Dr. Carpenter appears to think that there are some important points which I have overlooked. These I shall now proceed to consider in detail.
“Mr. Croll’s whole manner of treating the subject,” he says, “is so different from that which it appears to me to require, and he has so completely misapprehended my own view of the question, that I feel it requisite to present this in fuller detail in order that physicists and mathematicians, having both sides fully before them, may judge between us” (§ 26).[76]
He then refers to a point so obvious as hardly to require consideration, viz., the effect which results when the surface of the entire area of a lake or pond of water is cooled. The whole of the surface-film, being chilled at the same time, sinks through the subjacent water, and a new film from the warmer layer immediately beneath the surface rises into its place. This being cooled in its turn, sinks, and so on. He next considers what takes place when only a portion of the surface of the pond is cooled, and shows that in this case the surface-film which descends is replaced not from beneath, but by an inflow from the neighbouring area.
“That such must be the case,” says Dr. Carpenter, “appears to me so self-evident that I am surprised that any person conversant with the principles of physical science should hesitate in admitting it, still more that he should explicitly deny it. But since others may feel the same difficulty as Mr. Croll, it may be worth while for me to present the case in a form of yet more elementary simplicity” (§ 29).
Then, in order to show the mode in which the general oceanic circulation takes place, he supposes two cylindrical vessels, W and C, of equal size, to be filled with sea-water. Cylinder W represents the equatorial column, and the water contained in it has its temperature maintained at 60°; whilst the water in the other cylinder C, representing the polar column, has its temperature maintained at 30° by means of the constant application of cold at the top. Free communication is maintained between the two cylinders at top and bottom; and the water in the cold cylinder being, in virtue of its low temperature, denser than the water in the warm cylinder, the two columns are therefore not in static equilibrium. The cold, and hence heavier column tends to produce an outflow of water from its bottom to the bottom of the warm column, which outflow is replaced by an inflow from the top of the warm column to the top of the cold column. In fact, we have just a simple repetition of what he has given over and over again in his various memoirs on the subject. But why so repeatedly enter into the modus operandi of the matter? Who feels any difficulty in understanding how the circulation is produced?
Polar Cold considered by Dr. Carpenter the Primum Mobile.—It is evident that Dr. Carpenter believes that he has found in polar cold an agency the potency of which, in producing a general oceanic circulation, has been overlooked by physicists; and it is with the view of developing his ideas on this subject that he has entered so fully and so frequently into the exposition of his theory. “If I have myself done anything,” he says, “to strengthen the doctrine, it has been by showing that polar cold, rather than equatorial heat, is the primum mobile of this circulation.”[77]
The influence of the sun in heating the waters of the inter-tropical seas is, in Dr. Carpenter’s manner of viewing the problem, of no great importance. The efficient cause of motion he considers resides in cold rather than in heat. In fact, he even goes the length of maintaining that, as a power in the production of the general interchange of equatorial and polar water, the effect of polar cold is so much superior to that of inter-tropical heat, that the influence of the latter may be practically disregarded.
“Suppose two basins of ocean-water,” he says, “connected by a strait to be placed under such different climatic conditions that the surface of one is exposed to the heating influence of tropical sunshine, whilst the surface of the other is subjected to the extreme cold of the sunless polar winter. The effect of the surface-heat upon the water of the tropical basin will be for the most part limited (as I shall presently show) to its uppermost stratum, and may here be practically disregarded.”[78]
Dr. Carpenter’s idea regarding the efficiency of cold in producing motion seems to me to be not only opposed to the generally received views on the subject, but wholly irreconcilable with the ordinary principles of mechanics. In fact, there are so many points on which Dr. Carpenter’s theory of a “General Vertical Oceanic Circulation” differs from the generally received views on the subject of circulation by means of difference of specific gravity, that I have thought it advisable to enter somewhat minutely into the consideration of the mechanics of that theory, the more so as he has so repeatedly asserted that eminent physicists agree with what he has advanced on the subject.
According to the generally received theory, the circulation is due to the difference of density between the sea in equatorial and polar regions. The real efficient cause is gravity; but gravity cannot act when there is no difference of specific gravity. If the sea were of equal density from the poles to the equator, gravity could exercise no influence in the production of circulation; and the influence which it does possess is in proportion to the difference of density. But the difference of density between equatorial and polar waters is in turn due not absolutely either to polar cold or to tropical heat, but to both—or, in other words, to the difference of temperature between the polar and equatorial seas. This difference, in the very nature of things, must be as much the result of equatorial heat as of polar cold. If the sea in equatorial regions were not being heated by the sun as rapidly as the sea in polar regions is being cooled, the difference of temperature between them, and consequently the difference of density, would be diminishing, and in course of time would disappear altogether. As has already been shown, it is a necessary consequence that the water flowing from equatorial to polar regions must be compensated by an equal amount flowing from polar to equatorial regions. Now, if the water flowing from polar to equatorial regions were not being heated as rapidly as the water flowing from equatorial to polar regions is being cooled, the equatorial seas would gradually become colder and colder until no sensible difference of temperature existed between them and the polar oceans. In fact, equality of the two rates is necessary to the very existence of such a general circulation as that advocated by Dr. Carpenter. If he admits that the general interchange of equatorial and polar water advocated by him is caused by the difference of density between the water at the equator and the poles, resulting from difference of temperature, then he must admit also that this difference of density is just as much due to the heating of the equatorial water by the sun as it is to the cooling of the polar water by radiation and other means—or, in other words, that it is as much due to equatorial heat as to polar cold. And if so, it cannot be true that polar cold rather than equatorial heat is the “primum mobile” of this circulation; and far less can it be true that the heating of the equatorial water by the sun is of so little importance that it may be “practically disregarded.”
Supposed Influence of Heat derived from the Earth’s Crust.—There is, according to Dr. Carpenter, another agent concerned in the production of the general oceanic circulation, viz., the heat derived by the bottom of the ocean from the crust of the earth.[79] We have no reason to believe that the quantity of internal heat coming through the earth’s crust is greater in one part of the globe than in another; nor have we any grounds for concluding that the bottom of inter-tropical seas receives more heat from the earth’s crust than the bottom of those in polar regions. But if the polar seas receive as much heat from this source as the seas within the tropics, then the difference of density between the two cannot possibly be due to heat received from the earth’s crust; and this being so, it is mechanically impossible that internal heat can be a cause in the production of the general oceanic circulation.
Circulation without Difference of Level.—There is another part of the theory which appears to me irreconcilable with mechanics. It is maintained that this general circulation takes place without any difference of level between the equator and the poles. Referring to the case of the two cylinders W and C, which represent the equatorial and polar columns respectively, Dr. Carpenter says:—
“The force which will thus lift up the entire column of water in W is that which causes the descent of the entire column in C, namely, the excess of gravity constantly acting in C,—the levels of the two columns, and consequently their heights, being maintained at a constant equality by the free passage of surface-water from W to C.”
“The whole of Mr. Croll’s discussion of this question, however,” he continues, “proceeds upon the assumption that the levels of the polar and equatorial columns are not kept at an equality, &c.” (§ 30.) And again, “Now, so far from asserting (as Captain Maury has done) that the trifling difference of level arising from inequality of temperature is adequate to the production of ocean-currents, I simply affirm that as fast as the level is disturbed by change of temperature it will be restored by gravity.” (§ 23.)[80]
Fig. 3.
In order to understand more clearly how the circulation under consideration cannot take place without a difference of level, let W E (Fig. 3) represent the equatorial column, and C P the polar column. The equatorial column is warmer than the polar column because it receives more heat from the sun than the latter; and the polar is colder than the equatorial column because it receives less. The difference in the density of the two columns results from their difference of temperature; and the difference of temperature results in turn from the difference in the quantity of heat received from the sun by each. Or, to express the matter in other words, the difference of density (and consequently the circulation under consideration) is due to the excess of heat received from the sun by the equatorial over that received by the polar column; so that to leave out of account the super-heating of the inter-tropical waters by the sun is to leave out of account the very thing of all others that is absolutely essential to the existence of the circulation. The water being assumed to be the same in both columns and differing only as regards temperature, and the equatorial column possessing more heat than the polar, and being therefore less dense than the latter, it follows, in order that the two columns may be in static equilibrium, that the surface of the equatorial column must stand at a higher level than that of the polar. This produces the slope W C from the equator to the pole. The extent of the slope will of course depend upon the extent of the difference of their temperatures. But, as was shown on a former occasion,[81] it is impossible that static equilibrium can ever be fully obtained, because the slope occasioned by the elevation of the equatorial column above the polar produces what we may be allowed to call a molecular disturbance of equilibrium. The surface of the ocean, or the molecules of water lying on the slope, are not in a position of equilibrium, but tend, in virtue of gravity, to roll down the slope in the direction of the polar column C. It will be observed that the more we gain of static equilibrium of the entire ocean the greater is the slope, and consequently the greater is the disturbance of molecular equilibrium; and, vice versâ, the more molecular equilibrium is restored by the reduction of the slope, the greater is the disturbance of static equilibrium. It is therefore absolutely impossible that both conditions of equilibrium can be fulfilled at the same time so long as a difference of temperature exists between the two columns. And this conclusion holds true even though we should assume water to be a perfect fluid absolutely devoid of viscosity. It follows, therefore, that a general oceanic circulation without a difference of level is a mechanical impossibility.
In a case of actual circulation due to difference of gravity, there is always a constant disturbance of both static and molecular equilibrium. Column C is always higher and column W always lower than it ought to be were the two in equilibrium; but they never can be at the same level.
It is quite conceivable, of course, that the two conditions of equilibrium may be fulfilled alternately. We can conceive column C remaining stationary till the water flowing from column W has restored the level. And after the level is restored we can conceive the polar column C sinking and the equatorial column W rising till the two perfectly balance each other. Such a mode of circulation, consisting of an alternate surface-flow and vertical descent and ascent of the columns, though conceivable, is in reality impossible in nature; for there are no means by which the polar column C could be supported from sinking till the level had been restored. But Dr. Carpenter does not assume that the general oceanic circulation takes place in this intermitting manner; according to him, the circulation is constant. He asserts that there is a “continual transference of water from the bottom of C to the bottom of W, and from the top of W to the top of C, with a constant descending movement in C and a constant ascending movement in W” (§ 29). But such a condition of things is irreconcilable with the idea of “the levels of the two columns, and consequently their heights, being maintained at a constant equality” (§ 29).
Although Dr. Carpenter does not admit the existence of a permanent difference of level between the equator and the pole, he nevertheless speaks of a depression of level in the polar basin resulting from the contraction by cooling of the water flowing into it. This reduction of level induces an inflow of water from the surrounding area; “and since what is drawn away,” to quote his own words, “is supplied from a yet greater distance, the continued cooling of the surface-stratum in the polar basin will cause a ‘set’ of waters towards it, to be propagated backwards through the whole intervening ocean in communication with it until it reaches the tropical area.” The slope produced between the polar basin and the surrounding area, if sufficiently great, will enable the water in the surrounding area to flow polewards; but unless this slope extend to the equator, it will not enable the tropical waters also to flow polewards. One of two things necessarily follows: either the slope extends from the equator to the pole, or water can flow from the equator to the pole without a slope. If Dr. Carpenter maintains the former, he contradicts himself; and if he adopts the latter, he contradicts an obvious principle of mechanics.
A Confusion of Ideas in Reference to the supposed Agency of Polar Cold.—It seems to me that Dr. Carpenter has been somewhat misled by a slight confusion of ideas in reference to the supposed agency of polar cold. This is brought out forcibly in the following passage from his memoir in the Proceedings of the Royal Geographical Society, vol. xv.
“Mr. Croll, in arguing against the doctrine of a general oceanic circulation sustained by difference of temperature, and justly maintaining that such a circulation cannot be produced by the application of heat at the surface, has entirely ignored the agency of cold.”
It is here supposed that there are two agents at work in the production of the general oceanic circulation. The one agent is heat, acting at the equatorial regions; and the other agent is cold, acting at the polar regions. It is supposed that the agency of cold is far more powerful than that of heat. In fact so trifling is the agency of equatorial heat in comparison with that of polar cold that it may be “practically disregarded”—left out of account altogether,—polar cold being the primum mobile of the circulation. It is supposed also that I have considered the efficiency of one of the agents, viz., heat, and found it totally inadequate to produce the circulation in question; and it is admitted also that my conclusions are perfectly correct. But then I am supposed to have left out of account the other agent, viz., polar cold, the only agent possessing real potency. Had I taken into account polar cold, it is supposed that I should have found at once a cause perfectly adequate to produce the required effect.
This is a fair statement of Dr. Carpenter’s views on the subject; I am unable, at least, to attach any other meaning to his words. And I have no doubt they are also the views which have been adopted by those who have accepted his theory.
It must be sufficiently evident from what has already been stated, that the notion of there being two separate agents at work producing circulation, namely heat and cold, the one of which is assumed to have much more potency than the other, is not only opposed to the views entertained by physicists, but is also wholly irreconcilable with the ordinary principles of mechanics. But more than this, if we analyze the subject a little so as to remove some of the confusion of ideas which besets it, we shall find that these views are irreconcilable with even Dr. Carpenter’s own explanation of the cause of the general oceanic circulation.
Cold is not a something positive imparted to the polar waters giving them motion, and of which the tropical waters are deprived. If, dipping one hand into a basin filled with tropical water at 80° and the other into one filled with polar water at 32°, we refer to our sensations, we call the water in the one hot and that in the other cold; but so far as the water itself is concerned heat and cold simply mean difference in the amounts of heat possessed. Both the polar and the tropical water possess a certain amount of energy in the form of heat, only the polar water does not possess so much of it as the tropical.
How, then, according to Dr. Carpenter, does polar cold impart motion to the water? The warm water flowing in upon the polar column becomes chilled by cold, but it is not cooled below that of the water underneath; for, according to Dr. Carpenter, the ocean in polar regions is as cold and as dense underneath as at the surface. The cooled surface-water does not sink through the water underneath, like the surface-water of a pond chilled during a frosty night. “The descending motion in column C will not consist,” he says, “in a successional descent of surface-films from above downwards, but it will be a downward movement of the entire mass, as if water in a tall jar were being drawn off through an orifice at the bottom” (§ 29). There is a downward motion of the entire column, producing an outflow of water at the bottom towards the equatorial column W, which outflow is compensated by an inflow from the top of the equatorial column to the top of the polar column C. But what causes column C to descend? The cause of the descent is its excess of weight over that of column W. Column C descends and column W ascends, for the same reason that in a balance the heavy scale descends and the light scale rises. Column C descends not simply because it is cold, but because it is colder than column W. Column C descends not simply because in consequence of being cold it is dense and therefore heavy, but because in consequence of being cold it is denser and therefore heavier than column W. It might be as cold as frozen mercury and as heavy as lead; but it would not on that account descend unless it were heavier than column W. The descent of column C and ascent of column W, and consequently the general oceanic circulation, results, therefore, according to Dr. Carpenter’s explanation, from the difference in the weights of the two columns; and the difference in the weights of the two columns results from their difference of density; and the difference of density of the two columns in turn results from their difference of temperature. But it has already been proved that the difference of temperature between the polar and equatorial columns depends wholly on the difference in the amount of heat received by each from the sun. The equatorial column W possesses more heat than the polar column C, solely because it receives more heat from the sun than column C. Consequently Dr. Carpenter’s statement that the circulation is produced by polar cold rather than by equatorial heat, is just as much in contradiction to his own theory as it is to the principles of mechanics. Again, his admission that the general oceanic circulation “cannot be produced by the application of heat to the surface,” is virtually a giving up the whole point in debate; for according to his gravitation theory, and every form of that theory, the circulation results from difference of temperature between equatorial and polar seas; but this difference, as we have seen, is entirely owing to the difference in the amount of heat received from the sun at these two places. The heat received, however, is “surface-heat;” for it is at the surface that the ocean receives all its heat from the sun; and consequently if surface-heat cannot produce the effect required, nothing else can.
M. Dubuat’s Experiments.—Referring to the experiments of M. Dubuat adduced by me to show that water would not run down a slope of 1 in 1,820,000,[82] he says, “Now the experiments of M. Dubuat had reference, not to the slow restoration of level produced by the motion of water on itself, but to the sensible movement of water flowing over solid surfaces and retarded by its friction against them” (§ 22). Dr. Carpenter’s meaning, I presume, is that if the incline consist of any solid substance, water will not flow down it; but if it be made of water itself, water will flow down it. But in M. Dubuat’s experiments it was only the molecules in actual contact with the solid incline that could possibly be retarded by friction against it. The molecules not in contact with the solid incline evidently rested upon an incline of water, and were at perfect liberty to roll down that incline if they chose; but they did not do so; and consequently M. Dubuat’s experiment proved that water will not flow over itself on an incline of 1 in 1,000,000.
A Begging of the Question at Issue.—“It is to be remembered,” says Dr. Carpenter, “that, however small the original amount of movement may be, a momentum tending to its continuance must be generated from the instant of its commencement; so that if the initiating force be in constant action, there will be a progressive acceleration of its rate, until the increase of resistance equalises the tendency to further acceleration. Now, if it be admitted that the propagation of the disturbance of equilibrium from one column to another is simply retarded, not prevented, by the viscosity of the liquid, I cannot see how the conclusion can be resisted, that the constantly maintained difference of gravity between the polar and equatorial columns really acts as a vis viva in maintaining a circulation between them” (§ 35).
If it be true, as Dr. Carpenter asserts, that in the case of the general oceanic circulation advocated by him “viscosity” simply retards motion, but does not prevent it, I certainly agree with him “that the constantly maintained difference of gravity between the polar and equatorial columns really acts as a vis viva in maintaining a circulation between them.” But to assert that it merely retards, but does not prevent, motion, is simply begging the question at issue. It is an established principle that if the force resisting motion be greater than the force tending to produce it, then no motion can take place and no work can be performed. The experiments of M. Dubuat prove that the force of the molecular resistance of water to motion is greater than the force derived from a slope of 1 in 1,000,000; and therefore it is simply begging the question at issue to assert that it is less. The experiments of MM. Barlow, Rainey, and others, to which he alludes, are scarcely worthy of consideration in relation to the present question, because we know nothing whatever regarding the actual amount of force producing motion of the water in these experiments, further than that it must have been enormously greater than that derived from a slope of 1 in 1,000,000.
Supposed Argument from the Tides.—Dr. Carpenter advances Mr. Ferrel’s argument in regard to the tides. The power of the moon to disturb the earth’s water, he asserts, is, according to Herschel, only 1/11,400,000th part of gravity, and that of the sun not over 1/25,736,400th part of gravity; yet the moon’s attractive force, even when counteracted by the sun, will produce a rise of the ocean. But as the disturbance of gravity produced by difference of temperature is far greater than the above, it ought to produce circulation.
It is here supposed that the force exerted by gravity on the ocean, resulting from difference of temperature, tending to produce the general oceanic circulation, is much greater than the force exerted on the ocean by the moon in the production of the tides. But if we examine the subject we shall find that the opposite is the case. The attraction of the moon tending to lift the waters of the ocean acts directly on every molecule from the surface to the bottom; but the force of gravity tending to produce the circulation in question acts directly on only a portion of the ocean. Gravity can exercise no direct force in impelling the underflow from the polar to the equatorial regions, nor in raising the water to the surface when it reaches the equatorial regions. Gravity can exercise no direct influence in pulling the water horizontally along the earth’s surface, nor in raising it up to the surface. The pull of gravity is always downwards, never horizontally nor upwards. Gravity will tend to pull the surface-water from the equator to the poles because here we have descent. Gravity will tend to sink the polar column because here also we have descent. But these are the only parts of the circuit where gravity has any tendency to produce motion. Motion in the other parts of the circuit, viz., along the bottom of the ocean from the poles to the equator and in raising the equatorial column, is produced by the pressure of the polar column; and consequently it is only indirectly that gravity may be said to produce motion in those parts. It is true that on certain portions of the ocean the force of gravity tending to produce motion is greater than the force of the moon’s attraction, tending to produce the tides; but this portion of the ocean is of inconsiderable extent. The total force of gravity acting on the entire ocean tending to produce circulation is in reality prodigiously less than the total force of the moon tending to produce the tides.
It is no doubt a somewhat difficult problem to determine accurately the total amount of force exercised by gravity on the ocean; but for our present purpose this is not necessary. All that we require at present is a very rough estimate indeed. And this can be attained by very simple considerations. Suppose we assume the mean depth of the sea to be, say, three miles. The mean depth may yet be found to be somewhat less than this, or it may be found to be somewhat greater; a slight mistake, however, in regard to the mass of the ocean will not materially affect our conclusions. Taking the depth at 3 miles, the force or direct pull of gravity on the entire waters of the ocean tending to the production of the general circulation will not amount to more than 1/24,000,000,000th that of gravity, or only about 1/2,100th that of the attraction of the moon in the production of the tides. Let it be observed that I am referring to the force or pull of gravity, and not to hydrostatic pressure.
The moon, by raising the waters of the ocean, will produce a slope of 2 feet in a quadrant; and because the raised water sinks and the level is restored, Mr. Ferrel concludes that a similar slope of 2 feet produced by difference of temperature will therefore be sufficient to produce motion and restore level. But it is overlooked that the restoration of level in the case of the tides is as truly the work of the moon as the disturbance of that level is. For the water raised by the attraction of the moon at one time is again, six hours afterwards, pulled down by the moon when the earth has turned round a quadrant.
No doubt the earth’s gravity alone would in course of time restore the level; but this does not follow as a logical consequence from Mr. Ferrel’s premises. If we suppose a slope to be produced in the ocean by the moon and the moon’s attraction withdrawn so as to allow the water to sink to its original level, the raised side will be the heaviest and the depressed side the lightest; consequently the raised side will tend to sink and the depressed side will tend to rise, in order that the ocean may regain its static equilibrium. But when a difference of level is produced by difference of temperature, the raised side is always the lightest and the depressed side is always the heaviest; consequently the very effort which the ocean makes to maintain its equilibrium tends to prevent the level being restored. The moon produces the tides chiefly by means of a simple yielding of the entire ocean considered as a mass; whereas in the case of a general oceanic circulation the level is restored by a flow of water at or near the surface. Consequently the amount of friction and molecular resistance to be overcome in the restoration of level in the latter case is much greater than in the former. The moon, as the researches of Sir William Thomson show, will produce a tide in a globe composed of a substance where no currents or general flow of the materials could possibly take place.
Pressure as a Cause of Circulation.—We shall now briefly refer to the influence of pressure (the indirect effects of gravity) in the production of the circulation under consideration. That which causes the polar column C to descend and the equatorial column W to ascend, as has repeatedly been remarked, is the difference in the weight of the two columns. The efficient cause in the production of the movement is, properly speaking, gravity; cold at the poles and heat at the equator, or, what is the same thing, the excess of heat received by the equator over that received by the poles is what maintains the difference of temperature between the two columns, and consequently is that also which maintains the difference of weight between them. In other words, difference of temperature is the cause which maintains the state of disturbed equilibrium. But the efficient cause of the circulation in question is gravity. Gravity, however, could not act without this state of disturbed equilibrium; and difference of temperature may therefore be called, in relation to the circulation, a necessary condition, while gravity may be termed the cause. Gravity sinks column C directly, but it raises column W indirectly by means of pressure. The same holds true in regard to the motion of the bottom-waters from C to W, which is likewise due to pressure. The pressure of the excess of the weight of column C over that of column W impels the bottom-water equatorwards and lifts the equatorial column. But on this point I need not dwell, as I have in the preceding chapter entered into a full discussion as to how this takes place.
