An account of the empire of Marocco, and the districts of Suse and Tafilelt; compiled from miscellaneous observations made during a long residence in, and various journies through, these countries. To which is added an account of shipwrecks on the western coast of Africa, and an interesting account of Timbuctoo, the great emporium of Central Africa

by James Grey Jackson

BIRDS.

The Ostrich.—Ennaam is the name given by the Western Arabs to the ostrich; it is found on the confines of Sahara, in every part from Wedinoon on the western ocean as far as Senaar: those which are taken about Wedinoon and Cape Bojador are the largest in the world, and have the finest plumage; the feathers of the male bird are the best, being thicker and more tufted than those of the female: the black feathers are taken from the tail; the fine long white plumes used by our females of fashion are from the fore part of the wings: the smaller feathers of the wing are also sometimes black. I have seen ostriches from Cape Bojador eight feet high from the foot to the beak, when the neck was erect, which is the natural position. The ostrich appears to be a stupid bird, and indifferent to every thing; taking no notice of persons, except they have metal buttons on their clothes, at which they will eagerly snap; it is not however to be credited that they digest iron or any other metal, although pieces of such are often found in their stomachs, when cut up by the hunters.

The ostrich forms the intermediate gradation between the bird and the beast, for it neither simply flies nor runs, but rather does both, never rising however from the ground, but is assisted considerably by its wings, in its progress through the desert, running over many hundred miles of ground in a short time. They are sometimes seen in Sahara by the Akkabahs of Soudan, in great numbers, appearing at a distance, at twilight, like a host of plundering Arabs.

The ostrich lays several eggs, of the size of an African citron, or a six-and-thirty pound shot, white, and of an oval form, weighing from eight to ten pounds; after laying these eggs, the bird goes away, forgetting or forsaking them, and if some other ostrich discover them, she hatches them, as if they were her own, forgetting probably whether they are or are not; so deficient is the recollection of this bird. In addition to their usual food, they swallow stones, gravel, sand, and metals; it is not ascertained whether they drink or not.

Among the various animals which the Arabs hunt for sport or profit, that which most fully rewards their exertions, is the ostrich: a party of about twenty Arabs, mounted on the desert horses already described,[106] set out together, riding gently against the wind, one after the other, at the distance of about half a mile asunder; they walk on, tracing the foot-marks, till they discover those of the ostrich, which they then follow; when they come in sight of their game, they rush towards it at full speed, always keeping nearly the same distance as at first; the bird finding her wings an impediment to her progress against the wind, turns towards the horsemen, and after escaping the first and second, is perhaps shot, or brought down by the third or fourth, or some of those that follow; they are, however, often a whole day in the chase before they secure their bird. Were it not for this stratagem, aided by the stupidity of the ostrich, it would be impossible to take it. The Saharawans carry muskets, but in hunting the ostrich they rarely use them, trusting rather to their Zerwata, which is a stick about two feet long, and three inches in circumference, taken from the Alk Soudan tree, or the tree that produces the Senegal gum, being a hard close-grained heavy wood; this Zerwata they throw with extraordinary dexterity at the legs of the birds, and by breaking or maiming them, impede their progress, and by that means secure them. Having cut the throat according to the Mohammedan practice, they pluck off the feathers and divide them, as well as the carcase, into different portions: on these occasions, as on all others, whether in hunting, pillaging, or attacking (Akkabahs) the accumulated caravans from Soudan, they divide the booty into as many shares as there are persons to partake, caring but little about the equality of them; then each person taking something that he has about him (such as a key, a knife, or a piece of money), they put it into the corner of a hayk or garment, and covers it over, waiting till some stranger or uninterested person appears, whom they engage to take out of the garment before mentioned, the different articles deposited therein, and to place one on each of the parcels or lots of feathers and meat, when each person takes up that portion on which the article belonging to him is placed; they then separate, and retire to their respective douars, where they regale themselves and their families with the produce of their sport. The flesh of the ostrich is by no means palatable to an European; it is a dark coloured and strong meat; the fat is much esteemed in medicine for all kinds of bruises and sprains, and is sold at a very high price: but money will not always procure it, friendship or hospitality being more powerful in these regions than even money itself! this medicine, therefore, is often procurable only through the former. The feathers are sold by the hunters to the agents of the merchants of Mogodor established at Wedinoon, for the purpose of transportation finally to Europe, to adorn the heads of our fashionable females.

Writing as I am for the information of merchants as well as others, it may not be unacceptable to my readers, some of whom may perhaps be induced to form establishments in those unknown regions, to learn the method of purchasing ostrich feathers in West and South Barbary. It is as follows:

A quintal, or 100 lbs. weight, is thus distributed according to custom from time immemorial:

75 lb. small black feathers.
25 lb	⎧ ⎨ ⎩	Zumar.	⎫ ⎬ ⎭	of each one-third.
		Lobar.
		Long black.

N.B. The feathers denominated Zumar, are preferable to Long Black, and these are preferable to Lobar. To this quintal of assorted feathers are added 6 lb. 4 oz. of passable or fine feathers, which are delivered in the following proportions:

No.	1. Surplus face feathers, called Uguh, No. 1.		2	lb.
	2. Fine face feathers, of which three count for two of No. 1. so that 3 lb. of No. 2 being delivered count for		2
	3. Face feathers valued 2 for one surplus face, so that 4 lb count for		2
	4. Basto face 3 lb. count for one		1
		lb. 7	0
	to each quintal	6	4
	Surplus	0	12	oz.

These 12 oz. over the quintal are brought into imaginary pieces, or single feathers; thus 4½ surplus face feathers are equivalent to one ounce, so that 12 oz. will make fifty-four feathers; the contract will therefore stand thus:

100	lb. at 90 drahims per lb. is 9000 drahims, or 900 Mexico dollars.
54	feathers or pieces, at 9 drahims per piece, is	486	drahims.
		9486	drahims,

which sum is equivalent to 948⁶⁄₁₀ Mexico dollars.

4½	surplus face feathers are calculated at	1	oz.
100	ditto ditto ditto	22⅕	oz.

But custom makes 100 feathers count for 22 oz. without the fraction before mentioned.

This explanation may give some idea of the mode of purchasing this article of commerce, which requires much practice and experience, before the purchaser will be free from imposition. There are but two or three persons at Mogodor who perfectly understand it, and the method of passing them at the custom-house.

The price here affixed is the average. The competition among the Jews, and