We come now to the most important part of the inquiry, viz., how is the surface-water impelled from the equator to the poles? Is pressure from behind the impelling force here as in the case of the bottom-water of the ocean? It seems to me that, in attempting to account for the surface-flow from the equator to the poles, Dr. Carpenter’s theory signally fails. The force to which he appeals appears to be wholly inadequate to produce the required effect.
The experiments of M. Dubuat, as already noticed, prove that, any slope which can possibly result from the difference of temperature between the equator and the poles is wholly insufficient to enable gravity to move the waters; but it does not necessarily prove that the pressure resulting from the raised water at the equator may not be sufficient to produce motion. This point will be better understood from the following figure, where, as before, P C represents the polar column and E W the equatorial column.
Fig. 4.
It will be observed that the water in that wedge-shaped portion W C W′ forming the incline cannot be in a state of static equilibrium. A molecule of water at O, for example, will be pressed more in the direction of C than in the direction of W′, and the amount of this excess of pressure towards C will depend upon the height of W above the line C W′. It is evident that the pressure tending to move the molecule at O towards C will be far greater than the direct pull of gravity tending to draw a molecule at O′ lying on the surface of the incline towards C. The experiments of M. Dubuat prove that the direct force of gravity will not move the molecule at O′—that is, cause it to roll down the incline W C; but they do not prove that it may not yield to pressure from above, or that the pressure of the column W W′ will not move the molecule at O. The pressure is caused by gravity, and cannot, of course, enable gravity to perform more work than what is derived from the energy of gravity; it will enable gravity, however, to overcome resistance, which it could not do by direct action. But whether the pressure resulting from the greater height of the water at the equator due to its higher temperature be actually sufficient to produce displacement of the water is a question which I am wholly unable to answer.
If we suppose 4 feet 6 inches to be the height of the equatorial surface above the polar required to make the two columns balance each other, the actual difference of level between the two columns will certainly not be more than one-half that amount, because, if a circulation exist, the weight of the polar column must always be in excess of that of the equatorial. But this excess can only be obtained at the expense of the surface-slope, as has already been shown at length. The surface-slope probably will not be more than 2 feet or 2 feet 6 inches. Suppose the ocean to be of equal density from the poles to the equator, and that by some means or other the surface of the ocean at the equator is raised, say, 2 feet above that of the poles, then there can be little doubt that in such a case the water would soon regain its level; for the ocean at the equator being heavier than at the poles by the weight of a layer 2 feet in thickness, it would sink at the former place and rise at the latter until equilibrium was restored, producing, of course, a very slight displacement of the bottom-waters towards the poles. It will be observed, however, that restoration of level in this case takes place by a simple yielding, as it were, of the entire mass of the ocean without displacement of the molecules of the water over each other to any great extent. In the case of a slope produced by difference of temperature, however, the raised portion of the ocean is not heavier but lighter than the depressed portion, and consequently has no tendency to sink. Any movement which the ocean as a mass makes in order to regain equilibrium tends, as we have seen, rather to increase the difference of level than to reduce it. Restoration of level can only be produced by the forces which are in operation in the wedge-shaped mass W C W′, constituting the slope itself. But it will be observed by a glance at the Figure that, in order to the restoration of level, a large portion of the water W W′ at the equator will require to flow to C, the pole.
According to the general vertical oceanic circulation theory, pressure from behind is not one of the forces employed in the production of the flow from the equator to the poles. This is evident; for there can be no pressure from behind acting on the water if there be no slope existing between the equator and the poles. Dr. Carpenter not only denies the actual existence of a slope, but denies the necessity for its existence. But to deny the existence of a slope is to deny the existence of pressure, and to deny the necessity for a slope is to deny the necessity for pressure. That in Dr. Carpenter’s theory the surface-water is supposed to be drawn from the equator to the poles, and not pressed forward by a force from behind, is further evident from the fact that he maintains that the force employed is not vis a tergo but vis a fronte.[83]
CHAPTER XI.
THE INADEQUACY OF THE GRAVITATION THEORY PROVED BY ANOTHER METHOD.
Quantity of Heat which can be conveyed by the General Oceanic Circulation trifling.—Tendency in the Advocates of the Gravitation Theory to under-estimate the Volume of the Gulf-stream.—Volume of the Stream as determined by the Challenger.—Immense Volume of Warm Water discovered by Captain Nares.—Condition of North Atlantic inconsistent with the Gravitation Theory.—Dr. Carpenter’s Estimate of the Thermal Work of the Gulf-stream.
I shall now proceed by another method to prove the inadequacy of such a general oceanic circulation as that which Dr. Carpenter advocates. By contrasting the quantity of heat carried by the Gulf-stream from inter-tropical to temperate and polar regions with such amount as can possibly be conveyed in the same direction by means of a general oceanic circulation, it will become evident that the latter sinks into utter insignificance before the former.
In my earlier papers on the amount of heat conveyed by the Gulf-stream,[84] I estimated the volume of that stream as equal to that of a current 50 miles broad and 1,000 feet deep, flowing (from the surface to the bottom) at 4 miles an hour. Of course I did not mean, as Dr. Carpenter seems to suppose, that the stream at any particular place is 50 miles broad and 1,000 feet deep, or that it actually flows at the uniform rate of 4 miles an hour at surface and bottom. All I meant was, that the Gulf-stream is equal to that of a current of the above size and velocity. But in my recent papers on Ocean-currents, the substance of which appears in the present volume, to obviate any objections on the grounds of having over-estimated the volume, I have taken that at one half this estimate, viz., equal to a current 50 miles broad and 1,000 feet deep flowing at the rate of 2 miles an hour. I have estimated the mean temperature of the stream as it passes the Straits of Florida to be 65°, and have supposed that the water in its course becomes ultimately cooled down on an average to 40°. In this case each pound of water conveys 19,300 foot-pounds of heat from the Gulf of Mexico, to be employed in warming temperate and polar regions. Assuming these data to be correct, it follows that the amount of heat transferred from the Gulf of Mexico by this stream per day amounts to 77,479,650,000,000,000,000 foot-pounds. This enormous quantity of heat is equal to one-fourth of all that is received from the sun by the whole of the Atlantic Ocean from the Tropic of Cancer up to the Arctic Circle.
This is the amount of heat conveyed from inter-tropical to temperate and polar regions by the Gulf-stream. What now is the amount conveyed by means of the General Oceanic Circulation?
According to this theory there ought to be as much warm water flowing from inter-tropical regions towards the Antarctic as towards the Arctic Circle. We may, therefore, in our calculations, consider that the heat which is received in tropical regions to the south of the equator goes to warm the southern hemisphere, and that received on the north side of the equator to warm the northern hemisphere. The warm currents found in the North Atlantic in temperate regions we may conclude came from the regions lying to the north of the equator,—or, in other words, from that part of the Atlantic lying between the equator and the Tropic of Cancer. At least, according to the gravitation theory, we have no reason to believe that the quantity of warm water flowing from tropical to temperate and polar regions in the Atlantic is greater than the area between the equator and the Tropic of Cancer can supply—because it is affirmed that a very large proportion of the cold water found in the North Atlantic comes, not from the arctic, but from the antarctic regions. But if the North Atlantic is cooled by a cold stream from the southern hemisphere, the southern hemisphere in turn must be heated by a warm current from the North Atlantic—unless we assume that the compensating current flowing from the Atlantic into the southern hemisphere is as cold as the antarctic current, which is very improbable. But Dr. Carpenter admits that the quantity of warm water flowing from the Atlantic in equatorial regions towards the south is even greater than that flowing northwards. “The unrestricted communication,” he says, “which exists between the antarctic area and the great Southern Ocean-basins would involve, if the doctrine of a general oceanic circulation be admitted, a much more considerable interchange of waters between the antarctic and the equatorial areas than is possible in the northern hemisphere.”[85]
We have already seen that, were it not for the great mass of warm water which finds its way to the polar regions, the temperature of these regions would be enormously lower than they really are. It has been shown likewise that the comparatively high temperature of north-western Europe is due to the same cause. But if it be doubtful whether the Gulf-stream reaches our shores, and if it be true that, even supposing it did, it “could only affect the most superficial stratum,” and that the great mass of warm water found by Dr. Carpenter in his dredging expeditions came directly from the equatorial regions, and not from the Gulf-stream, then the principal part of the heating-effect must be attributed, not to the Gulf-stream, but to the general flow of water from the equatorial regions. It surely would not, then, be too much to assume that the quantity of heat conveyed from equatorial regions by this general flow of water into the North Atlantic is at least equal to that conveyed by the Gulf-stream. If we assume this to be the amount of heat conveyed by the two agencies into the Atlantic from inter-tropical regions, it will, of course, be equal to twice that conveyed by the Gulf-stream alone.
We shall now consider whether the area of the Atlantic to the north of the equator is sufficient to supply the amount of heat demanded by Dr. Carpenter’s theory.
The entire area of the Atlantic, extending from the equator to the Tropic of Cancer, including the Caribbean Sea and the Gulf of Mexico, is about 7,700,000 square miles.
The quantity of heat conveyed by the Gulf-stream through the Straits of Florida is, as we have already endeavoured to show, equal to all the heat received from the sun by 1,560,935 square miles at the equator. The annual quantity of heat received from the sun by the torrid zone per unit surface, taking the mean of the whole zone, is to that received by the equator as 39 to 40, consequently the quantity of heat conveyed by the Gulf-stream is equal to all the heat received by 1,600,960 square miles of the Atlantic in the torrid zone.
But if, according to Dr. Carpenter’s views, the quantity of heat conveyed from the tropical regions is double that conveyed by the Gulf-stream, the amount of heat in this case conveyed into the Atlantic in temperate regions will be equal to all the heat received from the sun by 3,201,920 square miles of the Atlantic between the equator and the Tropic of Cancer. This is 32/77ths of all the heat received from the sun by that area.
Taking the annual quantity received per unit surface at the equator at 1,000, the quantities received by the three zones would be respectively as follows:—
| Equator | 1000 |
| Torrid zone | 975 |
| Temperate zone | 757 |
| Frigid zone | 454 |
Now, if we remove from the Atlantic in tropical regions 32/77ths of the heat received from the sun, we remove 405 parts from every 975 received from the sun, and consequently only 570 parts per unit surface remain.
It has been shown[86] that the quantity of heat conveyed by the Gulf-stream from the equatorial regions into the temperate regions is equal to 100/412ths of all the heat received by the Atlantic in temperate regions. But according to the theory under consideration the quantity removed is double this, or equal to 100/206ths of all the heat received from the sun. But the amount received from the sun is equal to 757 parts per unit surface; add then to this 100/206ths of 757, or 367, and we have 1,124 parts of heat per unit surface as the amount possessed by the Atlantic in temperate regions. The Atlantic should in this case be much warmer in temperate than in tropical regions; for in temperate regions it would possess 1,124 parts of heat per unit surface, whereas in tropical regions it would possess only 570 parts per unit surface. Of course the heat conveyed from tropical regions does not all remain in temperate regions; a very considerable portion of it must pass into the arctic regions. Let us, then, assume that one half goes to warm the Arctic Ocean, and the other half remains in the temperate regions. In this case 183·5 parts would remain, and consequently 757 + 183·5 = 940·5 parts would be the quantity possessed by the Atlantic in temperate regions, a quantity which still exceeds by no less than 370·5 parts the heat possessed by the Atlantic in tropical regions.
As one half of the amount of heat conveyed from the tropical regions is assumed to go into the Arctic Ocean, the quantity passing into that ocean would therefore be equal to that which passes through the Straits of Florida, an amount which, as we have found, is equal to all the heat received from the sun by 3,436,900 square miles of the Arctic Ocean.[87] The entire area covered by sea beyond the Arctic Circle is under 5,000,000 square miles; but taking the Arctic Ocean in round numbers at 5,000,000 square miles, the quantity of heat conveyed into it by currents to that received from the sun would therefore be as 3,436,900 to 5,000,000.
The amount received on the unit surface of the arctic regions we have seen to be 454 parts. The amount received from the currents would therefore be 312 parts. This gives 766 parts of heat per unit surface as the quantity possessed by the Arctic Ocean. Thus the Arctic Ocean also would contain more heat than the Atlantic in tropical regions; for the Atlantic in these regions would, in the case under consideration, possess only 570 parts, while the Arctic Ocean would possess 766 parts. It is true that more rays are cut off in arctic regions than in tropical; but still, after making due allowance for this, the Arctic Ocean, if the theory we are considering were true, ought to be as warm as, if not warmer than, the Atlantic in tropical regions. The relative quantities of heat possessed by the three zones would therefore be as follows:—
| Atlantic, in torrid zone | 570 |
| 〃 in temperate zone | 940 |
| 〃 in frigid zone | 766 |
It is here assumed, however, that none of the heat possessed by the Gulf-stream is derived from the southern hemisphere, which, we know, is not the case. But supposing that as much as one half of the heat possessed by the stream came from the southern hemisphere, and that the other half was obtained from the seas lying between the equator and the Tropic of Cancer, the relative proportions of heat possessed by the three zones per given area would be as follows:—
| Atlantic, in torrid zone | 671 |
| 〃 in temperate zone | 940 |
| 〃 in frigid zone | 766 |
This proves incontestably that, supposing there is such a general oceanic circulation as is maintained, the quantity of heat conveyed by means of it into the North Atlantic and Arctic Oceans must be trifling in comparison with that conveyed by the Gulf-stream; for if it nearly equalled that conveyed by the Gulf-stream, then not only the North Atlantic in temperate regions, but even the Arctic Ocean itself would be much warmer than the inter-tropical seas. In fact, so far as the distribution of heat over the globe is concerned, it is a matter of indifference whether there really is or is not such a thing as this general oceanic circulation. The enormous amount of heat conveyed by the Gulf-stream alone puts it beyond all doubt that ocean-currents are the great agents employed in distributing over the globe the excess of heat received by the sea in inter-tropical regions.
It is therefore, so far as concerns the theory of a General Oceanic Circulation, of the utmost importance that the advocates of that theory should prove that I have over-estimated the thermal power of the Gulf-stream. This, however, can only be done by detecting some error either in my computation or in the data on which it is based; yet neither Dr. Carpenter nor any one else, as far as I know, has challenged the accuracy of my figures. The question at issue is the correctness of the data; but the only part of the data which can possibly admit of being questioned is my estimate of the volume and temperature of the stream. Dr. Carpenter, however, does not maintain that I have over-estimated the temperature of the stream; on the contrary, he affirms that I have really under-estimated it. “If we assume,” he remarks, “the limit of the stratum above 60° as that of the real Gulf-stream current, we shall find its average temperature to be somewhat higher than it has been stated by Mr. Croll, who seems to have taken 65° as the average of the water flowing through the entire channel. The average surface temperature of the Florida channel for the whole year is 80°; and we may fairly set the average of the entire outgoing stream, down to the plane of 60°, at 70°, instead of 65° as estimated by Mr. Croll” (§ 141). It follows, then, that every pound of water of the Gulf-stream actually conveys 5 units of heat more than I have estimated it to do—the amount conveyed being 30 units instead of 25 units as estimated by me. Consequently, if the Gulf-stream be equal to that of a current of merely 41½ miles broad and 1,000 feet deep, flowing at the rate of 2 miles an hour, it will still convey the estimated quantity of heat. But this estimate of the volume of the stream, let it be observed, barely exceeds one-third of that given by Herschel, Maury, and Colding,[88] and is little more than one-half that assigned to it by Mr. Laughton, while it very little exceeds that given by Mr. Findlay,[89] an author whom few will consider likely to overrate either the volume or heating-power of the stream.
The important results obtained during the Challenger expedition have clearly proved that I have neither over-estimated the temperature nor the volume of the Gulf-stream. Between Bermuda and Sandy Hook the stream is 60 miles broad and 600 feet deep, with a maximum velocity of from 3½ to 4 miles an hour. If the mean velocity of the entire section amounts to 2¼ miles an hour, which it probably does, the volume of the stream must equal that given in my estimate. But we have no evidence that all the water flowing through the Straits of Florida passes through the section examined by the officers of the Challenger. Be this, however, as it may, the observations made between St. Thomas and Sandy Hook reveal the existence of an immense flow of warm water, 2,300 feet deep, entirely distinct from the water included in the above section of the Gulf-stream proper. As the thickest portion of this immense body of water joins the warm water of the Gulf-stream, Captain Nares considers that “it is evidently connected with it, and probably as an offshoot.” At Sandy Hook, according to him, it extends 1,200 feet deeper than the Gulf-stream itself, but off Charleston, 600 miles nearer the source, the same temperature is found at the same depth. But whether it be an offshoot of the Gulf-stream or not, one thing is certain, it can only come from the Gulf of Mexico or from the Caribbean Sea. This mass of water, after flowing northwards for about 1,000 miles, turns to the right and crosses the Atlantic in the direction of the Azores, where it appears to thin out.
If, therefore, we take into account the combined heat conveyed by both streams, my estimate of the heat transferred from inter-tropical regions into the North Atlantic will be found rather under than above the truth.
Dr. Carpenter’s Estimate of the Thermal Work of the Gulf-stream.—In the appendix to an elaborate memoir on Oceanic Circulation lately read before the Geographical Society, Dr. Carpenter endeavours to show that I have over-estimated the thermal work of the Gulf-stream. In that memoir[90] he has also favoured us with his own estimate of the sectional area, rate of flow, and temperature of the stream. Even adopting his data, however, I find myself unable to arrive at his conclusions.
Let us consider first his estimate of the sectional area of the stream. He admits that “it is impossible, in the present state of our knowledge, to arrive at any exact estimate of the sectional area of the stream; since it is for the most part only from the temperatures of its different strata that we can judge whether they are, or are not, in movement, and what is the direction of their movement.” Now it is perfectly evident that our estimate of the sectional area of the stream will depend upon what we assume to be its bottom temperature. If, for example, we assume 70° to be the bottom temperature, we shall have a small sectional area. Taking the temperature at 60°, the sectional area will be larger, and if 50° be assumed to be the temperature, the sectional area will be larger still, and so on. Now the small sectional area obtained by Dr. Carpenter arises from the fact of his having assumed the high temperature of 60° to be that of the bottom of the stream. He concludes that all the water below 60° has an inward flow, and that it is only that portion from 60° and upwards which constitutes the Gulf-stream. I have been unable to find any satisfactory evidence for assuming so high a temperature for the bottom of the stream. It must be observed that the water underlying the Gulf-stream is not the ordinary water of the Atlantic, but the cold current from the arctic regions. In fact, it is the same water which reaches the equator at almost every point with a temperature not much above the freezing-point. It is therefore highly improbable that the under surface of the Gulf-stream has a temperature so high as 60°.
Dr. Carpenter’s method of measuring the mean velocity of the Gulf-stream is equally objectionable. He takes the mean annual rate at the surface in the “Narrows” to be two miles an hour and the rate at the bottom to be zero, and he concludes from this that the average rate of the whole is one mile an hour—the arithmetical mean between these two extremes. Now it will be observed that this conclusion only holds true on the supposition that the breadth of the stream is as great at the bottom as at the surface, which of course it is not. All admit that the sides of the Gulf-stream are not perpendicular, but slope somewhat in the manner of the banks of a river. The stream is broad at the surface and narrows towards the bottom. It is therefore evident that the upper half of the section has a much larger area than the lower; the quantity of water flowing through the upper half with a greater velocity than one mile an hour must be much larger than the quantity flowing through the lower half with a less velocity than one mile an hour.
His method of estimating the mean temperature of the stream is even more objectionable. He says, “The average surface temperature of the Florida Channel for the whole year is 80°, and we may set the average of the entire outgoing stream down to the plane of 60° at 70°, instead of 65°, as estimated by Mr. Croll.” If 80° be the surface and 60° be the bottom temperature, temperature and rate of velocity being assumed of course to decrease uniformly from the surface downwards, how is it possible that 70° can be the average temperature? The amount of water flowing through the upper half of the section, with a temperature above 70°, is far more than the amount flowing through the under half of the section, with a temperature below 70°. Supposing the lower half of the section to be as large as the upper half, which it is not, still the quantity of water flowing through it would only equal one-third of that flowing through the upper half, because the mean velocity of the water in the lower half would be only half a mile per hour, whereas the mean velocity of that in the upper half would be a mile and a half an hour. But the area of the lower half is much less than that of the upper half, consequently the amount of water whose temperature is under 70° must be even much under one-third of that, the temperature of which is above 70°.
Had Dr. Carpenter taken the proper method of estimating the mean temperature, he would have found that 75°, even according to his own data, was much nearer the truth than 70°. I pointed out, several years ago,[91] the fallacy of estimating the mean temperature of a stream in this way.
So high a mean temperature as 75° for the Gulf-stream, even in the Florida Channel, is manifestly absurd, but if 60° be the bottom temperature of the stream, the mean temperature cannot possibly be much under that amount. It is, of course, by under-estimating the sectional area of the stream that its mean temperature is over-estimated. We cannot reduce the mean temperature without increasing the sectional area. If my estimate of 65° be taken as the mean temperature, which I have little doubt will yet be found to be not far from the truth, Dr. Carpenter’s estimate of the sectional area must be abandoned. For if 65° be the mean temperature of the stream, its bottom temperature must be far under 60°, and if the bottom temperature be much under 60°, then the sectional area must be greater than he estimates it to be.
Be this, however, as it may; even if we suppose that 60° will eventually be found to be the actual bottom temperature of the Gulf-stream, nevertheless, if the total quantity of heat conveyed by the stream from inter-tropical regions be estimated in the proper way, we shall still find that amount to be so enormous, that there is not sufficient heat remaining in those regions to supply Dr. Carpenter’s oceanic circulation with a quantity as great for distribution in the North Atlantic.
It therefore follows (and so far as regards the theory of Secular changes of climate, this is all that is worth contending for) that Ocean-currents and not a General Oceanic Circulation resulting from gravity, are the great agents employed in the distribution of heat over the globe.
CHAPTER XII.
MR. A. G. FINDLAY’S OBJECTIONS CONSIDERED.
Mr. Findlay’s Estimate of the Volume of the Gulf-stream.—Mean Temperature of a Cross Section less than Mean Temperature of Stream.—Reason of such Diversity of Opinion regarding Ocean-currents.—More rigid Method of Investigation necessary.
At the conclusion of the reading of Dr. Carpenter’s paper before the Royal Geographical Society, on January 9th, 1871, Mr. Findlay made the following remarks:—
“When, by the direction of the United States Government, ten or eleven years ago, the narrowest part of the Gulf-stream was examined, figures were obtained which shut out all idea of its ever reaching our shores as a heat-bearing current. In the narrowest part, certainly not more than from 250 to 300 cubic miles of water pass per diem. Six months afterwards that water reaches the banks of Newfoundland, and nine or twelve months afterwards the coast of England, by which time it is popularly supposed to cover an area of 1,500,000 square miles. The proportion of the water that passes through the Gulf of Florida will not make a layer of water more than 6 inches thick per diem over such a space. Every one knows how soon a cup of tea cools; and yet it is commonly imagined that a film of only a few inches in depth, after the lapse of so long a time, has an effect upon our climate. There is no need for calculations; the thing is self-evident.”[92]
About five years ago, Mr. Findlay objected to the conclusions which I had arrived at regarding the enormous heating-power of the Gulf-stream on the ground that I had over-estimated the volume of the stream. He stated that its volume was only about the half of what I had estimated it to be. To obviate this objection, I subsequently reduced the volume to one-half of my former estimate.[93] But taking the volume at this low estimate, it was nevertheless found that the quantity of heat conveyed into the Atlantic through the Straits of Florida by means of the stream was equal to about one-fourth of all the heat received from the sun by the Atlantic from the latitude of the Strait of Florida up to the Arctic Circle.
Mr. Findlay, in his paper read before the British Association, affirmed that the volume of the stream is somewhere from 294 to 333 cubic miles per day; but in his remarks at the close of Dr. Carpenter’s address, he stated it to be not greater than from 250 to 300 cubic miles per day. I am unable to reconcile any of those figures with the data from which he appears to have derived them. In his paper to the British Association, he remarks that “the Gulf-stream at its outset is not more than 39½ miles wide, and 1,200 feet deep.” From all attainable data, he computes the mean annual rate of motion to be 65·4 miles per day; but as the rate decreases with the depth, the mean velocity of the whole mass does not exceed 49·4 miles per day. When he speaks of the mean velocity of the Gulf-stream being so and so, he must refer to the mean velocity at some particular place. This is evident; for the mean velocity entirely depends upon the sectional area of the stream. The place where the mean velocity is 49·4 miles per day must be the place where it is 39½ miles broad and 1,200 feet deep; for he is here endeavouring to show us how small the volume of the stream actually is. Now, unless the mean velocity refers to the place where he gives us the breadth and depth of the stream, his figures have no bearing on the point in question. But a stream 39½ miles broad and 1,200 feet deep has a sectional area of 8·97 square miles, and this, with a mean velocity of 49·4 miles per day, will give 443 cubic miles of water. The amount, according to my estimate, is 459 cubic miles per day; it therefore exceeds Mr. Findlay’s estimate by only 16 cubic miles.
Mr. Findlay does not, as far as I know, consider that I have over-estimated the mean temperature of the stream. He states[94] that between Sand Key and Havana the Gulf-stream is about 1,200 feet deep, and that it does not reach the summit of a submarine ridge, which he states has a temperature of 60°. It is evident, then, that the bottom of the stream has a temperature of at least 60°, which is within 5° of what I regard as the mean temperature of the mass. But the surface of the stream is at least 17° above this mean. Now, when we consider that it is at the upper parts of the stream, the place where the temperature is so much above 65°, that the motion is greatest, it is evident that the mean temperature of the entire moving mass must, according to Mr. Findlay, be considerably over 65°. It therefore follows, according to his own data, that the Gulf-stream conveys into the Atlantic an amount of heat equal to one-fourth of all the heat which the Atlantic, from the latitude of the Straits of Florida up to the arctic regions, derives from the sun.
But it must be borne in mind that although the mean temperature of the cross section should be below 65°, it does not therefore follow that the mean temperature of the water flowing through this cross section must be below that temperature, for it is perfectly obvious that the mean temperature of the mass of water flowing through the cross section in a given time must be much higher than that of the cross section itself. The reason is very simple. It is in the upper half of the section where the high temperature exists; but as the velocity of the stream is much greater in its upper than in its lower half, the greater portion of the water passing through this cross section is water of high temperature.
But even supposing we were to halve Mr. Findlay’s own estimate, and assume that the volume of the stream is equal to only 222 cubic miles of water per day instead of 443, still the amount of heat conveyed would be equal to one-eighth part of the heat received from the sun by the Atlantic. But would not the withdrawal of an amount of heat equal to one-eighth of that received from the sun greatly affect the climate of the Atlantic? Supposing we take the mean temperature of the Atlantic at, say, 56°; this will make its temperature 295° above that of space. Extinguish the sun and stop the Gulf-stream, and the temperature ought to sink 295°. How far, then, ought the temperature to sink, supposing the sun to remain and the Gulf-stream to stop? Would not the withdrawal of the stream cause the temperature to sink some 30°? Of course, if the Gulf-stream were withdrawn and everything else were to remain the same, the temperature of the Atlantic would not actually remain 30° lower than at present; for heat would flow in from all sides and partly make up for the loss of the stream. But nevertheless 30° represents the amount of temperature maintained by means of the heat from the stream. And this, be it observed, is taking the volume of the stream at a lower estimate than even Mr. Findlay himself would be willing to admit. Mr. Findlay says that, by the time the Gulf-stream reaches the shores of England, it is supposed to cover a space of 1,500,000 square miles. “The proportion of water that passes through the Straits of Florida will not make,” according to him, “a layer of water more than 6 inches thick per diem over such a space.” But a layer of water 6 inches thick cooling 25° will give out 579,000 foot-pounds of heat per square foot. If, therefore, the Gulf-stream, as he asserts, supplies 6 inches per day to that area, then every square foot of the area gives off per day 579,000 foot-pounds of heat. The amount of heat received from the sun per square foot in latitude 55°, which is not much above the mean latitude of Great Britain, is 1,047,730 foot-pounds per day, taking, of course, the mean of the whole year; consequently this layer of water gives out an amount of heat equal to more than one-half of all that is received from the sun. But assuming that the stream should leave the half of its heat on the American shores and carry to the shores of Britain only 12½° of heat, still we should have 289,500 foot-pounds per square foot, which notwithstanding is more than equal to one-fourth of that received from the sun. If an amount of heat so enormous cannot affect climate, what can?
I shall just allude to one other erroneous notion which prevails in regard to the Gulf-stream; but it is an error which I by no means attribute either to Mr. Findlay or to Dr. Carpenter. The error to which I refer is that of supposing that when the Gulf-stream widens out to hundreds of miles, as it does before it reaches our shores, its depth must on this account be much less than when it issues from the Gulf of Mexico. Although the stream may be hundreds of miles in breadth, there is no necessity why it should be only 6 inches, or 6 feet, or 60 feet, or even 600 feet in depth. It may just as likely be 6,000 feet deep as 6 inches.
The Reason why such Diversity of Opinion prevails in Regard to Ocean-currents.—In conclusion I venture to remark that more than nine-tenths of all the error and uncertainty which prevail, both in regard to the cause of ocean-currents and to their influence on climate, is due, not, as is generally supposed, to the intrinsic difficulties of the subject, but rather to the defective methods which have hitherto been employed in its investigation—that is, in not treating the subject according to the rigid methods adopted in other departments of physics. What I most particularly allude to is the disregard paid to the modern method of determining the amount of effects in absolute measure.
But let me not be misunderstood on this point. I by no means suppose that the absolute quantity is the thing always required for its own sake. It is in most cases required simply as a means to an end; and very often that end is the knowledge of the relative quantity. Take, for example, the Gulf-stream. Suppose the question is asked, to what extent does the heat conveyed by that stream influence the climate of the North Atlantic? In order to the proper answering of this question, the principal thing required is to know what proportion the amount of heat conveyed by the stream into the Atlantic bears to that received from the sun by that area. We want the relative proportions of these two quantities. But how are we to obtain them? We can only do so by determining first the absolute quantity of each. We must first measure each before we can know how much the one is greater than the other, or, in other words, before we can know their relative proportions. We have the means of determining the absolute amount of heat received from the sun by a given area at any latitude with tolerable accuracy; but the same cannot be done with equal accuracy in regard to the amount of heat conveyed by the Gulf-stream, because the volume and mean temperature of the stream are not known with certainty. Nevertheless we have sufficient data to enable us to fix upon such a maximum and minimum value to these quantities as will induce us to admit that the truth must lie somewhere between them. In order to give full justice to those who maintain that the Gulf-stream exercises but little influence on climate, and to put an end to all further objections as to the uncertainty of my data, I shall take a minimum to which none of them surely can reasonably object, viz. that the volume of the stream is not over 230 cubic miles per day, and the heat conveyed per pound of water not over 12½ units. Calculating from these data, we find that the amount of heat carried into the North Atlantic is equal to one-sixteenth of all the heat received from the sun by that area. There are, I presume, few who will not admit that the actual proportion is much higher than this, probably as high as 1 to 3, or 1 to 4. But, who, without adopting the method I have pursued, could ever have come to the conclusion that the proportion was even 1 to 16? He might have guessed it to be 1 to 100 or 1 to 1000, but he never would have guessed it to be 1 to 16. Hence the reason why the great influence of the Gulf-stream as a heating agent has been so much under-estimated.
The same remarks apply to the gravitation theory of the cause of currents. Viewed simply as a theory it looks very reasonable. There is no one acquainted with physics but will admit that the tendency of the difference of temperature between the equator and the poles is to cause a surface current from the equator towards the poles, and an under current from the poles to the equator. But before we can prove that this tendency does actually produce such currents, another question must be settled, viz. is this force sufficiently great to produce the required motion? Now when we apply the method to which I refer, and determine the absolute amount of the force resulting from the difference of specific gravity, we discover that not to be the powerful agent which the advocates of the gravitation theory suppose, but a force so infinitesimal as not to be worthy of being taken into account when considering the causes by which currents are produced.
CHAPTER XIII.
THE WIND THEORY OF OCEANIC CIRCULATION.
Ocean-currents not due alone to the Trade-winds.—An Objection by Maury.—Trade-winds do not explain the Great Antarctic Current.—Ocean-currents due to the System of Winds.—The System of Currents agrees with the System of the Winds.—Chart showing the Agreement between the System of Currents and System of Winds.—Cause of the Gibraltar Current.—North Atlantic an immense Whirlpool.—Theory of Under Currents.—Difficulty regarding Under Currents obviated.—Work performed by the Wind in impelling the Water forward.—The Challenger’s crucial Test of the Wind and Gravitation Theories.—North Atlantic above the Level of Equator.—Thermal Condition of the Southern Ocean irreconcilable with the Gravitation Theory.
Ocean-currents not due alone to the Trade-winds.—The generally received opinion amongst the advocates of the wind theory of oceanic circulation is that the Gulf-stream and other currents of the ocean are due to the impulse of the trade-winds. The tendency of the trade-winds is to impel the inter-tropical waters along the line of the equator from east to west; and were those regions not occupied in some places by land, this equatorial current would flow directly round the globe. Its westward progress, however, is arrested by the two great continents, the old and the new. On approaching the land the current bifurcates, one portion trending northwards and the other southwards. The northern branch of the equatorial current of the Atlantic passes into the Caribbean Sea, and after making a circuit of the Gulf of Mexico, flows northward and continues its course into the Arctic Ocean. The southern branch, on the other hand, is deflected along the South-American coast, constituting what is known as the Brazilian current. In the Pacific a similar deflection occurs against the Asiatic coast, forming a current somewhat resembling the Gulf-stream, a portion of which (Kamtschatka current) in like manner passes into the arctic regions. In reference to all these various currents, the impelling cause is supposed to be the force of the trade-winds.
It is, however, urged as an objection by Maury and other advocates of the gravitation theory, that a current like the Gulf-stream, extending as far as the arctic regions, could not possibly be impelled and maintained by a force acting at the equatorial regions. But this is a somewhat weak objection. It seems to be based upon a misconception of the magnitude of the force in operation. It does not take into account that this force acts on nearly the whole area of the ocean in inter-tropical regions. If, in a basin of water, say three feet in diameter, a force is applied sufficient to produce a surface-flow one foot broad across the centre of the basin, the water impelled against the side will be deflected to the extremes of the vessel. And this result does not in any way depend upon the size of the basin. The same effect which occurs in a small basin will occur in a large one, provided the proportion between the breadth of the belt of water put in motion and the size of the vessel be the same in both cases. It does not matter, therefore, whether the diameter of the basin be supposed to be three feet, or three thousand miles, or ten thousand miles.
There is a more formidable objection, however, to the theory. The trade-winds will account for the Gulf-stream, Brazil, Japan, Mozambique, and many other currents; but there are currents, such as some of the polar currents, which cannot be so accounted for. Take, for example, the great antarctic current flowing northward into the Pacific. This current does not bend to the left under the influence of the earth’s rotation and continue its course in a north-westerly direction, but actually bends round to the right and flows eastward against the South-American coast, in direct opposition both to the influence of rotation and to the trade-winds. The trade-wind theory, therefore, is insufficient to account for all the facts. But there is yet another explanation, which satisfactorily solves our difficulties. The currents of the ocean owe their origin, not to the trade-winds alone, but to the prevailing winds of the globe (including, of course, the trade-winds).
Ocean-currents due to the System of Winds.—If we leave out of account a few small inland sheets of water, the globe may be said to have but one sea, just as it possesses only one atmosphere. We have accustomed ourselves, however, to speak of parts or geographical divisions of the one great ocean, such as the Atlantic and the Pacific, as if they were so many separate oceans. And we have likewise come to regard the currents of the ocean as separate and independent of one another. This notion has no doubt to a considerable extent militated against the acceptance of the theory that the currents are caused by the winds, and not by difference of specific gravity; for it leads to the conclusion that currents in a sea must flow in the direction of the prevailing winds blowing over that particular sea. The proper view of the matter, as I hope to be able to show, is that which regards the various currents merely as members of one grand system of circulation produced, not by the trade-winds alone, nor by the prevailing winds proper alone, but by the combined action of all the prevailing winds of the globe, regarded as one system of circulation.
If the winds be the impelling cause of currents, the direction of the currents will depend upon two circumstances, viz.:—(1) the direction of the prevailing winds of the globe, including, of course, under this term the prevailing winds proper and the trade-winds; and (2) the conformation of land and sea. It follows, therefore, that as a current in any given sea is but a member of a general system of circulation, its direction is determined, not alone by the prevailing winds blowing over the sea in question, but by the general system of prevailing winds. It may consequently sometimes happen that the general system of winds may produce a current directly opposite to the prevailing wind blowing over the current. The accompanying Chart ([Plate I.]) shows how exactly the system of ocean-currents agrees with the system of the prevailing winds. The fine lines indicate the paths of the prevailing winds, and the fine arrows the direction in which the wind blows along those paths. The large arrows show the direction of the principal ocean-currents.
PLATE I
W. & A. K. Johnston, Edinbr. and London.
CHART SHOWING the GENERAL AGREEMENT BETWEEN the SYSTEM of OCEAN CURRENTS and WINDS.
The directions and paths of the prevailing winds have been taken from Messrs. Johnston’s small physical Atlas, which, I find, agrees exactly with the direction of the prevailing winds as deduced from the four quarterly wind charts lately published by the Hydrographic Department of the Admiralty. The direction of the ocean-currents has been taken from the Current-chart published by the Admiralty.
In every case, without exception, the direction of the main currents of the globe agrees exactly with the direction of the prevailing winds. There could not possibly be a more convincing proof that those winds are the cause of the ocean-currents than this general agreement of the two systems as indicated by the chart. Take, for example, the North Atlantic. The Gulf-stream follows exactly the path of the prevailing winds. The Gulf-stream bifurcates in mid-Atlantic; so does the wind. The left branch of the stream passes north-eastwards into the arctic regions, and the right branch south-eastwards by the Azores; so does the wind. The south-eastern branch of the stream, after passing the Canaries, re-enters the equatorial current and flows into the Gulf of Mexico; the same, it will be observed, holds true of the wind. A like remarkable agreement exists in reference to all the other leading currents of the ocean. This is particularly seen in the case of the great antarctic current between long. 140° W. and 160° W. This current, flowing northwards from the antarctic regions, instead of bending to the left under the influence of rotation, turns to the right when it enters the regions of the westerly winds, and flows eastwards towards the South-American shores. In fact, all the currents in this region of strong westerly winds flow in an easterly or north-easterly direction.
Taking into account the effects resulting from the conformation of sea and land, the system of ocean-currents agrees precisely with the system of the winds. All the principal currents of the globe are in fact moving in the exact direction in which they ought to move, assuming the winds to be the sole impelling cause. In short, so perfect is the agreement between the two systems, that, given the system of winds and the conformation of sea and land, and the direction of all the currents of the ocean, or more properly the system of oceanic circulation, might be determined à priori. Or given the system of the ocean-currents together with the conformation of sea and land, and the direction of the prevailing winds could also be determined à priori. Or, thirdly, given the system of winds and the system of currents, and the conformation of sea and land might be roughly determined. For example, it can be shown by this means that the antarctic regions are probably occupied by a continent and not by a number of separate islands, nor by sea.
While holding that the currents of the ocean form one system of circulation, we must not be supposed to mean that the various currents are connected end to end, having the same water flowing through them all in succession like that in a heating apparatus. All that is maintained is simply this, that the currents are so mutually related that any great change in one would modify the conditions of all the others. For example, a great increase or decrease in the easterly flow of antarctic water in the Southern Ocean would decrease or increase, as the case might be, the strength of the West Australian current; and this change would modify the equatorial current of the Indian Ocean, a modification which in like manner would affect the Agulhas current and the Southern Atlantic current—this last leading in turn to a modification of the equatorial current of the Atlantic, and consequently of the Brazilian current and the Gulf-stream. Furthermore, since a current impelled by the winds, as Mr. Laughton in his excellent paper on Ocean-currents justly remarks, tends to leave a vacancy behind, it follows that a decrease or increase in the Gulf-stream would affect the equatorial current, the Agulhas current, and all the other currents back to the antarctic currents. Again, a large modification in the great antarctic drift-current would in like manner affect all the currents of the Pacific. On the other hand, any great change in the currents of the Pacific would ultimately affect the currents of the Atlantic and Indian Oceans, through its influence on the Cape Horn current, the South Australian current, and the current passing through the Asiatic archipelago; and vice versâ, any changes in the currents of the Atlantic or Indian Oceans would modify the currents of the Pacific.
Cause of Gibraltar Current.—I may now consider the cause of the Gibraltar current. There can be little doubt that this current owes its origin (as Mr. Laughton points out) to the Gulf-stream. “I conceive,” that author remarks, “that the Gibraltar current is distinctly a stream formed by easterly drift of the North Atlantic, which, although it forms a southerly current on the coast of Portugal, is still strongly pressed to the eastward and seeks the first escape it can find. So great indeed does this pressure seem to be, that more water is forced through the Straits than the Mediterranean can receive, and a part of it is ejected in reverse currents, some as lateral currents on the surface, some, it appears, as an under current at a considerable depth.”[95] The funnel-shaped nature of the strait through which the water is impelled helps to explain the existence of the under current. The water being pressed into the narrow neck of the channel tends to produce a slight banking up; and as the pressure urging the water forward is greatest at the surface and diminishes rapidly downwards, the tendency to the restoration of level will cause an underflow towards the Atlantic, because below the surface the water will find the path of least resistance. It is evident indeed that this underflow will not take place toward the Mediterranean, from the fact that that sea is already filled to overflowing by the current received from the outside ocean.
If we examine the Current-chart published by the Hydrographic Department of the Admiralty, we shall find the Gibraltar current represented as merely a continuation of the S.E. flow of Gulf-stream water. Now, if the arrows shown upon this chart indicate correctly the direction of the flow, we must become convinced that the Gulf-stream water cannot possibly avoid passing through the Gibraltar Strait. Of course the excess of evaporation over that of precipitation within the Mediterranean area would alone suffice to produce a considerable current through the Strait; but this of itself would not fill that inland sea to overflowing.[96]
The Atlantic may, in fact, be regarded as an immense whirlpool with the Saragossa Sea as its vortex; and although it is true, as will be seen from an inspection of the Chart, that the wind blows round the Atlantic along the very path taken by the water, impelling the water forward along every inch of its course, yet nevertheless it must hold equally true that the water has a tendency to flow off in a straight line at a tangent to the circular course in which it is moving. But the water is so hemmed in on all sides that it cannot leave this circular path except only at two points; and at these two points it actually does flow outwards. On the east and west sides the land prevents any such outflow. Similarly, in the south the escape of the water is frustrated by the pressure of the opposing currents flowing from that quarter; while in the north it is prevented by the pressure exerted by polar currents from Davis Strait and the Arctic Ocean. But in the Strait of Gibraltar and in the north-eastern portion of the Atlantic between Iceland and the north-eastern shores of Europe there is no resistance offered: and at these two points an outflow does actually take place. In both cases, however, especially the latter, the outflow is greatly aided by the impulse of the prevailing winds.
No one, who will glance at the accompanying chart ([Plate I.]) showing how the north-eastern branch of the Gulf-stream bends round and, of course, necessarily presses against the coast, can fail to understand how the Atlantic water should be impelled into the Gibraltar Strait, even although the loss sustained by the Mediterranean from evaporation did not exceed the gain from rain and rivers.
Theory of Under Currents.—The consideration that ocean-currents are simply parts of a system of circulation produced by the system of prevailing winds, and not by the impulse of the trade-winds alone, helps to remove the difficulty which some have in accounting for the existence of under currents without referring them to difference of specific gravity. Take the case of the Gulf-stream, which passes under the polar stream on the west of Spitzbergen, this latter stream passing in turn under the Gulf-stream a little beyond Bear Island. The polar streams have their origin in the region of prevailing northerly winds, which no doubt extends to the pole. The current flowing past the western shores of Spitzbergen, throughout its entire course up to near the point where it disappears under the warm waters of the Gulf-stream, lies in the region of these same northerly winds. Now why should this current cease to be a surface current as soon as it passes out of the region of northerly into that of south-westerly winds? The explanation seems to be this: when the stream enters the region of prevailing south-westerly winds, its progress southwards along the surface of the ocean is retarded both by the wind and by the surface water moving in opposition to its course; but being continually pressed forward by the impulse of the northerly winds acting along its whole course back almost to the pole, perhaps, or as far north at least as the sea is not wholly covered with ice, the polar current cannot stop when it enters the region of opposing winds and currents; it must move forward. But the water thus pressed from behind will naturally take the path of least resistance. Now in the present case this path will necessarily lie at a considerable distance below the surface. Had the polar stream simply to contend with the Gulf-stream flowing in the opposite direction, it would probably keep the surface and continue its course along the side of that stream; but it is opposed by the winds, from which it cannot escape except by dipping down under the surface; and the depth to which it will descend will depend upon the depth of the surface current flowing in the opposite direction. There is no necessity for supposing a heaping up of the water in order to produce by pressure a force sufficient to impel the under current. The pressure of the water from behind is of itself enough. The same explanation, of course, applies to the case of the Gulf-stream passing under the polar stream. And if we reflect that these under currents are but parts of the general system of circulation, and that in most cases they are currents compensating for water drained off at some other quarter, we need not wonder at the distance which they may in some cases flow, as, for example, from the banks of Newfoundland to the Gulf of Mexico. The under currents of the Gulf-stream are necessary to compensate for the water impelled southwards by the northerly winds; and again, the polar under currents are necessary to compensate for the water impelled northward by the south and south-westerly winds.
But it may be asked, how do the opposing currents succeed in crossing each other? It is evident that the Gulf-stream must plunge through the whole thickness of the polar stream before it can become an under current, and so likewise must the cold water of the polar-flow pass through the genial water of the Gulf-stream in order to get underneath it and continue on its course towards the south. The accompanying diagram (Plate II., Fig. 1) will render this sufficiently intelligible.
Fig. 3
PLATE II
Map shewing meeting of the Gulf-stream and Polar Current (from Dr. Petermann’s Geographische Mittheilungen.)
The curved lines are Isotherms; temperatures are in Fahrenheit.
N. Winds
Fig. 1
S. Winds
Diagram to shew how two opposing currents intersect each other
Surface Plan to shew how two opposing currents meet each other
W. & A. K. Johnston, Edinbr. and London.
Fig. 2
Now these two great ocean-currents are so compelled to intersect each other for the simple reason that they cannot turn aside, the one to the left and the other to the right. When two broad streams like those in question are pressed up against each other, they succeed in mutually intersecting each other’s path by breaking up into bands or belts—the cold water being invaded and pierced as it were by long tongues of warm water, while at the same time the latter is similarly intersected by corresponding protrusions of cold water. The two streams become in a manner interlocked, and the one passes through the other very much as we pass the fingers of one hand between the fingers of the other. The diagram ([Plate II.], Fig. 2), representing the surface of the ocean at the place of meeting of two opposing currents, will show this better than description. At the surface the bands necessarily assume the tongue-shaped appearance represented in the diagram, but when they have succeeded in mutually passing down through the whole thickness of the opposing currents, they then unite and form two definite under currents, flowing in opposite directions. The polar bands, after penetrating the Gulf-stream, unite below to form a southward-flowing under current, and in the same way the Gulf-stream bands, uniting underneath the polar current, continue in their northerly course as a broad under current of warm water. That this is a correct representation of what actually occurs in nature becomes evident from an inspection of the current charts. Thus in the chart of the North Atlantic which accompanies Dr. Petermann’s Memoir on the Gulf-stream, we observe that south of Spitzbergen the polar current and the Gulf-stream are mutually interpenetrated—long tongues invading and dipping down underneath the Gulf-stream, while in like manner the polar current becomes similarly intersected by well-marked protrusions of warm water flowing from the south. (See [Plate II.], Fig. 3.)
No accurate observations, as far as I know, have been made regarding the amount of work performed by the wind in impelling the water forward; but when we consider the great retarding effect of objects on the earth’s surface, it is quite apparent that the amount of work performed on the surface of the ocean must be far greater than is generally supposed. For example, Mr. Buchan, Secretary to the Scottish Meteorological Society, has shown[97] that a fence made of slabs of wood three inches in width and three inches apart from each other is a protection even during high winds to objects on the lee side of it, and that a wire screen with meshes about an inch apart affords protection during a gale to flower-pots. The same writer was informed by Mr. Addie that such a screen put up at Rockville was torn to pieces by a storm of wind, the wire screen giving way much in the same way as sails during a hurricane at sea.
The “Challenger’s” Crucial Test of the Wind and Gravitation Theories of Oceanic Circulation.—It has been shown in former chapters that all the facts which have been adduced in support of the gravitation theory are equally well explained by the wind theory. We may now consider a class of facts which do not appear to harmonize with either theory. The recent investigations of the Challenger Expedition into the thermal state of the ocean reveal a condition of things which appears to me utterly irreconcilable with the gravitation theory.
It is a condition absolutely essential to the gravitation theory that the surface of the ocean should be highest in equatorial regions and slope downwards to either pole. Were water absolutely frictionless, an incline, however small, would be sufficient to produce a surface-flow from the equator to the poles, but to induce such an effect some slope there must be, or gravitation could exercise no power in drawing the surface-water polewards.
The researches of the Challenger Expedition bring to light the striking and important fact that the general surface of the North Atlantic in order to produce equilibrium must stand at a higher level than at the equator. In other words the surface of the Atlantic is lowest at the equator, and rises with a gentle slope to well-nigh the latitude of England. If this be the case, then it is mechanically impossible that, as far as the North Atlantic is concerned, there can be any such general movement as Dr. Carpenter believes. Gravitation can no more cause the surface-water of the Atlantic to flow towards the arctic regions than it can compel the waters of the Gulf of Mexico up the Mississippi into the Missouri. The impossibility is equally great in both cases.
In order to prove what has been stated, let us take a section of the mid-Atlantic, north and south, across the equator; and, to give the gravitation theory every advantage, let us select that particular section adopted by Dr. Carpenter as the one of all others most favourable to his theory, viz., Section marked No. VIII. in his memoir lately read before the Royal Geographical Society.[98]
The fact that the polar cold water comes so near the surface at the equator is regarded by Dr. Carpenter as evidence in favour of the gravitation theory. On first looking at Dr. Carpenter’s section it forcibly struck me that if it was accurately drawn, the ocean to be in equilibrium would require to stand at a higher level in the North Atlantic than at the equator. In order, therefore, to determine whether this is the case or not I asked the hydrographer of the Admiralty to favour me with the temperature soundings indicated in the section, a favour which was most obligingly granted. The following are the temperature soundings at the three stations A, B, and C. The temperature of C are the mean of six soundings taken along near the equator:—
| Depth in Fathoms. | Lat. 37° 54′ N. Long. 41° 44′ W. | Lat. 23° 10′ N. Long. 38° 42′ W. | Mean of six temperature soundings near equator. | |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Temperature. | Temperature. | Depth in Fathoms. | Temperature. | |
° | ° | ° | ||
Surface. | 70·0 | 72·0 | Surface. | 77·9 |
100 | 63·5 | 67·0 | 10 | 77·2 |
200 | 60·6 | 57·6 | 20 | 77·1 |
300 | 60·0 | 52·5 | 30 | 76·9 |
400 | 54·8 | 47·7 | 40 | 71·7 |
500 | 46·7 | 43·7 | 50 | 64·0 |
600 | 41·6 | 41·7 | 60 | 60·4 |
700 | 40·6 | 40·6 | 70 | 59·4 |
800 | 38·1 | 39·4 | 80 | 58·0 |
900 | 37·8 | 39·2 | 90 | 58·0 |
1000 | 37·9 | 38·3 | 100 | 55·6 |
1100 | 37·1 | 38·0 | 150 | 51·0 |
1200 | 37·1 | 37·6 | 200 | 46·6 |
1300 | 37·2 | 36·7 | 300 | 42·2 |
1400 | 37·1 | 36·9 | 400 | 40·3 |
1500 | .. | 36·7 | 500 | 38·9 |
2700 | 35·2 | .. | 600 | 39·2 |
2720 | .. | 35·4 | 700 | 39·0 |
800 | 39·1 | |||
900 | 38·2 | |||
1000 | 36·9 | |||
1100 | 37·6 | |||
1200 | 36·7 | |||
1300 | 35·8 | |||
1400 | 36·4 | |||
1500 | 36·1 | |||
Bottom. | 34·7 | |||
On computing the extent to which the three columns A, B, and C are each expanded by heat according to Muncke’s table of the expansion of sea water for every degree Fahrenheit, I found that column B, in order to be in equilibrium with C (the equatorial column), would require to have its surface standing fully 2 feet 6 inches above the level of column C, and column A fully 3 feet 6 inches above that column. In short, it is evident that there must be a gradual rise from the equator to latitude 38° N. of 3½ feet. Any one can verify the accuracy of these results by making the necessary computations for himself.[99]
PLATE III
W. & A. K. Johnston, Edinbr. and London.
SECTION OF THE ATLANTIC nearly North and South, between LAT. 38° N. & LAT. 38° S.
I may observe that, had column C extended to the same depth as columns A and B, the difference of level would be considerably greater, for column C requires to balance only that portion of columns A and B which lies above the level of its base. Suppose a depth of ocean equal to that of column C to extend to the north pole, and the polar water to have a uniform temperature of 32° from the surface to the bottom, then, in order to produce equilibrium, the surface of the ocean at the equator would require to be 4 feet 6 inches above that at the pole. But the surface of the ocean at B would be 7 feet, and at A 8 feet, above the poles. Gravitation never could have caused the ocean to assume this form. It is impossible that this immense mass of warm water, extending to such a depth in the North Atlantic, could have been brought from equatorial regions by means of gravitation. And, even if we suppose this accumulation of warm water can be accounted for by some other means, still its presence precludes the possibility of any such surface-flow as that advocated by Dr. Carpenter. For so long as the North Atlantic stands 3½ feet above the level of the equator, gravitation can never move the equatorial waters polewards.
There is another feature of this section irreconcilable with the gravitation theory. It will be observed that the accumulation of warm water is all in the North Atlantic, and that there is little or none in the south. But according to the gravitation theory it ought to have been the reverse. For owing to the unrestricted communication between the equatorial and antarctic regions, the general flow of water towards the south pole is, according to that theory, supposed to be greater than towards the north, and consequently the quantity of warm equatorial water in the South Atlantic ought also to be greater. Dr. Carpenter himself seems to be aware of this difficulty besetting the theory, and meets it by stating that “the upper stratum of the North Atlantic is not nearly as much cooled down by its limited polar underflow, as that of the South Atlantic is by the vast movement of antarctic water which is constantly taking place towards the equator.” But this “vast movement of antarctic water” necessarily implies a vast counter-movement of warm surface-water. So that if there is more polar water in the South Atlantic to produce the cooling effect, there should likewise be more warm water to be cooled.
According to the wind theory of oceanic circulation the explanation of the whole phenomena is simple and obvious. It has already been shown that owing to the fact that the S. E. trades are stronger than the N. E., and blow constantly over upon the northern hemisphere, the warm surface-water of the South Atlantic is drifted across the equator. It is then carried by the equatorial current into the Gulf of Mexico, and afterwards of course forms a part of the Gulf-stream.
The North Atlantic, on the other hand, not only does not lose its surface heat like the equatorial and South Atlantic, but it receives from the Gulf-stream in the form of warm water an amount of heat, as we have seen, equal to one-fourth of all the heat which it receives from the sun. The reason why the warm surface strata are so much thicker on the North Atlantic than on the equatorial regions is perfectly obvious. The surface-water at the equator is swept into the Gulf of Mexico by the trade-winds and the equatorial current, as rapidly as it is heated by the sun, so that it has not time to gather to any great depth. But all this warm water is carried by the Gulf-stream into the North Atlantic, where it accumulates. That this great depth of warm water in the North Atlantic, represented in the section, is derived from the Gulf-stream, and not from a direct flow from the equator due to gravitation, is further evident from the fact that temperature sounding A in latitude 38° N. is made through that immense body of warm water, upwards of 300 fathoms thick, extending from Bermuda to near the Azores, discovered by the Challenger Expedition, and justly regarded by Captain Nares as an offshoot of the Gulf-stream. This, in Captain Nares’s Report, is No. 8 “temperature sounding,” between Bermuda and the Azores; sounding B is No. 6 “temperature curve,” between Teneriffe and St. Thomas.
There is an additional reason to the one already stated why the surface temperature of the South Atlantic should be so much below that of the North. It is perfectly true that whatever amount of water is transferred from the southern hemisphere to the northern must be compensated by an equal amount from the northern to the southern hemisphere, nevertheless the warm water which is carried off the South Atlantic by the winds is not directly compensated by water from the north, but by that cold antarctic current whose existence is so well known to mariners from the immense masses of ice which it brings from the Southern Ocean.
Thermal Condition of Southern Ocean.——The thermal condition of the Southern Ocean, as ascertained by the Challenger Expedition, appears to me to be also irreconcilable with the gravitation theory. Between the parallels of latitude 65° 42′ S. and 50° 1′ S., the ocean, with the exception of a thin stratum at the surface heated by the sun’s rays, was found, down to the depth of about 200 fathoms, to be several degrees colder than the water underneath.[100] The cold upper stratum is evidently an antarctic current, and the warm underlying water an equatorial under current. But, according to the gravitation theory, the colder water should be underneath.
The very fact of a mass of water, 200 fathoms deep and extending over fifteen degrees of latitude, remaining above water of three or four degrees higher temperature shows how little influence difference of temperature has in producing motion. If it had the potency which some attribute to it, one would suppose that this cold stratum should sink down and displace the warm water underneath. If difference of density is sufficient to move the water horizontally, surely it must be more than sufficient to cause it to sink vertically.
CHAPTER XIV.
THE WIND THEORY OF OCEANIC CIRCULATION IN RELATION TO CHANGE OF CLIMATE.
Direction of Currents depends on Direction of the Winds.—Causes which affect the Direction of Currents will affect Climate.—How Change of Eccentricity affects the Mode of Distribution of the Winds.—Mutual Reaction of Cause and Effect.—Displacement of the Great Equatorial Current.—Displacement of the Median Line between the Trades, and its Effect on Currents.—Ocean-currents in Relation to the Distribution of Plants and Animals.—Alternate Cold and Warm Periods in North and South.—Mr. Darwin’s Views quoted.—How Glaciers at the Equator may be accounted for.—Migration across the Equator.
Ocean-currents in Relation to Change of Climate.—In my attempts to prove that oceanic circulation is produced by the winds and not by difference of specific gravity, and that ocean-currents are the great distributors of heat over the globe, my chief aim has been to show the bearing which these points have on the grand question of secular changes of climate during geological epochs, more particularly in reference to that mystery the cause of the glacial epoch.
In concluding this discussion regarding oceanic circulation, I may therefore be allowed briefly to recapitulate those points connected with the subject which seem to shed most light on the question of changes of climate.
The complete agreement between the systems of ocean-currents and winds not only shows that the winds are the impelling cause of the currents, but it also indicates to what an extent the directions of the currents are determined by the winds, or, more properly, to what an extent their directions are determined by the direction of the winds.
We have seen in [Chapter II.] to what an enormous extent the climatic conditions of the globe are dependent on the distribution of heat effected by means of ocean-currents. It has been there pointed out that, if the heat conveyed from inter-tropical to temperate and polar regions by oceanic circulation were restored to the former, the equatorial regions would then have a temperature about 55° warmer, and the high polar regions a climate 83° colder than at present. It follows, therefore, that any cause which will greatly affect the currents or greatly change their paths and mode of distribution, will of necessity seriously affect the climatic condition of the globe. But as the existence of these currents depends on the winds, and their direction and form of distribution depend upon the direction and form of distribution of the winds, any cause which will greatly affect the winds will also greatly affect the currents, and consequently will influence the climatic condition of the globe. Again, as the existence of the winds depends mainly on the difference of temperature between equatorial and polar regions, any cause which will greatly affect this difference of temperature will likewise greatly affect the winds; and these will just as surely react on the currents and climatic conditions of the globe. A simple increase or decrease in the difference of temperature between equatorial and polar regions, though it would certainly produce an increase or a decrease, as the case might be, in the strength of the winds, and consequently in the strength of the currents, would not, however, greatly affect the mode of distribution of the winds, nor, as a consequence, the mode of distribution of the currents. But although a simple change in the difference of temperature between the equator and the poles would not produce a different distribution of aërial, and consequently of ocean-currents, nevertheless a difference in the difference of temperature between the equator and the two poles would do so; that is to say, any cause that should increase the difference of temperature between the equator and the pole on the one hemisphere, and decrease that difference on the other, would effect a change in the distribution of the aërial currents, which change would in turn produce a corresponding change in the distribution of ocean-currents.
It has been shown[101] that an increase in the eccentricity of the earth’s orbit tends to lower the temperature of the one hemisphere and to raise the temperature of the other. It is true that an increase of eccentricity does not afford more heat to the one hemisphere than to the other; nevertheless it brings about a condition of things which tends to lower the temperature of the one hemisphere and to raise the temperature of the other. Let us imagine the eccentricity to be at its superior limit, 0·07775, and the winter solstice in the aphelion. The midwinter temperature, owing to the increased distance of the sun, would be lowered enormously; and the effect of this would be to cause all the moisture which now falls as rain during winter in temperate regions to fall as snow. Nor is this all; the winters would not merely be colder than now, but they would also be much longer. At present the summer half-year exceeds the winter half year by nearly eight days; but at the period in question the winters would be longer than the summers by upwards of thirty-six days. The heat of the sun during the short summer, for reasons which have already been explained, would not be sufficient to melt the snow of winter; so that gradually, year by year, the snow would continue to accumulate on the ground.
On the southern hemisphere the opposite condition of things would obtain. Owing to the nearness of the sun during the winter of that hemisphere, the moisture of the air would be precipitated as rain in regions where at present it falls as snow. This and the shortness of the winter would tend to produce a decrease in the quantity of snow. The difference of temperature between the equatorial and the temperate and polar regions would therefore be greater on the northern than on the southern hemisphere; and, as a consequence, the aërial currents of the former hemisphere would be stronger than those of the latter. This would be more especially the case with the trade-winds. The N.E. trades being stronger than the S.E. trades would blow across the equator, and the median line between them would therefore be at some distance to the south of the equator. Thus the equatorial waters would be impelled more to the southern than to the northern hemisphere; and the warm water carried over in this manner to the southern hemisphere would tend to increase the difference of temperature between the two hemispheres. This change, again, would in turn tend to strengthen the N.E. and to weaken the S.E. trades, and would thus induce a still greater flow of equatorial waters into the southern hemisphere—a result which would still more increase the difference of temperature between the northern and southern hemisphere, and so on—the one cause so reacting on the other as to increase its effects, as was shown at length in [Chapter IV.]
It was this mutual reaction of those physical agents which led, as was pointed out in [Chapter IV.], to that extraordinary condition of climate which prevailed during the glacial epoch.
There is another circumstance to be considered which perhaps more than any thing else would tend to lower the temperature of the one hemisphere and to raise the temperature of the other; and this is the displacement of the great equatorial current. During a glacial period in the northern hemisphere the median line between the trades would be shifted very considerably south of the equator; and the same would necessarily be the case with the great equatorial currents, the only difference being that the equatorial currents, other things being equal, would be deflected farther south than the median line. For the water impelled by the strong N.E. trades would be moving with greater velocity than the waters impelled by the weaker S.E. trades, and, of course, would cross the median line of the trades before its progress southwards could be arrested by the counteracting influence of the S.E. trades. Let us glance briefly at the results which would follow from such a condition of things. In the first place, as was shown on former occasions,[102] were the equatorial current of the Atlantic (the feeder of the Gulf-stream) shifted considerably south of its present position, it would not bifurcate, as it now does, off Cape St. Roque, owing to the fact that the whole of the waters would strike obliquely against the Brazilian coast and thus be deflected into the Southern Ocean. The effect produced on the climate of the North Atlantic and North-Western Europe by the withdrawal of the water forming the Gulf-stream, may be conceived from what has already been stated concerning the amount of heat conveyed by that stream. The heat thus withdrawn from the North Atlantic would go to raise the temperature of the Southern Ocean and antarctic regions. A similar result would take place in the Pacific Ocean. Were the equatorial current of that ocean removed greatly to the south of its present position, it would not then impinge and be deflected upon the Asiatic coast, but upon the continent of Australia; and the greater portion of its waters would then pass southward into the Southern Ocean, while that portion passing round the north of Australia (owing to the great strength of the N.E. trades) would rather flow into the Indian Ocean than turn round, as now, along the east coast of Asia by the Japan Islands. The stoppage of the Japan current, combined with the displacement of the equatorial current to the south of the equator, would greatly lower the temperature of the whole of the North Pacific and adjoining continents, and raise to a corresponding degree the temperature of the South Pacific and Southern Ocean. Again, the waters of the equatorial current of the Indian Ocean (owing to the opposing N.E. trades), would not, as at present, find their way round the Cape of Good Hope into the North Atlantic, but would be deflected southwards into the Antarctic Sea.
We have in the present state of things a striking example of the extent to which the median line between the two trades may be shifted, and the position of the great equatorial currents of the ocean may be affected, by a slight difference in the relative strength of the two aërial currents. The S.E. trades are at present a little stronger than the N.E.; and the consequence is that they blow across the equator into the northern hemisphere to a distance sometimes of 10 or 15°, so that the mean position of the median line lies at least 6 or 7 degrees north of the equator.
And it is doubtless owing to the superior strength of the S.E. trades that so much warm water crosses the equator from the South to the North Atlantic, and that the main portion of the equatorial current flows into the Caribbean Sea rather than along the Brazilian coast. Were the two trades of equal strength, the transference of heat into the North Atlantic from the southern hemisphere by means of the Southern Atlantic and equatorial currents would be much less than at present. The same would also hold true in regard to the Pacific.
Ocean-currents in Relation to the Distribution of Plants and Animals.—In the fifth and last editions of the “Origin of Species,” Mr. Darwin has done me the honour to express his belief that the foregoing view regarding alternate cold and warm periods in north and south during the glacial epoch explains a great many facts in connection with the distribution of plants and animals which have always been regarded as exceedingly puzzling.
There are certain species of plants which occur alike in the temperate regions of the southern and northern hemispheres. At the equator these same temperate forms are found on elevated mountains, but not on the lowlands. How, then, did these temperate forms manage to cross the equator from the northern temperate regions to the southern, and vice versâ? Mr. Darwin’s solution of the problem is (in his own words) as follows:—
“As the cold became more and more intense, we know that arctic forms invaded the temperate regions; and from the facts just given, there can hardly be a doubt that some of the more vigorous, dominant, and widest-spreading temperate forms invaded the equatorial lowlands. The inhabitants of these hot lowlands would at the same time have migrated to the tropical and subtropical regions of the south; for the southern hemisphere was at this period warmer. On the decline of the glacial period, as both hemispheres gradually recovered their former temperatures, the northern temperate forms living on the lowlands under the equator would have been driven to their former homes or have been destroyed, being replaced by the equatorial forms returning from the south. Some, however, of the northern temperate forms would almost certainly have ascended any adjoining high land, where, if sufficiently lofty, they would have long survived like the arctic forms on the mountains of Europe.”
“In the regular course of events the southern hemisphere would in its turn be subjected to a severe glacial period, with the northern hemisphere rendered warmer; and then the southern temperate forms would invade the equatorial lowlands. The northern forms which had before been left on the mountains would now descend and mingle with the southern forms. These latter, when the warmth returned, would return to their former homes, leaving some few species on the mountains, and carrying southward with them some of the northern temperate forms which had descended from their mountain fastnesses. Thus we should have some few species identically the same in the northern and southern temperate zones and on the mountains of the intermediate tropical regions” (p. 339, sixth edition).
Additional light is cast on this subject by the results already stated in regard to the enormous extent to which the temperature of the equator is affected by ocean-currents. Were there no transferrence of heat from equatorial to temperate and polar regions, the temperature of the equator, as has been remarked, would probably be about 55° warmer than at present. In such a case no plant existing on the face of the globe could live at the equator unless on some elevated mountain region. On the other hand, were the quantity of warm water which is being transferred from the equator to be very much increased, the temperature of inter-tropical latitudes might be so lowered as easily to admit of temperate species of plants growing at the equator. A lowering of the temperature at the equator some 20° or 30° is all that would be required; and only a moderate increase in the volume of the currents proceeding from the equator, taken in connection with the effects flowing from the following considerations, might suffice to produce that result. During the glacial epoch, when the one hemisphere was under ice and the other enjoying a warm and equable climate, the median line between the trades may have been shifted to almost the tropical line of the warm hemisphere. Under such a condition of things the warmest part would probably be somewhere about the tropic of the warm hemisphere, and not, as now, at the equator; for since all, or nearly all, the surface-water of the equator would then be impelled over to the warm hemisphere, the tropical regions of that hemisphere would be receiving nearly double their present amount of warm water.
Again, as the equatorial current at this time would be shifted towards the tropic of the warm hemisphere, the surface-water would not, as at present, be flowing in equatorial regions parallel to the equator, but obliquely across it from the cold to the warm hemisphere. This of itself would tend greatly to lower the temperature of the equator.
It follows, therefore, as a necessary consequence, that during the glacial epoch, when the one hemisphere was under snow and ice and the other enjoying a warm and equable climate, the temperature of the equator would be lower than at present. But when the glaciated hemisphere (which we may assume to be the northern) began to grow warmer and the climate of the southern or warm hemisphere to get colder, the median line of the trades and the equatorial currents of the ocean also would begin to move back from the southern tropic towards the equator. This would cause the temperature of the equator to rise and to continue rising until the equatorial currents reached their normal position. When the snow began to accumulate on the southern hemisphere and to disappear on the northern, the median line of the trades and the equatorial currents of the ocean would then begin to move towards the northern tropic as they had formerly towards the southern. The temperature of the equator would then again begin to sink, and continue to do so until the glaciation of the southern hemisphere reached its maximum. This oscillation of the thermal equator to and fro across the geographical equator would continue so long as the alternate glaciation of the two hemispheres continued.
This lowering of the temperature of the equator during the severest part of the glacial epoch will help to explain the former existence of glaciers in inter-tropical regions at no very great elevation above the sea-level, evidence of which appears recently to have been found by Professor Agassiz, Mr. Belt, and others.
The glacial epoch may be considered as contemporaneous in both hemispheres. But the epoch consisted of a succession of cold and warm periods, the cold periods of one hemisphere coinciding with the warm periods of the other, and vice versâ.
Migration across the Equator.—Mr. Belt[103] and others have felt some difficulty in understanding how, according to theory, the plants and animals of temperate regions could manage to migrate from one hemisphere to the other, seeing that in their passage they would have to cross the thermal equator. The oscillation to and fro of the thermal equator across the geographical, removes every difficulty in regard to how the migration takes place. When, for example, a cold period on the northern hemisphere and the corresponding warm one on the southern were at their maximum, the thermal equator would by this time have probably passed beyond the Tropic of Capricorn. The geographical equator would then be enjoying a subtropical, if not a temperate condition of climate, and the plants and animals of the northern hemisphere would manage then to reach the equator. When the cold began to abate on the northern and to increase on the southern hemisphere, the thermal equator would commence its retreat towards the geographical. The plants and animals from the north, in order to escape the increasing heat as the thermal equator approached them, would begin to ascend the mountain heights; and when that equator had passed to its northern limit, and the geographical equator was again enjoying a subtropical condition of climate, the plants and animals would begin to descend and pursue their journey southwards as the cold abated on the southern hemisphere.
CHAPTER XV.
WARM INTER-GLACIAL PERIODS.
Alternate Cold and Warm Periods.—Warm Inter-glacial Periods a Test of Theories.—Reason why their Occurrence has not been hitherto recognised.—Instances of Warm Inter-glacial Periods.—Dranse, Dürnten, Hoxne, Chapelhall, Craiglockhart, Leith Walk, Redhall Quarry, Beith, Crofthead, Kilmaurs, Sweden, Ohio, Cromer, Mundesley, &c., &c.—Cave and River Deposits.—Occurrence of Arctic and Warm Animals in some Beds accounted for.—Mr. Boyd Dawkins’s Objections.—Occurrence of Southern Shells in Glacial Deposits.—Evidence of Warm Inter-glacial Periods from Mineral Borings.—Striated Pavements.—Reason why Inter-glacial Land-surfaces are so rare.
Alternate Cold and Warm Periods.—If the theory developed in the foregoing chapters in reference to the cause of secular changes of climate be correct, it follows that that long age known as the glacial epoch did not, as has hitherto been generally supposed, consist of one long unbroken period of cold and ice. Neither did it consist, as some have concluded, of two long periods of ice with an intervening mild period, but it must have consisted of a long succession of cold and warm periods; the warm periods of the one hemisphere corresponding in time with the cold periods of the other and vice versâ. It follows also from theory that as the cold periods became more and more severe, the warm intervening periods would become more and more warm and equable. As the ice began to accumulate during the cold periods in subarctic and temperate regions in places where it previously did not exist, so in like manner during the corresponding warm periods it would begin to disappear in arctic regions where it had held enduring sway throughout the now closing cycle. As the cold periods in the southern hemisphere became more and more severe, the ice would continue to advance northwards in the temperate regions; but at that very same time the intervening warm periods in the northern hemisphere would become warmer and warmer and more equable, and the ice of the arctic regions would continue to disappear farther and farther to the north, till by the time that the ice had reached a maximum during the cold antarctic periods, Greenland and the arctic regions would, during the warm intervening periods, be probably free of ice and enjoying a mild and equable climate. Or we may say that as the one hemisphere became cold the other became warm, and when the cold reached a maximum in the one hemisphere, the warmth would reach a maximum in the other. The time when the ice had reached its greatest extension on the one hemisphere would be the time when it had disappeared from the other.
Inter-glacial Periods a Test of Theories.—Here we have the grand crucial test of the truth of the foregoing theory of the cause of the glacial epoch. That the glacial epoch should have consisted of a succession of cold and warm periods is utterly inconsistent with all previous theories which have been advanced to account for it. What, then, is the evidence of geology on this subject? If the glacial epoch can be proved from geological evidence to have consisted of such a succession of cold and warm periods, then I have little doubt but the theory will soon be generally accepted. But at the very outset an objection meets us, viz., why call an epoch, which consisted as much of warm periods as of cold, a glacial epoch, or an “Ice Age,” as Mr. James Geikie tersely expresses it? Why not as well call it a warm epoch as a cold one, seeing that, according to theory, it was just as much a warm as a cold epoch? The answer to this objection will be fully discussed in the chapter on the Reason of the Imperfection of Geological Records. But in the meantime, I may remark that it will be shown that the epoch known as the glacial has been justly called the glacial epoch or “Ice Age,” because the geological evidences of the cold periods remain in a remarkably perfect state, whilst the evidences of the warm periods have to a great extent disappeared. The reason of this difference in the two cases will be discussed in the chapter to which I have referred. Besides, the condition of things during the cold periods was so extraordinary, so exceptional, so totally different from those now prevailing, that even supposing the geological records of the warm periods had been as well preserved as those of the cold, nevertheless we should have termed the epoch in question a glacial epoch. There is yet another reason, however, for our limited knowledge of warm inter-glacial periods. Till very lately, little or no attention was paid by geologists to this part of the subject in the way of keeping records of cases of inter-glacial deposits which, from time to time, have been observed. Few geologists ever dreamt of such a thing as warm periods during the age of ice, so that when intercalated beds of sand and gravel, beds of peat, roots, branches, trunks, leaves, and fruits of trees were found in the boulder clay, no physical importance was attached to them, and consequently no description or record of them ever kept. In fact, all such examples were regarded as purely accidental and exceptional, and were considered not worthy of any special attention. A case which came under my own observation will illustrate my meaning. An intelligent geologist, some years ago, read a paper before one of our local geological societies, giving an account of a fossiliferous bed of clay found intercalated between two distinct beds of till. In this intercalated bed were found rootlets and stems of trees, nuts, and other remains, showing that it had evidently been an old inter-glacial land surface. In the transactions of the society a description of the two beds of till was given, but no mention whatever was made of the intercalated bed containing the organic remains, although this was the only point of any real importance.
Since the theory that the glacial epoch resulted from a high state of eccentricity of the earth’s orbit began to receive some little acceptance, geologists have paid a good deal of attention to cases of intercalated beds in the till containing organic remains, and the result is that we have already a great body of evidence of a geological nature in favour of warm inter-glacial periods, and I have little doubt that in the course of a few years the former occurrence of warm inter-glacial periods will be universally admitted.
I shall now proceed to give a very brief outline of the evidence bearing on the subject. But the cases to which I shall have to refer are much too numerous to allow me to enter into details.
Inter-glacial Beds of Switzerland.—The first geologist, so far as I am aware, who directed attention to evidence of a break in the cold of the glacial epoch was M. Morlot. It is now twenty years ago since he announced the existence of a warm period during the glacial epoch from geological evidence connected with the glacial drift of the Alps.[104]
The rivers of Switzerland, he found, show on their banks three well-marked terraces of regularly stratified and well-rounded shingle, identical with the modern deposits of the rivers. They stand at 50, 100, and 150 feet above the present level of the rivers. These terraces were evidently formed by the present system of rivers when these flowed at a higher level, and extend up the Alps to a height of from 3,000 to 4,000 feet above the level of the sea. There is a terrace bordering the Rhine at Camischollas, above Disentis, 4,400 feet above the level of the sea, proving that during the period of its formation the Alps were free of ice up to the height of 4,400 feet above the sea-level. It is well known that a glacial period must have succeeded the formation of these drifts, for they are in many places covered with erratics. At Geneva, for example, an erratic drift nearly 50 feet thick is seen to rest on the drift of the middle terrace, which rises 100 feet above the level of the lake. But it is also evident that a glacial period must have preceded the formation of the drift beds, for they are found to lie in many places upon the unstratified boulder clay or till. M. Morlot observed in the neighbourhood of Clareus, from 7 to 9 feet of drift resting upon a bed of true till 40 feet thick; the latter was composed of a compact blue clay, containing worn and scratched alpine boulders and without any trace of stratification. In the gorge of Dranse, near Thoron, M. Morlot found the whole three formations in a direct superimposed series. At the bottom was a mass of compact till or boulder clay, 12 feet thick, containing boulders of alpine limestone. Over this mass came regularly stratified beds 150 feet thick, made up of rounded pebbles in horizontal beds. Above this again lay a second formation of unstratified boulder clay, with erratic blocks and striated pebbles, which constituted the left lateral moraine of the great glacier of the Rhone, when it advanced for the second time to the Lake of Geneva. A condition of things somewhat similar was observed by M. Ischer in the neighbourhood of Berne.
These facts, M. Morlot justly considers, prove the existence of two glacial periods separated by an intermediate one, during which the ice, which had not only covered Switzerland, but the greater part of Europe, disappeared even in the principal valleys of the Alps to a height of more than 4,400 feet above the present level of the sea. This warm period, after continuing for long ages, was succeeded by a second glacial period, during which the country was again covered with ice as before. M. Morlot even suggests the possibility of these alternations of cold and warm periods depending upon a cosmical cause. “Wild as it may have appeared,” he says, “when first started, the idea of general and periodical eras of refrigeration for our planet, connected perhaps with some cosmic agency, may eventually prove correct.”[105]
Shortly afterwards, evidence of a far more remarkable character was found in the glacial drift of Switzerland, namely, the famous lignite beds of Dürnten. In the vicinity of Utznach and Dürnten, on the Lake of Zurich, and near Mörschwyl, on the Lake of Constance, there are beds of coal or lignite, nearly 12 feet thick, lying directly on the boulder clay. Overlying these beds is another mass of drift and clay 30 feet in thickness, with rounded blocks, and on the top of this upper drift lie long angular erratics, which evidently have been transported on the back of glaciers.[106] Professor Vogt attributes their transport to floating ice; but he evidently does so to avoid the hypothesis of a warm period during the glacial epoch.
Here we have proof not merely of the disappearance of the ice during the glacial epoch, but of its absence during a period of sufficient length to allow of the growth of 10 or 12 feet of coal. Professor Heer thinks that this coal-bed, when in the condition of peat, must have been 60 feet thick; and assuming that one foot of peat would be formed in a century, he concludes that 6,000 years must have been required for the growth of the coal plants. According to Liebig, 9,600 years would be required. This, as we have already seen, is about the average duration of a warm period.
In these beds have been found the bones of the elephant (E. Merkii), stag, cave-bear, and other animals. Numerous insects have also been met with, which further prove the warm, mild condition of climate which must have prevailed at the time of the formation of the lignite.
At Hoxne, near Diss, in Suffolk, a black peaty mass several feet thick, containing fragments of wood of the oak, yew, and fir, was found, overlying the boulder clay.[107] Professor Vogt believes that this peat bed is of the same age as the lignite beds of Switzerland.
In the glacial drift of North America, particularly about Lake Champlain and the valley of the St. Lawrence, there is similar evidence of two glacial periods with an intervening non-glacial or warm period.[108]
Glacial and Inter-glacial Periods of the Southern Hemisphere—(South Africa).—Mr. G. W. Stow, in a paper on the “Geology of South Africa,”[109] describes a recent glaciation extending over a large portion of Natal, British Kaffraria, the Kaga and Krome mountains, which he attributes to the action of land-ice. He sums up the phenomena as follows:—“The rounding off of the hills in the interiors of the ancient basins; the numerous dome-shaped (roches moutonnée) rocks; the enormous erratic boulders in positions where water could not have carried them; the frequency of unstratified clays—clays with imbedded angular boulders; drift and lofty mounds of boulders; large tracts of country thickly spread over with unstratified clays and superimposed fragments of rock; the Oliphant’s-Hoek clay, and the vast piles of Enon conglomerate.” In addition to these results of ice-action, he records the discovery by himself of distinct ice-scratches or groovings on the surface of the rocks at Reit-Poort in the Tarka, and subsequently[110] the discovery by Mr. G. Gilfillan of a large boulder at Pniel with striæ distinctly marked upon it, and also that the same observer found that almost every boulder in the gravel at “Moonlight Rush” had unmistakable striæ on one or more sides.
In South Africa there is evidence not only of a glacial condition during the Pliocene period, but also of a warmer climate than now prevails in that region. “The evidence,” says Mr. Stow, “of the Pliocene shells of the superficial limestone of the Zwartkops heights, and elsewhere, leads us to believe that the climate of South Africa must have been of a far more tropical character than at present.
“Take, for instance, the characteristic Venericardia of that limestone. This has migrated along the coast some 29° or 30° and is now found within a few degrees of the equator, near Zanzibar, gradually driven, as I presume it must have been, further and further north by a gradual lowering of the temperature of the more southern parts of this coast since the limestone was deposited.”
“During the formation of the shell-banks in the Zwartkops estuary, younger than the Pliocene limestone, the immense number of certain species of shells, which have as yet been found living only in latitudes nearer the equator, point to a somewhat similar though a more modified change of temperature.”
Inter-glacial Beds of Scotland.—Upwards of a dozen years ago, Professor Geikie arrived, from his own observations of the glacial drift of Scotland, at a similar conclusion to that of M. Morlot regarding the intercalation of warm periods during the glacial epoch; and the facts on which Professor Geikie’s conclusions were based are briefly as follows. In a cliff of boulder clay on the banks of the Slitrig Water, near the town of Hawick, he observed a bed of stones or shingle. Over the lower stratum of stones lay a few inches of well-stratified sand, silt, and clay, some of the layers being black and peaty, with enclosed vegetable fibres in a crumbling state.[111] There were some 30 or 40 feet of boulder clay above these stratified beds, and 15 or 20 feet under them. The stones in the shingle band were identical with those of the boulder clay, but they showed no striations, and were more rounded and water-worn, and resembled in every respect the stones now lying in the bed of the Slitrig. The section of the cliff stood as under:—
| 1. Vegetable soil. | ||
| 2. Boulder clay, thirty to forty feet. | ||
| Stratified beds | { | 3. Yellowish gravelly sand. 4. Peaty silt and clay. 5. Fine ferruginous sand. 6. Coarse shingle, two to three feet. |
| 7. Coarse, stiff boulder clay, fifteen to twenty feet. | ||
A few more cases of intercalation of stratified materials in the true till were also found in the same valley.
In a cliff of stiff brown boulder clay, about 20 feet high, on the banks of the Carmichael Water, Lanarkshire, Professor Geikie observed a stratified bed of clay about 3 or 4 inches in thickness. About a mile higher up the stream, he found a series of beds of gravel, sand, and clay in the true till. “A thin seam of peaty matter,” he says, “was observed to run for a few inches along the bottom of a bed of clay and then disappear, while in a band of fine laminated clay with thin sandy partings occasional fragments of mouldering wood were found.”[112]
At Chapelhall, near Airdrie, a sand-bed has been extensively mined under about 114 feet of till. This bed of finely stratified sand is about 20 feet thick. In it were found lenticular beds of fine pale-coloured clay containing layers of peat and decaying twigs and branches. Professor Geikie found the vegetable fibres, though much decayed, still distinct, and the substance when put into the fire burned with a dull lambent flame. Underlying these stratified beds, and forming the floor of the mine, is a deposit of the true till about 24 feet in thickness. In another pit adjoining, the till forming the floor is 30 feet thick, but it is sometimes absent altogether, so as to leave the sand beds resting directly on the sandstone and shale of the coal-measures. At some distance from this sand-pit an old buried river channel was met with in one of the pit workings. This channel was found to contain a coating of boulder clay, on which the laminated sands and clays reposed, showing, as Professor Geikie has pointed out, that this old channel had been filled with boulder clay, and then re-excavated to allow of the deposition of the stratified deposits. Over all lay a thick mantle of boulder clay which buried the whole.
A case somewhat similar was found by Professor Nicol in a cutting on the Edinburgh and Leith Railway. In many places the till had been worn into hollows as if part of it had been removed by the action of running water.[113] One of these hollows, about 5 or 6 feet wide by 3 or 4 feet deep, closely resembled the channel of a small stream. It was also filled with gravel and sand, in all respects like that found in such a stream at the present day. It was seen to exhibit the same characters on both sides of the cutting, but Professor Nicol was unable to determine how far it may have extended beyond; but he had no doubt whatever that it had been formed by a stream of water. Over this old watercourse was a thick deposit of true till.
In reference to the foregoing cases, Professor Geikie makes the following pertinent remarks:—“Here it is evident that the scooping out of this channel belongs to the era of the boulder clay. It must have been effected during a pause in the deposition of the clay, when a run of water could find its way along the inequalities of the surface of the clay. This pause must have been of sufficient duration to enable the runnel to excavate a capacious channel for itself, and leave in it a quantity of sand and shingle. We can scarcely doubt that when this process was going on the ground must have been a land surface, and could not have been under the sea. And lastly, we see from the upper boulder clay that the old conditions returned, the watercourse was choked up, and another mass of chaotic boulder clay was tumbled down upon the face of the country. This indicates that the boulder clay is not the result of one great catastrophe, but of slow and silent, yet mighty, forces acting sometimes with long pauses throughout a vast cycle of time.”[114]
At Craiglockhart Hill, about a mile south of Edinburgh, an extensive bed of fine sand of from one to three feet in thickness was found between two distinct masses of true boulder clay or till. The sand was extensively used for building purposes during the erection of the city poorhouse a few years ago. In this sand-bed I found a great many tree roots in the position in which they had grown. During the time of the excavations I visited the place almost daily, and had every opportunity of satisfying myself that this sand-bed, prior to the time of the formation of the upper boulder clay, must have been a land surface on which the roots had grown. In no case did I find them penetrating into the upper boulder clay, and in several places I found stones of the upper clay resting directly on the broken ends of the roots. These roots were examined by Professor Balfour, but they were so decayed that he was unable to determine their character.
In digging a foundation for a building in Leith Walk, Edinburgh, a few years ago, two distinct beds of sand were passed through, the upper, about 10 feet in thickness, rested upon what appeared to be a denuded surface of the lower bed. In this lower bed, which evidently had been a land surface, numbers of tree roots were found. I had the pleasure of examining them along with my friend Mr. C. W. Peach, who first directed my attention to them. In no instance were the roots found in the upper bed. That these roots did not belong to trees which had grown on the present surface and penetrated to that depth, was further evident from the fact that in one or two cases we found the roots broken off at the place where they had been joined to the trunk, and there the upper sand-bed over them was more than 10 feet in thickness. If we assume that the roots belonged to trees which had grown on the present surface, then we must also assume, what no one would be willing to admit, that the trunks of the trees had grown downwards into the earth to a depth of upwards of ten feet. I have shown these roots to several botanists, but none of them could determine to what trees they belonged. The surface of the ground at the spot in question is 45 feet above sea-level. Mr. Peach and I have found similar roots in the under sand-bed at several other places in the same neighbourhood. That they belong to an inter-glacial period appears probable for the following reasons:—(1.) This upper sand-bed is overlaid by a tough clay, which in all respects appears to be the same as the Portobello clay, which we know belongs to the glacial series. In company with Mr. Bennie, I found the clay in some places to be contorted in a similar manner to the Portobello clays. (2.) In a sand-pit about one or two hundred yards to the west of where the roots were found, the sand-bed was found contorted in the most extraordinary manner to a depth of about 15 feet. In fact, for a space of more than 30 feet, the bedding had been completely turned up on end without the fine layers being in the least degree broken or disarranged, showing that they had been upturned by some enormous powers acting on a large mass of the sand.
One of the best examples of true till to be met with in the neighbourhood of Edinburgh is at Redhall Quarry, about three miles to the south-west of the city. In recently opening up a new quarry near the old one a bed of peat was found intercalated in the thick mass of till overlying the rock. The clay overlying and underlying the peat-bed was carefully examined by Mr. John Henderson,[115] and found to be true till.
In a quarry at Overtown, near Beith, Ayrshire, a sedimentary bed of clay, intercalated between two boulder clays, was some years ago observed by Mr. Robert Craig, of the Glasgow Geological Society. This bed filled an elliptical basin about 130 yards long, and about 30 yards broad. Its thickness averaged from one to two feet. This sedimentary bed rested on the till on the north-east end of the basin, and was itself overlaid on the south-west end by the upper bed of till. The clay bed was found to be full of roots and stems of the common hazel. That these roots had grown in the position in which they were found was evident from the fact that they were in many places found to pass into the “cutters” or fissures of the limestone, and were here found in a flattened form, having in growing accommodated themselves to the size and shape of the fissures. Nuts of the hazel were plentifully found.[116]
At Hillhead, some distance from Overtown, there is a similar intercalated bed full of hazel remains, and a species of freshwater Ostracoda was detected by Mr. David Robertson.
In a railway cutting a short distance from Beith, Mr. Craig pointed out to my colleague, Mr. Jack, and myself, a thin layer of peaty matter, extending for a considerable distance between an upper and lower mass of till; and at one place we found a piece of oak about four feet in length and about seven or eight inches in thickness. This oak boulder was well polished and striated.
Not far from this place is the famous Crofthead inter-glacial bed, so well known from the description given by Mr. James Geikie and others that I need not here describe it. I had the pleasure of visiting the section twice while it was well exposed, once, in company with Mr. James Geikie, and I do not entertain the shadow of a doubt as to its true inter-glacial character.
In the silt, evidently the mud of an inter-glacial lake, were found the upper portion of the skull of the great extinct ox (Bos primigenius), horns of the Irish elk or deer, and bones of the horse. In the detailed list of the lesser organic remains found in the intercalated peat-bed by Mr. J. A. Mahony,[117] are the following, viz., three species of Desmidaceæ, thirty-one species of Diatomaceæ, eleven species of mosses, nine species of phanerogamous plants, and several species of annelids, crustacea, and insects. This list clearly shows that the inter-glacial period, represented by these remains, was not only mild and warm, but of considerable duration. Mr. David Robertson found in the clay under the peat several species of Ostracoda.
The well-known Kilmaurs bed of peaty matter in which the remains of the mammoth and reindeer were found, has now by the researches of the Geological Survey been proved to be of inter-glacial age.[118]
In Ireland, as shown by Professors Hull and Harkness, the inter-glacial beds, called by them the “manure gravels,” contain numerous fragments of shells indicating a more genial climate than prevailed when the boulder clays lying above and below them were formed.[119]
In Sweden inter-glacial beds of freshwater origin, containing plants, have been met with by Herr Nathorst and also by Herr Holmström.[120]
In North America Mr. Whittlesey describes inter-glacial beds of blue clay enclosing pieces of wood, intercalated with beds of hard pan (till). Professor Newberry found at Germantown, Ohio, an immense bed of peat, from 12 to 20 feet in thickness, underlying, in some places 30 feet, and in other places as much as 80 feet, of till, and overlying drift beds. The uppermost layers of the peat contain undecomposed sphagnous mosses, grasses, and sedges, but in the other portions of the bed abundant fragments of coniferous wood, identified as red cedar (Juniperus virginiana), have been found. Ash, hickory, sycamore, together with grape-vines and beech-leaves, were also met with, and with these the remains of the mastodon and great extinct beaver.[121]
Inter-glacial Beds of England.—Scotland has been so much denuded by the ice sheet with which it was covered during the period of maximum glaciation that little can be learned in this part of the island regarding the early history of the glacial epoch. But in England, and more especially in the south-eastern portion of it, matters are somewhat different. We have, in the Norwich Crag and Chillesford beds, a formation pretty well developed, which is now generally regarded as lying at the base of the Glacial Series. That this formation is of a glacial character is evident from the fact of its containing shells of a northern type, such as Leda lanceolata, Cardium Groènlandicum, Lucina borealis, Cyprina Islandica, Panopæa Norvegica, and Mya truncata. But the glacial character of the formation is more strikingly brought out, as Sir Charles Lyell remarks, by the predominance of such species as Rhynchonella psittacea, Tellina calcarea, Astarte borealis, Scalaria Groènlandica, and Fusus carinatus.
The “Forest Beds.”—Immediately following this in the order of time comes the famous “Forest Bed” of Cromer. This buried forest has been traced for more than forty miles along the coast from Cromer to near Kessengland, and consists of stumps of trees standing erect, attached to their roots, penetrating the original soil in which they grew. Here and in the overlying fluvio-marine beds we have the first evidence of at least a temperate, if not a warm, inter-glacial period. This is evident from the character of the flora and fauna belonging to these beds. Among the trees we have, for example, the Scotch and spruce fir, the yew, the oak, birch, the alder, and the common sloe. There have also been found the white and yellow water-lilies, the pond-weed, and others. Amongst the mammalia have been met with the Elephas meridionalis, also found in the Lower Pliocene beds of the Val d’Arno, near Florence; Elephas antiquus, Hippopotamus major, Rhinoceros Etruscus, the two latter Val d’Arno species, the roebuck, the horse, the stag, the Irish elk, the Cervus Polignacus, found also at Mont Perrier, France, C. verticornis, and C. carnutorum, the latter also found in Pliocene strata of St. Prest, France. In the fluvio-marine series have been found the Cyclas omnica and the Paludina marginata, a species of mollusc still found in the South of France, but no longer inhabiting the British Isles.
Above the forest bed and fluvio-marine series comes the well-known unstratified Norwich boulder till, containing immense blocks 6 or 8 feet in diameter, many of which must have come from Scandinavia, and above the unstratified till are a series of contorted beds of sand and gravel. This series may be considered to represent a period of intense glaciation. Above this again comes the middle drift of Mr. Searles Wood, junior, yielding shells which indicate, as is now generally admitted, a comparatively mild condition of climate. Upon this middle drift lies the upper boulder clay, which is well developed in South Norfolk and Suffolk, and which is of unmistakable glacial origin. Newer than all these are the Mundesley freshwater beds, which lie in a hollow denuded out of the foregoing series. In this formation a black peaty deposit containing seeds of plants, insects, shells, and scales and bones of fishes, has been found, all indicating a mild and temperate condition of climate. Among the shells there is, as in the forest bed, the Paludina marginata. And that an arctic condition of things in England followed is believed by Mr. Fisher and others, on the evidence of the “Trail” described by the former observer.
Cave and River Deposits.—Evidence of the existence of warm periods during the glacial epoch is derived from a class of facts which have long been regarded by geologists as very puzzling, namely, the occurrence of mollusca and mammalia of a southern type associated in England and on the continent with those of an extremely arctic character. For example, Cyrena fluminalis is a shell which does not live at present in any European river, but inhabits the Nile and parts of Asia, especially Cashmere. Unio littoralis, extinct in Britain, is still abundant in the Loire; Paludina marginata does not exist in this country. These shells of a southern type have been found in post-tertiary deposits at Gray’s Thurrock, in Essex; in the valley of the Ouse, near Bedford; and at Hoxne, in Suffolk, associated with a Hippopotamus closely allied to that now inhabiting the Nile, and Elephas antiquus, an animal remarkable for its southern range. Amongst other forms of a southern type which have been met with in the cave and river deposits, are the spotted hyæna from Africa, an animal, says Mr. Dawkins, identical, except in size, with the cave hyæna, the African elephant (E. Africanus), and the Elephas meridionalis, the great beaver (Trogontherium), the cave hyæna (Hyæna spelæa), the cave lion (Felis leo, var. spelæa), the lynx (Felis lynx), the sabre-toothed tiger (Machairodus latidens), the rhinoceros (Rhinoceros megarhinus and R. leptorhinus). But the most extraordinary thing is that along with these, associated in the same beds, have been found the remains of such animals of an arctic type as the glutton (Gulo luscus), the ermine (Mustela erminea), the reindeer (Cervus tarandus), the musk-ox or musk-sheep (Ovibos moschatus), the aurochs (Bison priscus), the woolly rhinoceros (Rhinoceros tichorhinus), the mammoth (Elephas primigenius), and others of a like character. According to Mr. Boyd Dawkins, these southern animals extended as far north as Yorkshire in England, and the northern animals as far south as the latitude of the Alps and Pyrenees.[122]
The Explanation of the Difficulty.—As an explanation of these puzzling phenomena, I suggested, in the Philosophical Magazine for November, 1868, that these southern animals lived in our island during the warm periods of the glacial epoch, while the northern animals lived during the cold periods. This view I am happy to find has lately been supported by Sir John Lubbock; further, Mr. James Geikie, in his “Great Ice Age,” and also in the Geological Magazine, has entered so fully into the subject and brought forward such a body of evidence in support of it, that, in all probability, it will, ere long, be generally accepted. The only objection which has been advanced, so far as I am aware, deserving of serious consideration, is that by Mr. Boyd Dawkins, who holds that if these migrations had been secular instead of seasonal, as is supposed by Sir Charles Lyell and himself, the arctic and southern animals would now be found in separate deposits. It is perfectly true that if there had been only one cold and one warm period, each of geologically immense duration, the remains might, of course, be expected to have been found in separate beds; but when we consider that the glacial epoch consisted of a long succession of alternate cold and warm periods, of not more than ten or twelve thousand years each, we can hardly expect that in the river deposits belonging to this long cycle we should be able to distinguish the deposits of the cold periods from those of the warm.
Shell Beds.—Evidence of warm inter-glacial periods may be justly inferred from the presence of shells of a southern type which have been found in glacial beds, of which some illustrations follow.
In the southern parts of Norway, from the present sea-level up to 500 feet, are found glacial shell beds, similar to those of Scotland. In these beds Trochus magus, Tapes decussata, and Pholas candida have been found, shells which are distributed between the Mediterranean and the shores of England, but no longer live round the coasts of Norway.
At Capellbacken, near Udevalla, in Sweden, there is an extensive bed of shells 20 to 30 feet in thickness. This formation has been described by Mr. Gwyn Jeffreys.[123] It consists of several distinct layers, apparently representing many epochs and conditions. Its shells are of a highly arctic character, and several of the species have not been found living south of the arctic circle. But the remarkable circumstance is that it contains Cypræa lurida, a Mediterranean shell, which Mr. Jeffreys, after some hesitation, believed to belong to the bed. Again, at Lilleherstehagen, a short distance from Capellbacken, another extensive deposit is exposed. “Here the upper layer,” says Mr. Jeffreys, “gives a singular result. Mixed with the universal Trophon clathratus (which is a high northern species, and found living only within the arctic circle) are many shells of a southern type, such are Ostrea edulis, Tapes pullastra, Corbula gibba, and Aporrhais pes-pelicani.”
At Kempsey, near Worcester, a shell bed is described by Sir R. Murchison in his “Silurian System” (p. 533), in which Bulla ampulla and a species of Oliva, shells of a southern type, have been found.
A case somewhat similar to the above is recorded by the Rev. Mr. Crosskey as having been met with in Scotland at the Kyles of Bute. “Among the Clyde beds, I have found,” he says, “a layer containing shells, in which those of a more southern type appear to exist in greater profusion and perfection than even in our present seas. It is an open question,” he continues, “whether our climate was not slightly warmer than it is now between the glacial epoch and the present day.”[124]
In a glacial bed near Greenock, Mr. A. Bell found the fry of living Mediterranean forms, viz., Conus Mediterraneus and Cardita trapezia.
Although deposits containing shells of a temperate or of a southern type in glacial beds have not been often recorded, it by no means follows that such deposits are actually of rare occurrence. That glacial beds should contain deposits indicating a temperate or a warm condition of climate is a thing so contrary to all preconceived opinions regarding the sequence of events during the glacial epoch, that most geologists, were they to meet with a shell of a southern type in one of those beds, would instantly come to the conclusion that its occurrence there was purely accidental, and would pay no special attention to the matter.
Evidence derived from “Borings.”—With the view of ascertaining if additional light would be cast on the sequence of events, during the formation of the boulder clay, by an examination of the journals of bores made through a great depth of surface deposits, I collected, during the summer of 1867, about two hundred and fifty such records, put down in all parts of the mining districts of Scotland. An examination of these bores shows most conclusively that the opinion that the boulder clay, or lower till, is one great undivided formation, is wholly erroneous.
These two hundred and fifty bores represent a total thickness of 21,348 feet, giving 86 feet as the mean thickness of the deposits passed through. Twenty of these have one boulder clay, with beds of stratified sand or gravel beneath the clay; twenty-five have two boulder clays, with stratified beds of sand and gravel between; ten have three boulder clays; one has four boulder clays; two have five boulder clays; and no one has fewer than six separate masses of boulder clay, with stratified beds of sand and gravel between; sixteen have two or three separate boulder clays, differing altogether in colour and hardness, without any stratified beds between. We have, therefore, out of two hundred and fifty bores, seventy-five of them representing a condition of things wholly different from that exhibited to the geologist in ordinary sections.
The full details of the character of the deposits passed through by these bores, and their bearing on the history of the glacial epoch, have been given by Mr. James Bennie, in an interesting paper read before the Glasgow Geological Society,[125] to which I would refer all those interested in the subject of surface geology.
The evidence afforded by these bores of the existence of warm inter-glacial periods will, however, fall to be considered in a subsequent chapter.[126]
Another important and unexpected result obtained from these bores to which we shall have occasion to refer, was the evidence which they afforded of a Continental Period.
Striated Pavements.—It has been sometimes observed that in horizontal sections of the boulder clay, the stones and boulders are all striated in one uniform direction, and this has been effected over the original markings on the boulders. It has been inferred from this that a pause of long duration must have taken place in the formation of the boulder clay, during which the ice disappeared and the clay became hardened into a solid mass. After which the old condition of things returned, glaciers again appeared, passed over the surface of the hardened clay with its imbedded boulders, and ground it down in the same way as they had formerly done the solid rocks underneath the clay.
An instance of striated pavements in the boulder clay was observed by Mr. Robert Chambers in a cliff between Portobello and Fisherrow. At several places a narrow train of blocks was observed crossing the line of the beach, somewhat like a quay or mole, but not more than a foot above the general level. All the blocks had flat sides uppermost, and all the flat sides were striated in the same direction as that of the rocky surface throughout the country. A similar instance was also observed between Leith and Portobello. “There is, in short,” says Mr. Chambers, “a surface of the boulder clay, deep down in the entire bed, which, to appearance, has been in precisely the same circumstances as the fast rock surface below had previously been. It has had in its turn to sustain the weight and abrading force of the glacial agent, in whatever form it was applied; and the additional deposits of the boulder clay left over this surface may be presumed to have been formed by the agent on that occasion.”[127]
Several cases of a similar character were observed by Mr. James Smith, of Jordanhill, on the beach at Row, and on the shore of the Gareloch.[128] Between Dunbar and Cockburnspath, Professor Geikie found along the beach, for a space of 30 or 40 square yards, numbers of large blocks of limestone with flattened upper sides, imbedded in a stiff red clay, and all striated in one direction. On the shores of the Solway he found another example.[129]
The cases of striated pavements recorded are, however, not very numerous. But this by no means shows that they are of rare occurrence in the boulder clay. These pavements, of course, are to be found only in the interior of the mass, and even there they can only be seen along a horizontal section. But sections of this kind are rarely to be met with, for river channels, quarries, railway cuttings, and other excavations of a similar character which usually lay open the boulder clay, exhibit vertical sections only. It is therefore only along the sea-shore, as Professor Geikie remarks, where the surface of the clay has been worn away by the action of the waves, that opportunities have hitherto been presented to the geologist for observing them.
There can be little doubt that during the warm periods of the glacial epoch our island would be clothed with a luxuriant flora. At the end of a cold period, when the ice had disappeared, the whole face of the country would be covered over to a considerable depth with a confused mass of stones and boulder clay. A surface thus wholly destitute of every seed and germ would probably remain for years without vegetation. But through course of time life would begin to appear, and during the thousands of years of perpetual summer which would follow, the soil, uncongenial as it no doubt must have been, would be forced to sustain a luxuriant vegetation. But although this was the case, we need not wonder that now scarcely a single vestige of it remains; for when the ice sheet again crept over the island everything animate and inanimate would be ground down to powder. We are certain that prior to the glacial epoch our island must have been covered with life and vegetation. But not a single vestige of these are now to be found; no, not even of the very soil on which the vegetation grew. The solid rock itself upon which the soil lay has been ground down to mud by the ice sheet, and, to a large extent, as Professor Geikie remarks, swept away into the adjoining seas.[130] It is now even more difficult to find a trace of the ancient soil under the boulder clay than it is to find remains of the soil of the warm periods in that clay. As regards Scotland, cases of old land surfaces under the boulder clay are as seldom recorded as cases of old land surfaces in it. In so far as geology is concerned, there is as much evidence to show that our island was clothed with vegetation during the glacial epoch as there is that it was so clothed prior to that epoch.
CHAPTER XVI.
WARM INTER-GLACIAL PERIODS IN ARCTIC REGIONS.
Cold Periods best marked in Temperate, and Warm Periods in Arctic, Regions.—State of Arctic Regions during Glacial Period.—Effects of Removal of Ice from Arctic Regions.—Ocean-Currents; Influence on Arctic Climate.—Reason why Remains of Inter-glacial Period are rare in Arctic Regions.—Remains of Ancient Forests in Banks’s Land, Prince Patrick’s Island, &c.—Opinions of Sir R. Murchison, Captain Osborn, and Professor Haughton.—Tree dug up by Sir E. Belcher in lat. 75° N.
In the temperate regions the cold periods of the glacial epoch would be far more marked than the warm inter-glacial periods. The condition of things which prevailed during the cold periods would differ far more widely from that which now prevails than would the condition of things during the warm periods. But as regards the polar regions the reverse would be the case; there the warm inter-glacial periods would be far more marked than the cold periods. The condition of things prevailing in those regions during the warm periods would be in strongest contrast to what now obtains, but this would not hold true in reference to the cold periods; for during the latter, matters there would be pretty much the same as at present, only a good deal more severe. The reason of this may be seen from what has already been stated in [Chapter IV.]; but as it is a point of considerable importance in order to a proper understanding of the physical state of things prevailing in polar regions during the glacial epoch, I shall consider this part of the subject more fully.
During the cold periods, our island, and nearly all places in the northern temperate regions down to about the same latitude, would be covered with snow and ice, and all animal and vegetable life within the glaciated area would to a great extent be destroyed. The presence of the ice would of itself, for reasons already explained, lower the mean annual temperature to near the freezing-point. The summers, notwithstanding the proximity of the sun, would not be warm, on the contrary their temperature would rise little above the freezing-point. An excess of evaporation would no doubt take place, owing to the increase in the intensity of the sun’s rays, but this result would only tend to increase the snowfall.[131]
During the warm periods our country and the regions under consideration would experience conditions not differing much from those of the present, but the climate would probably be somewhat warmer and more equable. The proximity of the sun during winter would prevent snow from falling. The summers, owing to the greater distance of the sun, would probably be somewhat colder than they are now. But the loss of heat during summer would be to a large extent compensated for by two causes to which we must here refer. (1.) The much greater amount of heat conveyed by ocean-currents than at present. (2.) Our summers are now cooled to a considerable extent by cold aërial currents from the ice-covered regions of the north. But during the period in question there would be little or no ice in arctic regions, consequently the winds would be comparatively warm, whatever direction they came from.
Let us next direct our attention to the state of things in the arctic regions during the glacial epoch. At present Greenland and other parts of the arctic regions occupied by land are almost wholly covered with ice, and as a consequence nearly destitute of vegetable life. During the cold periods of the glacial epoch the quantity of snow falling would doubtless be greater and the ice thicker, but as regards organic life, matters would not probably be much worse than they are at present. In fact, so far as Greenland and the antarctic continent are concerned, they are about as destitute of plant life as they can be. Although an increase in the thickness of the arctic ice would not greatly alter the present state of matters in those regions, yet what a transformation would ensue upon the disappearance of the ice! This would not only raise the summer temperature some twenty degrees or so, but would afford the necessary conditions for the existence of abundant animal and plant life. The severity of the climate of Greenland is due to a very considerable extent, as we have already seen, to the presence of ice. Get rid of the permanent ice, and the temperature of the country, cæteris paribus, would instantly rise. That Greenland should ever have enjoyed a temperate climate, capable of supporting abundant vegetation, has often been matter of astonishment, but this wonder diminishes when we reflect that during the warm periods it would be in the arctic regions that the greatest heating effect would take place, this being due mainly to the transference of nearly all the warm inter-tropical waters to one hemisphere.
It has been shown in [Chapter II.] that the heating effects at present resulting from the transference of heat by ocean-currents increase as we approach the poles. As a consequence of this it follows that during the warm periods, when the quantity of warm water transferred would be nearly doubled, the increase of heat resulting from this cause would itself increase as the warm pole was approached. This effect, combined with the shortness of the winter in perihelion and the nearness of the sun during that season, would prevent the accumulation of snow. During summer, the sun, it is true, would be at a much greater distance from the earth than at present, but it must be borne in mind that for a period of three months the quantity of heat received from the sun at the north pole would be greater than that received at the equator. Consequently, after the winter’s snow was melted, this great amount of heat would go to raise the temperature, and the arctic summer could not be otherwise than hot. It is not hot at present, but this, be it observed, is because of the presence of the ice. When we take all these facts into consideration we need not be surprised that Greenland once enjoyed a condition of climate totally different from that which now obtains in that region.
It is, therefore, in the arctic and antarctic regions where we ought to find the most marked and decided evidence of warm inter-glacial periods. And doubtless such evidence would be abundantly forthcoming had these regions not been subjected to such intense denudation since the glacial epoch, and were so large a portion of the land not still buried beneath an icy covering, and therefore beyond the geologist’s reach. Only on islands and such outlying places as are not shrouded in snow and ice can we hope to meet with any trace of the warm periods of the glacial epoch: and we may now proceed to consider what relics of these warm periods have actually been discovered in arctic regions.
Evidence of Warm Periods in Arctic Regions.—The fact that stumps, &c., of full-grown trees have been found in places where at present nothing is to be met with but fields of snow and ice, and where the mean annual temperature scarcely rises above the zero of the Fahrenheit thermometer, is good evidence to show that the climate of the arctic regions was once much warmer than now. The remains of an ancient forest were discovered by Captain McClure, in Banks’s Land, in latitude 74° 48′. He found a great accumulation of trees, from the sea-level to an elevation of upwards of 300 feet. “I entered a ravine,” says Captain McClure, “some miles inland, and found the north side of it, for a depth of 40 feet from the surface, composed of one mass of wood similar to what I had before seen.”[132] In the ravine he observed a tree protruding about 8 feet, and 3 feet in circumference. And he further states that, “From the perfect state of the bark, and the position of the trees so far from the sea, there can be but little doubt that they grew originally in the country.” A cone of one of these fir-trees was brought home, and was found to belong apparently to the genus Abies, resembling A. (Pinus) alba.
In Prince Patrick’s Island, in latitude 76° 12′ N., longitude 122° W., near the head of Walker Inlet, and a considerable distance in the interior in one of the ravines, a tree protruding about 10 feet from a bank was discovered by Lieutenant Mecham. It proved to be 4 feet in circumference. In its neighbourhood several others were seen, all of them similar to some he had found at Cape Manning; each of them measured 4 feet round and 30 feet in length. The carpenter stated that the trees resembled larch. Lieutenant Mecham, from their appearance and position, concluded that they must have grown in the country.[133]
Trees under similar conditions were also found by Lieutenant Pim on Prince Patrick’s Island, and by Captain Parry on Melville Island, all considerably above the present sea-level and at a distance from the shore. On the coast of New Siberia, Lieutenant Anjou found a cliff of clay containing stems of trees still capable of being used for fuel.
“This remarkable phenomenon,” says Captain Osborn, “opens a vast field for conjecture, and the imagination becomes bewildered in trying to realise that period of the world’s history when the absence of ice and a milder climate allowed forest trees to grow in a region where now the ground-willow and dwarf-birch have to struggle for existence.”
Sir Roderick Murchison came to the conclusion that all those trees were drifted to their present position when the islands of the arctic archipelago were submerged. But it was the difficulty of accounting for the growth of trees in such a region which led him to adopt this hypothesis. His argument is this: “If we imagine,” he says, “that the timber found in those latitudes grew on the spot we should be driven to adopt the anomalous hypothesis that, notwithstanding physical relations of land and water similar to those which now prevail, trees of large size grew on such terra firma within a few degrees of the north pole!—a supposition which I consider to be wholly incompatible with the data in our possession, and at variance with the laws of the isothermal lines.”[134] This reasoning of Sir Roderick’s may be quite correct, on the supposition that changes of climate are due to changes in the distribution of sea and land, as advocated by Sir Charles Lyell. But these difficulties disappear if we adopt the views advocated in the foregoing chapters. As Captain Osborn has pointed out, however, Sir Roderick’s hypothesis leaves the real difficulty untouched. “A very different climate,” he says, “must then have existed in those regions to allow driftwood so perfect as to retain its bark to reach such great distances; and perhaps it may be argued that if that sea was sufficiently clear of ice to allow such timber to drift unscathed to Prince Patrick’s Land, that that very absence of a frozen sea would allow fir-trees to grow in a soil naturally fertile.”[135]
As has been already stated, all who have seen those trees in arctic regions agree in thinking that they grew in situ. And Professor Haughton, in his excellent account of the arctic archipelago appended to McClintock’s “Narrative of Arctic Discoveries,” after a careful examination of the entire evidence on the subject, is distinctly of the same opinion; while the recent researches of Professor Heer put it beyond doubt that the drift theory must be abandoned.
Undoubtedly the arctic archipelago was submerged to an extent that could have admitted of those trees being floated to their present positions. This, as we shall see, follows from theory; but submergence, without a warmer condition of climate, would not enable trees to reach those regions with their bark entire.
But in reality we are not left to theorise on the subject, for we have a well-authenticated case of one of those trees being got by Captain Belcher standing erect in the position in which it grew. It was found immediately to the northward of the narrow strait opening into Wellington Sound, in lat. 75° 32′ N. long. 92° W., and about a mile and a half inland. The tree was dug up out of the frozen ground, and along with it a portion of the soil which was immediately in contact with the roots. The whole was packed in canvas and brought to England. Near to the spot several knolls of peat mosses about nine inches in depth were found, containing the bones of the lemming in great numbers. The tree in question was examined by Sir William Hooker, who gave the following report concerning it, which bears out strongly the fact of its having grown in situ.
“The piece of wood brought by Sir Edward Belcher from the shores of Wellington Channel belongs to a species of pine, probably to the Pinus (Abies) alba, the most northern conifer. The structure of the wood of the specimen brought home differs remarkably in its anatomical character from that of any other conifer with which I am acquainted. Each concentric ring (or annual growth) consists of two zones of tissue; one, the outer, that towards the circumference, is broader, of a pale colour, and consists of ordinary tubes of fibres of wood, marked with discs common to all coniferæ. These discs are usually opposite one another when more than one row of them occur in the direction of the length of the fibre; and, what is very unusual, present radiating lines from the central depression to the circumference. Secondly, the inner zone of each annual ring of wood is narrower, of a dark colour, and formed of more slender woody fibres, with thicker walls in proportion to their diameter. These tubes have few or no discs upon them, but are covered with spiral striæ, giving the appearance of each tube being formed of a twisted band. The above characters prevail in all parts of the wood, but are slightly modified in different rings. Thus the outer zone is broader in some than in others, the disc-bearing fibres of the outer zone are sometimes faintly marked with spiral striæ, and the spirally marked fibres of the inner zone sometimes bear discs. These appearances suggest the annual recurrence of some special cause that shall thus modify the first and last formed fibres of each year’s deposit, so that that first formed may differ in amount as well as in kind from that last formed; and the peculiar conditions of an arctic climate appear to afford an adequate solution. The inner, or first-formed zone, must be regarded as imperfectly developed, being deposited at a season when the functions of the plant are very intermittently exercised, and when a few short hours of sunshine are daily succeeded by many of extreme cold. As the season advances the sun’s heat and light are continuous during the greater part of the twenty-four hours, and the newly formed wood fibres are hence more perfectly developed, they are much longer, present no signs of striæ, but are studded with discs of a more highly organized structure than are usual in the natural order to which this tree belongs.”[136]
Another circumstance which shows that the tree had grown where it was found is the fact that in digging up the roots portions of the leaves were obtained. It may also be mentioned that near this place was found an old river channel cut deeply into the rock, which, at some remote period, when the climate must have been less rigorous than at present, had been occupied by a river of considerable size.
Now, it is evident that if a tree could have grown at Wellington Sound, there is no reason why one might not have grown at Banks’s Land, or at Prince Patrick’s Island. And, if the climatic condition of the country would allow one tree to grow, it would equally as well allow a hundred, a thousand, or a whole forest. If this, then, be the case, Sir Roderick’s objection to the theory of growth in situ falls to the ground.
Another circumstance which favours the idea that those trees grew during the glacial epoch is the fact that although they are recent, geologically speaking, and belong to the drift series, yet they are, historically speaking, very old. The wood, though not fossilized, is so hardened and changed by age that it will scarcely burn.
CHAPTER XVII.
FORMER GLACIAL EPOCHS.—REASON OF THE IMPERFECTION OF GEOLOGICAL RECORDS IN REFERENCE TO THEM.
Two Reasons why so little is known of Glacial Epochs.—Evidence of Glaciation to be found on Land-surfaces.—Where are all our ancient Land-surfaces?—The stratified Rocks consist of a Series of old Sea-bottoms.—Transformation of a Land-surface into a Sea-bottom obliterates all Traces of Glaciation.—Why so little remains of the Boulder Clays of former Glacial Epochs.—Records of the Glacial Epoch are fast disappearing.—Icebergs do not striate the Sea-bottom.—Mr. Campbell’s Observations on the Coast of Labrador.—Amount of Material transported by Icebergs much exaggerated.—Mr. Packard on the Glacial Phenomena of Labrador.—Boulder Clay the Product of Land-ice.—Palæontological Evidence.—Paucity of Life characteristic of a Glacial Period.—Warm Periods better represented by Organic Remains than cold.—Why the Climate of the Tertiary Period was supposed to be warmer than the present.—Mr. James Geikie on the Defects of Palæontological Evidence.—Conclusion.
Two Reasons why so little is known of former Glacial Epochs.—If the glacial epoch resulted from the causes discussed in the foregoing chapters, then such epochs must have frequently supervened. We may, therefore, now proceed to consider what evidence there is for the former occurrence of excessive conditions of climate during previous geological ages. When we begin our inquiry, however, we soon find that the facts which have been recorded as evidence in favour of the action of ice in former geological epochs are very scanty indeed. Two obvious reasons for this may be given, namely, (1) The imperfection of the geological records themselves, and (2) the little attention hitherto paid toward researches of this kind. The notion, once so prevalent, that the climate of our earth was much warmer in the earlier geological ages than it is now, and that it has ever since been gradually becoming cooler, was wholly at variance with the idea of former ice-periods. And this conviction of the à priori improbability of cold periods having obtained during Palæozoic and Mesozoic ages tended to prevent due attention being paid to such facts as seemed to bear upon the subject. But our limited knowledge of former glacial epochs must no doubt be attributed chiefly to the actual imperfection of the geological records. So great is this imperfection that the mere absence of direct geological evidence cannot reasonably be regarded as sufficient proof that the conclusions derived from astronomical and physical considerations regarding former ice-periods are improbable. Nor is this all. The geological records of ancient glacial conditions are not only imperfect, but, as I shall endeavour to show, this imperfection follows as a natural consequence from the principles of geology itself. There are not merely so many blanks or gaps in the records, but a reason exists in the very nature of geological evidence why such breaks in the record might reasonably be expected to occur.
Evidence of Glaciation to be found chiefly on Land-surfaces.—It is on a land-surface that the principal traces of the action of ice during a glacial epoch are left, for it is there that the stones are chiefly striated, the rocks ground down, and the boulder clay formed. But where are all our ancient land-surfaces? They are not to be found. The total thickness of the stratified rocks of Great Britain is, according to Professor Ramsay, nearly fourteen miles. But from the top to the bottom of this enormous pile of deposits there is hardly a single land-surface to be detected. True patches of old land-surfaces of a local character exist, such, for example, as the dirt-beds of Portland; but, with the exception of coal-seams, every general formation from top to bottom has been accumulated under water, and none but the under-clays ever existed as a land-surface. And it is here, in such a formation, that the geologist has to collect all his information regarding the existence of former glacial epochs. The entire stratified rocks of the globe, with the exception of the coal-beds and under-clays (in neither of which would one expect to find traces of ice-action), consist almost entirely of a series of old sea-bottoms, with here and there an occasional freshwater deposit. Bearing this in mind, what is the sort of evidence which we can now hope to find in these old sea-bottoms of the existence of former ice-periods?
Every geologist of course admits that the stratified rocks are not old land-surfaces, but a series of old sea-bottoms formed out of the accumulated material derived from the degradation of primeval land-surfaces. And it is true that all land-surfaces once existed as sea-bottoms; but the stratified rocks consist of a series of old sea-bottoms which never were land-surfaces. Many of them no doubt have been repeatedly above the sea-level, and may once have possessed land-surfaces; but these, with the exception of the under-clays of the various coal measures, the dirt-beds of Portland, and one or two more patches, have all been denuded away. The important bearing which this consideration has on the nature of the evidence which we can now expect to find of the existence of former glacial epochs has certainly been very much overlooked.
If we examine the matter fully we shall be led to conclude that the transformation of a land-surface into a sea-bottom will probably completely obliterate every trace of glaciation which that land-surface may once have presented. We cannot, for example, expect to meet with polished and striated stones belonging to a former land glaciation; for such stones are not carried down bodily and unchanged by our rivers and deposited in the sea. They become broken up by subaërial agencies into gravel, sand, and clay, and in this condition are transported seawards. Nor even if we supposed it possible that the stones and boulders derived from a mass of till could be carried down to sea by river-action, could we at the same time fail to admit that such stones would be deprived of all their ice-markings, and become water-worn and rounded on the way.[137]
Nor can we expect to find boulder clay among the stratified rocks, for boulder clay is not carried down as such and deposited in the sea, but under the influence of the denuding agents becomes broken up into soft mud, clay, sand, and gravel, as it is gradually peeled off the land and swept seawards. Patches of boulder clay may have been now and again forced into the sea by ice and eventually become covered up; but such cases are wholly exceptional, and their absence in any formation cannot fairly be adduced as a proof that that formation does not belong to a glacial period.
The only evidence of the existence of land-ice during former periods which we can reasonably expect to meet with in the stratified rocks, consists of erratic blocks which may have been transported by icebergs and dropped into the sea. But unless the glaciers of such epochs reached the sea, we could not possibly possess even this evidence. Traces in the stratified rocks of the effects of land-ice during former epochs must, in the very nature of things, be rare indeed. The only sort of evidence which, as a general rule, we may expect to detect, is the presence of large erratic blocks imbedded in strata which from their constitution have evidently been formed in still water. But this is quite enough; for it proves the existence of ice at the time the strata were being deposited as conclusively as though we saw the ice floating with the blocks upon it. This sort of evidence, when found in low latitudes, ought to be received as conclusive of the existence of former glacial epochs; and, no doubt, would have been so received had it not been for the idea that, if these blocks had been transported by ice, there ought in addition to have been found striated stones, boulder clay, and other indications of the agency of land-ice.
Of course all erratics are not necessarily transported by masses of ice broken from the terminal front of glaciers. The “ice foot,” formed by the freezing of the sea along the coasts of the higher latitudes of Greenland, carries seawards immense quantities of blocks and débris. And again stones and boulders are frequently frozen into river-ice, and when the ice breaks up in spring are swept out to sea, and may be carried some little distance before they are dropped. But both these cases can occur only in regions where the winters are excessive; nor is it at all likely that such ice-rafts will succeed in making a long voyage. If, therefore, we could assure ourselves that the erratics occasionally met with in certain old geological formations in low latitudes were really transported from the land by an ice-foot or a raft of river-ice, we should be forced to conclude that very severe climatic conditions must have obtained in such latitudes at the time the erratics were dispersed.
The reason why we now have, comparatively speaking, so little direct evidence of the existence of former glacial periods will be more forcibly impressed upon the mind, if we reflect on how difficult it would be in a million or so of years hence to find any trace of what we now call the glacial epoch. The striated stones would by that time be all, or nearly all, disintegrated, and the till washed away and deposited in the bottom of the sea as stratified sands and clays. And when these became consolidated into rock and were raised into dry land, the only evidence that we should probably then have that there ever had been a glacial epoch would be the presence of large blocks of the older rocks, which would be found imbedded in the upraised formation. We could only infer that there had been ice at work from the fact that by no other known agency could we conceive such blocks to have been transported and dropped in a still sea.
Probably few geologists believe that during the Middle Eocene and the Upper Miocene periods our country passed through a condition of glaciation as severe as it has done during the Post-pliocene period; yet when we examine the subject carefully, we find that there is actually no just ground to conclude that it has not. For, in all probability, throughout the strata to be eventually formed out of the destruction of the now existing land-surfaces, evidence of ice-action will be as scarce as in Eocene or Miocene strata.
If the stratified rocks forming the earth’s crust consisted of a series of old land-surfaces instead (as they actually do) of a series of old sea-bottoms, then probably traces of many glacial periods might be detected.
Nearly all the evidence which we have regarding the glacial epoch has been derived from what we find on the now existing land-surfaces of the globe. But probably not a vestige of this will exist in the stratified beds of future ages, formed out of the destruction of the present land-surfaces. Even the very arctic shell-beds themselves, which have afforded to the geologist such clear proofs of a frozen sea during the glacial epoch, will not be found in those stratified rocks; for they must suffer destruction along with everything else which now exists above the sea-level. There is probably not a single relic of the glacial epoch which has ever been seen by the eye of man that will be treasured up in the stratified rocks of future ages. Nothing that does not lie buried in the deeper recesses of the ocean will escape complete disintegration and appear imbedded in those formations. It is only those objects which lie in our existing sea-bottoms that will remain as monuments of the glacial epoch of the Post-tertiary period. And, moreover, it will only be those portions of the sea-bottoms that may happen to be upraised into dry land that will be available to the geologist of future ages. The point to be determined now is this:—Is it probable that the geologist of the future will find in the rocks formed out of the now existing sea-bottoms more evidence of a glacial epoch during Post-tertiary times than we now do of one during, say, the Miocene, the Eocene, or the Permian period? Unless this can be proved to be the case, we have no ground whatever to conclude that the cold periods of the Miocene, Eocene, and Permian periods were not as severe as that of the glacial epoch. This is evident, for the only relics which now remain of the glacial epochs of those periods are simply what happened to be protected in the then existing sea-bottoms. Every vestige that lay on the land would in all probability be destroyed by subaërial agency and carried into the sea in a sedimentary form. But before we can determine whether or not there is more evidence of the glacial epoch in our now existing sea-bottoms than there is of former glacial epochs in the stratified rocks (which are in reality the sea-bottoms belonging to ancient epochs), we must first ascertain what is the nature of those marks of glaciation which are to be found in a sea-bottom.
Icebergs do not striate the Sea-bottom.—We know that the rocky face of the country was ground down and striated during the glacial epoch; and this is now generally believed to have been done by land-ice. But we have no direct evidence that the floor of the ocean, beyond where it may have been covered with land-ice, was striated. Beyond the limits of the land-ice it could be striated only by means of icebergs. But do icebergs striate the rocky bed of the ocean? Are they adapted for such work? It seems to be often assumed that they are. But I have been totally unable to find any rational grounds for such a belief. Clean ice can have but little or no erosive power, and never could scratch a rock. To do this it must have grinding materials in the form of sand, mud, or stones. But the bottoms of icebergs are devoid of all such materials. Icebergs carry the grinding materials on their backs, not on their bottoms. No doubt, when the iceberg is launched into the deep, great masses of sand, mud, and stones will be adhering to its bottom. But no sooner is the berg immersed, than a melting process commences at its sides and lower surface in contact with the water; and the consequence is, the materials adhering to the lower surface soon drop off and sink to the bottom of the sea. The iceberg, divested of these materials, can now do very little harm to the rocky sea-bottom over which it floats. It is true that an iceberg moving with a velocity of a few miles an hour, if it came in contact with the sea-bottom, would, by the mere force of concussion, tear up loose and disjointed rocks, and hurl some of the loose materials to a distance; but it would do but little in the way of grinding down the rock against which it struck. But even supposing the bottom of the iceberg were properly shod with the necessary grinding materials, still it would be but a very inefficient grinding agent; for a floating iceberg would not be in contact with the sea-bottom. And if it were in contact with the sea-bottom, it would soon become stranded and, of course, motionless, and under such conditions could produce no effect.
It is perfectly true that although the bottom of the berg may be devoid of grinding materials, yet these may be found lying on the surface of the submarine rock over which the ice moves. But it must be borne in mind that the same current which will move the icebergs over the surface of the rock will move the sand, mud, and other materials over it also; so that the markings effected by the ice would in all probability be erased by the current. In the deep recesses of the ocean the water has been found to have but little or no motion. But icebergs always follow the path of currents; and it is very evident that at the comparatively small depth of a thousand feet or so reached by icebergs the motion of the water will be considerable; and the continual shifting of the small particles of the mud and sand will in all probability efface the markings which may be made now and again by a passing berg.
Much has been said regarding the superiority of icebergs as grinding and striating agents in consequence of the great velocity of their motion in comparison with that of land-ice. But it must be remembered that it is while the iceberg is floating, and before it touches the rock, that it possesses high velocity. When the iceberg runs aground, its motion is suddenly arrested or greatly reduced. But if the iceberg advancing upon a sloping sea-bottom is raised up so as to exert great pressure, it will on this account be the more suddenly arrested, the motion will be slow, and the distance passed over short, before the berg becomes stranded. If it exerts but little pressure on the sea-bottom, it may retain a considerable amount of motion and advance to a considerable distance before it is brought to a stand; but, exerting little pressure, it can perform but little work. Land-ice moves slowly, but then it exerts enormous pressure. A glacier 1,000 feet in thickness has a pressure on its rocky bed equal to about 25 tons on the square foot; but an iceberg a mile in thickness, forced up on a sloping sea-bottom to an elevation of 20 feet (and this is perhaps more than any ocean-current could effect), would only exert a pressure of about half a ton on the square foot, or about 1/50th part of the pressure of the glacier 1,000 feet in thickness. A great deal has been said about the erosive and crushing power of icebergs of enormous thickness, as if their thickness gave them any additional pressure. An iceberg 100 feet in thickness will exert just as much pressure as one a mile in thickness. The pressure of an iceberg is not like that of a glacier, in proportion to its thickness, but to the height to which it is raised out of the water. An iceberg 100 feet in thickness raised 10 feet will exert exactly the same pressure as one a mile in thickness raised to an equal height.
To be an efficient grinding agent, steadiness of motion, as well as pressure, is essential. A rolling or rocking motion is ill-adapted for grinding down and striating a rock. A steady rubbing motion under pressure is the thing required. But an iceberg is not only deficient in pressure, but also deficient in steadiness of motion. When an iceberg moving with considerable velocity comes on an elevated portion of the sea-bottom, it does not move steadily onwards over the rock, unless the pressure of the berg on the rock be trifling. The resistance being entirely at the bottom of the iceberg, its momentum, combined with the pressure of the current, applied wholly above the point of resistance, tends to make the berg bend forward, and in some cases upset (when it is of a cubical form). The momentum of the moving berg, instead of being applied in forcing it over the rock against which it comes in contact, is probably all consumed in work against gravitation in raising the berg upon its front edge. After the momentum is consumed, unless the berg be completely upset, it will fall back under the force of gravitation to its original position. But the momentum which it acquires from gravitation in falling backwards carries it beyond its position of repose in an opposite direction. It will thus continue to rock backwards and forwards until the friction of the water brings it to rest. The momentum of the berg, instead of being applied to the work of grinding and striating the sea-bottom, will chiefly be consumed in heat in the agitation of the water. But if the berg does advance, it will do so with a rocking unsteady motion, which, as Mr. Couthouy[138] and Professor Dana[139] observe, will tend rather to obliterate striations than produce them.
A floating berg moves with great steadiness; but a berg that has run aground cannot advance with a steady motion. If the rock over which the berg moves offers little resistance, it may do so; but in such a case the berg could produce but little effect on the rock.
Dr. Sutherland, who has had good opportunities to witness the effects of icebergs, makes some most judicious remarks on the subject. “It will be well” he says, “to bear in mind that when an iceberg touches the ground, if that ground be hard and resisting, it must come to a stand, and the propelling power continuing, a slight leaning over in the water, or yielding motion of the whole mass, may compensate readily for being so suddenly arrested. If, however, the ground be soft, so as not to arrest the motion of the iceberg at once, a moraine will be the result; but the moraine thus raised will tend to bring it to a stand.”[140]
There is another cause referred to by Professor Dana, which, to a great extent, must prevent the iceberg from having an opportunity of striating the sea-bottom, even though it were otherwise well adapted for so doing. It is this: the bed of the ocean in the track of icebergs must be pretty much covered with stones and rubbish dropped from the melting bergs. And this mass of rubbish will tend to protect the rock.[141]
If icebergs cannot be shown à priori, from mechanical considerations, to be well adapted for striating the sea-bottom, one would naturally expect, from the confident way in which it is asserted that they are so adapted, that the fact has been at least established by actual observation. But, strange as it may appear, we seem to have little or no proof that icebergs actually striate the bed of the ocean. This can be proved from the direct testimony of the advocates of the iceberg theory themselves.
We shall take the testimony of Mr. Campbell, the author of two well-known works in defence of the iceberg theory, viz., “Frost and Fire,” and “A Short American Tramp.” Mr. Campbell went in the fall of the year 1864 to the coast of Labrador, the Straits of Belle Isle, and the Gulf of St. Lawrence, for the express purpose of witnessing the effects of icebergs, and testing the theory which he had formed, that the ice-markings of the glacial epoch were caused by floating ice and not by land-ice, as is now generally believed.
The following is the result of his observations on the coast of Labrador.
Hanly Harbour, Strait of Belle Isle:—“The water is 37° F. in July.... As fast as one island of ice grounds and bursts, another takes its place; and in winter the whole strait is blocked up by a mass which swings bodily up and down, grating along the bottom at all depths.... Examined the beaches and rocks at the water-line, especially in sounds. Found the rocks ground smooth, but not striated, in the sounds” (Short American Tramp, pp. 68, 107).
Cape Charles and Battle Harbour:—“But though these harbours are all frozen every winter, the rocks at the water-line are not striated” (p. 68).
At St. Francis Harbour:—“The water-line is much rubbed, smooth, but not striated” (p. 72).
Cape Bluff:—“Watched the rocks with a telescope, and failed to make out striæ anywhere; but the water-line is everywhere rubbed smooth” (p. 75).
Seal Islands:—“No striæ are to be seen at the land-wash in these sounds or on open sea-coasts near the present water-line” (p. 76).
He only mentions having here found striations in the three following places along the entire coast of Labrador visited by him; and in regard to two of these, it seems very doubtful that the markings were made by modern icebergs.
Murray’s Harbour:—“This harbour was blocked up with ice on the 20th of July. The water-line is rubbed, and in some places striated” (p. 69).
Pack Island:—“The water-line in a narrow sound was polished and striated in the direction of the sound, about N.N.W. This seems to be fresh work done by heavy ice drifting from Sandwich Bay; but, on the other hand, stages with their legs in the sea, and resting on these very rocks, are not swept away by the ice” (p. 96). If these markings were modern, why did not the “heavy ice” remove the small fir poles supporting the fishing-stages?
Red Bay:—“Landed half-dressed, and found some striæ perfectly fresh at the water-level, but weathered out a short distance inland” (p. 107). The striations “inland” could not have been made by modern icebergs; and it does not follow that because the markings at the water-level were not weathered they were produced by modern ice.
These are the evidences which he found that icebergs striate rocks, on a coast of which he says that, during the year he visited it, “the winter-drift was one vast solid raft of floes and bergs more than 150 miles wide, and perhaps 3,000 feet thick at spots, driven by a whole current bodily over one definite course, year after year, since this land was found” (p. 85).
But Mr. Campbell himself freely admits that the floating ice which comes aground along the shores does not produce striæ. “It is sufficiently evident,” he says, “that glacial striæ are not produced by thin bay-ice” (p. 76). And in “Frost and Fire,” vol. ii., p. 237, he states that, “from a careful examination of the water-line at many spots, it appears that bay-ice grinds rocks, but does not produce striation.”
“It is impossible,” he continues, “to get at rocks over which heavy icebergs now move; but a mass 150 miles wide, perhaps 3,000 feet thick in some parts, and moving at the rate of a mile an hour, or more, appears to be an engine amply sufficient to account for striæ on rising rocks.” And in “American Tramp,” p. 76, he says, “striæ must be made in deep water by the large masses which seem to pursue the even tenor of their way in the steady current which flows down the coast.”
Mr. Campbell, from a careful examination of the sea-bottom along the coast, finds that the small icebergs do not produce striæ, but the large ones, which move over rocks impossible to be got at, “must” produce them. They “appear” to be amply sufficient to do so. If the smaller bergs cannot striate the sea-bottom, why must the larger ones do so? There is no reason why the smaller bergs should not move as swiftly and exert as much pressure on the sea-bottom as the larger ones. And even supposing that they did not, one would expect that the light bergs would effect on a smaller scale what the heavy ones would do on a larger.
I have no doubt that when Mr. Campbell visited Labrador he expected to find the sea-coast under the water-line striated by means of icebergs, and was probably not a little surprised to find that it actually was not. And I have no doubt that were the sea-bottom in the tracks of the large icebergs elevated into view, he would find to his surprise that it was free from striations also.
So far as observation is concerned, we have no grounds from what Mr. Campbell witnessed to conclude that icebergs striate the sea-bottom.
The testimony of Dr. Sutherland, who has had opportunities of seeing the effects of icebergs in arctic regions, leads us to the same conclusion. “Except,” he says, “from the evidence afforded by plants and animals at the bottom, we have no means whatever to ascertain the effect produced by icebergs upon the rocks.[142] In the Malegat and Waigat I have seen whole clusters of these floating islands, drawing from 100 to 250 fathoms, moving to and fro with every return and recession of the tides. I looked very earnestly for grooves and scratches left by icebergs and glaciers in the rocks, but always failed to discover any.”[143]
We shall now see whether river-ice actually produces striations or not. If floating ice under any form can striate rocks, one would expect that it ought to be done by river-ice, seeing that such ice is obliged to follow one narrow definite track.
St. John’s River, New Brunswick:—“This river,” says Mr. Campbell, “is obstructed by ice during five months of the year. When the ice goes, there is wild work on the bank. Arrived at St. John, drove to the suspension-bridge.... At this spot, if anywhere in the world, river-ice ought to produce striation. The whole drainage of a wide basin and one of the strongest tides in the world, here work continually in one rock-groove; and in winter this water-power is armed with heavy ice. There are no striæ about the water-line.”[144]
River St. Lawrence:—“In winter the power of ice-floats driven by water-power is tremendous. The river freezes and packs ice till the flow of water is obstructed. The rock-pass at Quebec is like the Narrows at St. John’s, Newfoundland. The whole pass, about a mile wide, was paved with great broken slabs and round boulders of worn ice as big as small shacks, piled and tossed, and heaped and scattered upon the level water below and frozen solid.... This kind of ice does not produce striation at the water-margin at Quebec. At Montreal, when the river ‘goes,’ the ice goes with it with a vengeance.... The piers are not yet striated by river-ice at Montreal.... The rocks at the high-water level have no trace of glacial striæ.... The rock at Ottawa is rubbed by river-ice every spring, and always in one direction, but it is not striated.... The surfaces are all rubbed smooth, and the edges of broken beds are rounded where exposed to the ice; but there are no striæ.”[145]
When Sir Charles Lyell visited the St. Lawrence in 1842, at Quebec he went along with Colonel Codrington “and searched carefully below the city in the channel of the St. Lawrence, at low water, near the shore, for the signs of glacial action at the precise point where the chief pressure and friction of packed ice are exerted every year,” but found none.
“At the bridge above the Falls of Montmorenci, over which a large quantity of ice passes every year, the gneiss is polished, and kept perfectly free from lichens, but not more so than rocks similarly situated at waterfalls in Scotland. In none of these places were any long straight grooves observable.”[146]
The only thing in the shape of modern ice-markings which he seems to have met with in North America was a few straight furrows half an inch broad in soft sandstone, at the base of a cliff at Cape Blomidon in the Bay of Fundy, at a place where during the preceding winter “packed” ice 15 feet thick had been pushed along when the tide rose over the sandstone ledges.[147]
The very fact that a geologist so eminent as Sir Charles Lyell, after having twice visited North America, and searched specially for modern ice-markings, was able to find only two or three scratches, upon a soft sandstone rock, which he could reasonably attribute to floating ice, ought to have aroused the suspicion of the advocates of the iceberg theory that they had really formed too extravagant notions regarding the potency of floating ice as a striating agent.
There is no reason to believe that the grooves and markings noticed by M. Weibye and others on the Scandinavian coast and other parts of northern Europe were made by icebergs.
Professor Geikie has clearly shown, from the character and direction of the markings, that they are the production of land-ice.[148] If the floating ice of the St. Lawrence and the icebergs of Labrador are unable to striate and groove the rocks, it is not likely that those of northern Europe will be able to do so.
It will not do for the advocates of the iceberg theory to assume, as they have hitherto done, that, as a matter of course, the sea-bottom is being striated and grooved by means of icebergs. They must prove that. They must either show that, as a matter of fact, icebergs are actually efficient agents in striating the sea-bottom, or prove from mechanical principles that they must be so. The question must be settled either by observation or by reason; mere opinion will not do.
The Amount of Material transported by Icebergs much exaggerated.—The transporting of boulders and rubbish, and not the grinding and striating of rocks, is evidently the proper function of the iceberg. But even in this respect I fear too much has been attributed to it.
In reading the details of voyages in the arctic regions one cannot help feeling surprised how seldom reference is made to stones and rubbish being seen on icebergs. Arctic voyagers, like other people, when they are alluding to the geological effects of icebergs, speak of enormous quantities of stones being transported by them; but in reading the details of their voyages, the impression conveyed is that icebergs with stones and blocks of rock upon them are the exceptions. The greater portion of the narratives of voyages in arctic regions consists of interesting and detailed accounts of the voyager’s adventures among the ice. The general appearance of the icebergs, their shape, their size, their height, their colour, are all noticed; but rarely is mention made of stones being seen. That the greater number of icebergs have no stones or rubbish on them is borne out by the positive evidence of geologists who have had opportunities of seeing icebergs.
Mr. Campbell says:—“It is remarkable that up to this time we have only seen a few doubtful stones on bergs which we have passed.... Though no bergs with stones on them or in them have been approached during this voyage, many on board the Ariel have been close to bergs heavily laden.... A man who has had some experience of ice has never seen a stone on a berg in these latitudes. Captain Anderson, of the Europa, who is a geologist, has never seen a stone on a berg in crossing the Atlantic. No stones were clearly seen on this trip.”[149] Captain Sir James Anderson (who has long been familiar with geology, has spent a considerable part of his life on the Atlantic, and has been accustomed to view the iceberg as a geologist as well as a seaman) has never seen a stone on an iceberg in the Atlantic. This is rather a significant fact.
Sir Charles Lyell states that, when passing icebergs on the Atlantic, he “was most anxious to ascertain whether there was any mud, stones, or fragments of rocks on any one of these floating masses; but after examining about forty of them without perceiving any signs of frozen matter, I left the deck when it was growing dusk.”[150] After he had gone below, one was said to be seen with something like stones upon it. The captain and officers of the ship assured him that they had never seen a stone upon a berg.
The following extract from Mr. Packard’s “Memoir on the Glacial Phenomena of Labrador and Maine,” will show how little is effected by the great masses of floating ice on the Labrador coast either in the way of grinding and striating the rocks, or of transporting stones, clay, and other materials.
“Upon this coast, which during the summer of 1864 was lined with a belt of floe-ice and bergs probably two hundred miles broad, and which extended from the Gulf of St. Lawrence at Belles Amours to the arctic seas, this immense body of floating ice seemed directly to produce but little alteration in its physical features. If we were to ascribe the grooving and polishing of rocks to the action of floating ice-floes and bergs, how is it that the present shores far above (500), and at least 250 feet below, the water-line are often jagged and angular, though constantly stopping the course of masses of ice impelled four to six miles an hour by the joint action of tides, currents, and winds? No boulders, or gravel, or mud were seen upon any of the bergs or masses of shore-ice. They had dropped all burdens of this nature nearer their points of detachment in the high arctic regions.” ...
“This huge area of floating ice, embracing so many thousands of square miles, was of greater extent, and remained longer upon the coast, in 1864, than for forty years previous. It was not only pressed upon the coast by the normal action of the Labrador and Greenland currents, which, in consequence of the rotatory motion of the earth, tended to force the ice in a south-westerly direction, but the presence of the ice caused the constant passage of cooler currents of air from the sea over the ice upon the heated land, giving rise during the present season to a constant succession of north-easterly winds from March until early in August, which further served to crowd the ice into every harbour and recess upon the coast. It was the universal complaint of the inhabitants that the easterly winds were more prevalent, and the ice ‘held’ later in the harbours this year than for many seasons previous. Thus the fisheries were nearly a failure, and vegetation greatly retarded in its development. But so far as polishing and striating the rocks, depositing drift material, and thus modifying the contour of the surface of the present coast, this modern mass of bergs and floating ice effected comparatively little. Single icebergs, when small enough, entered the harbours, and there stranding, soon pounded to pieces upon the rocks, melted, and disappeared. From Cape Harrison, in lat. 55°, to Caribo Island, was an interrupted line of bergs stranded in 80 to 100 or more fathoms, often miles apart, while others passed to the seaward down by the eastern coast of Newfoundland, or through the Straits of Belle Isle.”[151]
Boulder Clay the Product of Land-ice.—There is still another point connected with icebergs to which we must allude, viz., the opinion that great masses of the boulder clay of the glacial epoch were formed from the droppings of icebergs. If boulder clay is at present being accumulated in this manner, then traces of the boulder clay deposits of former epochs might be expected to occur. It is perfectly obvious that unstratified boulder clay could not have been formed in this way. Stones, gravel, sand, clay, and mud, the ingredients of boulder clay, tumbled all together from the back of an iceberg, could not sink to the bottom of the sea without separating. The stones would reach the bottom first, then the gravel, then the sand, then the clay, and last of all the mud, and the whole would settle down in a stratified form. But, besides, how could the clay be derived from icebergs? Icebergs derive their materials from the land before they are launched into the deep, and while they are in the form of land-ice. The materials which are found on the backs of icebergs are what fell upon the ice from mountain tops and crags projecting above the ice. Icebergs are chiefly derived from continental ice, such as that of Greenland, where the whole country is buried under one continuous mass, with only a lofty mountain peak here and there rising above the surface. And this is no doubt the chief reason why so few icebergs have stones upon their backs. The continental ice of Greenland is not, like the glaciers of the Alps, covered with loose stones. Dr. Robert Brown informs me that no moraine matter has ever been seen on the inland ice of Greenland. It is perfectly plain that clay does not fall upon the ice. What falls upon the ice is stones, blocks of rocks, and the loose débris. Clay and mud we know, from the accounts given by arctic voyagers, are sometimes washed down upon the coast-ice; but certainly very little of either can possibly get upon an iceberg. Arctic voyagers sometimes speak of seeing clay and mud upon bergs; but it is probable that if they had been near enough they would have found that what they took for clay and mud were merely dust and rubbish.
Undoubtedly the boulder clay of many places bears unmistakable evidence of having been formed under water; but it does not on that account follow that it was formed from the droppings of icebergs. The fact that the boulder clay in every case is chiefly composed of materials derived from the country on which the clay lies, proves that it was not formed from matter transported by icebergs. The clay, no doubt, contains stones and boulders belonging to other countries, which in some cases may have been transported by icebergs; but the clay itself has not come from another country. But if the clay itself has been derived from the country on which it lies, then it is absurd to suppose that it was deposited from icebergs. The clay and materials which are found on icebergs are derived from the land on which the iceberg is formed; but to suppose that icebergs, after floating about upon the ocean, should always return to the country which gave them birth, and there deposit their loads, is rather an extravagant supposition.
From the facts and considerations adduced we are, I would venture to presume, warranted to conclude that, with the exception of what may have been produced by land-ice, very little in the shape of boulder clay or striated rocks belonging to the glacial epoch lies buried under the ocean—and that when the now existing land-surfaces are all denuded, probably scarcely a trace of the glacial epoch will then be found, except the huge blocks that were transported by icebergs and dropped into the sea. It is therefore probable that we have as much evidence of the existence of a glacial epoch during former periods as the geologists of future ages will have of the existence of a glacial epoch during the Post-tertiary period, and that consequently we are not warranted in concluding that the glacial epoch was something unique in the geological history of our globe.
Palæontological Evidence.—It might be thought that if glacial epochs have been numerous, we ought to have abundance of palæontological evidence of their existence. I do not know if this necessarily follows. Let us take the glacial epoch itself for example, which is quite a modern affair. Here we do not require to go and search in the bottom of the sea for the evidence of its existence; for we have the surface of the land in almost identically the same state in which it was when the ice left it, with the boulder clay and all the wreck of the ice lying upon it. But what geologist, with all these materials before him, would be able to find out from palæontological evidence alone that there had been such an epoch? He might search the whole, but would not be able to find fossil evidence from which he could warrantably infer that the country had ever been covered with ice. We have evidence in the fossils of the Crag and other deposits of the existence of a colder condition of climate prior to the true glacial period, and in the shell-beds of the Clyde and other places of a similar state of matters after the great ice-sheets had vanished away. But in regard to the period of the true boulder clay or till, when the country was enveloped in ice, palæontology has almost nothing whatever to tell us. “Whatever may be the cause,” says Sir Charles Lyell, “the fact is certain that over large areas in Scotland, Ireland, and Wales, I might add throughout the northern hemisphere on both sides of the Atlantic, the stratified drift of the glacial period is very commonly devoid of fossils.”[152]
In the “flysch” of the Eocene of the Alps, to which we shall have occasion to refer in the next chapter, in which the huge blocks are found which prove the existence of ice-action during that period, few or no fossils have been found. So devoid of organic remains is that formation, that it is only from its position, says Sir Charles, that it is known to belong to the middle or “nummulitic” portion of the great Eocene series. Again, in the conglomerates at Turin, belonging to the Upper Miocene period, in which the angular blocks of limestone are found which prove that during that period Alpine glaciers reached the sea-level in the latitude of Italy, not a single organic remain has been found. It would seem that an extreme paucity of organic life is a characteristic of a glacial period, which warrants us in concluding that the absence of organic remains in any formation otherwise indicative of a cold climate cannot be regarded as sufficient evidence that that formation does not belong to a cold period.
In the last chapter it was shown why so little evidence of the warm periods of the glacial epoch is now forthcoming. The remains of the faunas and floras of those periods were nearly wholly destroyed and swept into the adjoining seas by the ice-sheet that covered the land. It is upon the present land-surface that we find the chief evidence of the last glacial epoch, but the traces of the warm periods of that epoch are hardly now to be met with in that position since they have nearly all been obliterated or carried into the sea.
In regard to former glacial epochs, however, ice-marked rocks, scratched stones, moraines, till, &c., no longer exist; the land-surfaces of those old times have been utterly swept away. The only evidence, therefore, of such ancient glacial epochs, that we can hope to detect, must be sought for in the deposits that were laid down upon the sea-bottom; where also we may expect to find traces of the warm periods that alternated during such epochs with glacial conditions. It is plain, moreover, that the palæontological evidence in favour of warm periods will always be the most abundant and satisfactory.
Judging from geological evidence alone, we naturally conclude that, as a general rule, the climate of former periods was somewhat warmer than it is at the present day. It is from fossil remains that the geologist principally forms his estimate of the character of the climate during any period. Now, in regard to fossil remains, the warm periods will always be far better represented than the cold; for we find that, as a general rule, those formations which geologists are inclined to believe indicate a cold condition of climate are remarkably devoid of fossil remains. If a geologist does not keep this principle in view, he will be very apt to form a wrong estimate of the general character of the climate of a period of such enormous length as say the Tertiary.
Suppose that the presently existing sea-bottoms, which have been forming since the commencement of the glacial epoch, were to become consolidated into rock and thereafter to be elevated into dry land, we should then have a formation which might be properly designated the Post-pliocene. It would represent the time which has elapsed from the beginning of the glacial epoch to the present day. Suppose one to be called upon as a geologist to determine from that formation what was the general character of the climate during the period in question, what would probably be the conclusion at which he would arrive? He would probably find here and there patches of boulder clay containing striated and ice-worn stones. Now and again he would meet with bones of the mammoth and the reindeer, and shells of an arctic type. He would likewise stumble upon huge blocks of the older rocks imbedded in the formation, from which he would infer the existence of icebergs and glaciers reaching the sea-level. But, on the whole, he would perceive that the greater portion of the fossil remains met with in this formation implied a warm and temperate condition of climate. At the lower part of the formation, corresponding to the time of the true boulder clay, there would be such a scarcity of organic remains that he would probably feel at a loss to say whether the climate at that time was cold or hot. But if the intense cold of the glacial epoch was not continuous, but broken up by intervening warm periods during which the ice, to a considerable extent at least, disappeared for a long period of time (and there are few geologists who have properly studied the subject who will positively deny that such was the case), then the country would no doubt during those warm periods possess an abundance of plant and animal life. It is quite true that we may almost search in vain on the present land-surface for the organic remains which belonged to those inter-glacial periods; for they were nearly all swept away by the ice which followed. But no doubt in the deep recesses of the ocean, buried under hundreds of feet of sand, mud, clay, and gravel, lie multitudes of the plants and animals which then flourished on the land, and were carried down by rivers into the sea. And along with these lie the skeletons, shells, and other exuviæ of the creatures which flourished in the warm seas of those periods. Now looking at the great abundance of fossils indicative of warm and genial conditions which the lower portions of this formation would contain, the geologist might be in danger of inferring that the earlier part of the Post-pliocene period was a warmer period, whereas we, at the present day, looking at the matter from a different standpoint, declare that part to have been characterized by cold or glacial conditions. No doubt, if the beds formed during the cold periods of the glacial epoch could be distinguished from those formed during the warm periods, the fossil remains of the one would indicate a cold condition of climate, and those of the other a warm condition; but still, taking the entire epoch as a whole, the percentage of fossil remains indicative of a warm condition would probably so much exceed that indicative of a cold condition, that we should come to the conclusion that the character of the climate, as a whole, during the epoch in question was warm and equable.
As geologists we have, as a rule, no means of arriving at a knowledge of the character of the climate of any given period but through an examination of the sea-bottoms belonging to that period; for these contain all the evidence upon the subject. But unless we exercise caution, we shall be very apt, in judging of the climate of such a period, to fall into the same error that we have just now seen one might naturally fall into were he called upon to determine the character of the climate during the glacial epoch from the nature of the organic remains which lie buried in our adjoining seas. On this point Mr. J. Geikie’s observations are so appropriate, that I cannot do better than introduce them here. “When we are dealing,” says this writer, “with formations so far removed from us in time, and in which the animal and plant remains depart so widely from existing forms of life, we can hardly expect to derive much aid from the fossils in our attempts to detect traces of cold climatic conditions. The arctic shells in our Post-tertiary clays are convincing proofs of the former existence in our latitude of a severe climate; but when we go so far back as Palæozoic ages, we have no such clear evidence to guide us. All that palæontologists can say regarding the fossils belonging to these old times is simply this, that they seem to indicate, generally speaking, mild, temperate, or genial, and even sometimes tropical, conditions of climate. Many of the fossils, indeed, if we are to reason from analogy at all, could not possibly have lived in cold seas. But, for aught that we know, there may have been alternations of climate during the deposition of each particular formation; and these changes may be marked by the presence or absence, or by the greater or less abundant development, of certain organisms at various horizons in the strata. Notwithstanding all that has been done, our knowledge of the natural history of these ancient seas is still very imperfect; and therefore, in the present state of our information, we are not entitled to argue, from the general aspect of the fossils in our older formations, that the temperature of the ancient seas was never other than mild and genial.”[153]
Conclusion.—From what has already been stated it will, I trust, be apparent that, assuming glacial epochs during past geological ages to have been as numerous and as severe as the Secular theory demands, still it would be unreasonable to expect to meet with abundant traces of them. The imperfection of the geological record is such that we ought not to be astonished that so few relics of former ice ages have come down to us. It will also be apparent that the palæontological evidence of a warm condition of climate having obtained during any particular age, is no proof that a glacial epoch did not also supervene during the same cycle of time. Indeed it is quite the reverse; for the warm conditions of which we have proof may indicate merely the existence of an inter-glacial period. Furthermore, if the Secular theory of changes of climate be admitted, then evidence of a warm condition of climate having prevailed in arctic regions during any past geological age may be regarded as presumptive proof of the existence of a glacial epoch; that is to say, of an epoch during which cold and warm conditions of climate alternated. Keeping these considerations in view, we shall now proceed to examine briefly what evidence we at present have of the former existence of glacial epochs.
CHAPTER XVIII.
FORMER GLACIAL EPOCHS; GEOLOGICAL EVIDENCE OF.
Cambrian Conglomerate of Islay and North-west of Scotland.—Ice-action in Ayrshire and Wigtownshire during Silurian Period.—Silurian Limestones in Arctic Regions.—Professor Ramsay on Ice-action during Old Red Sandstone Period.—Warm Climate in Arctic Regions during Old Red Sandstone Period.—Professor Geikie and Mr. James Geikie on a Glacial Conglomerate of Lower Carboniferous Age.—Professor Haughton and Professor Dawson on Evidence of Ice-action during Coal Period.—Mr. W. T. Blanford on Glaciation in India during Carboniferous Period.—Carboniferous Formations of Arctic Regions.—Professor Ramsay on Permian Glaciers.—Permian Conglomerate in Arran.—Professor Hull on Boulder Clay of Permian Age.—Permian Boulder Clay of Natal.—Oolitic Boulder Conglomerate in Sutherlandshire.—Warm Climate in North Greenland during Oolitic Period.—Mr. Godwin-Austen on Ice-action during Cretaceous Period.—Glacial Conglomerates of Eocene Age in the Alps.—M. Gastaldi on the Ice-transported Limestone Blocks of the Superga.—Professor Heer on the Climate of North Greenland during Miocene Period.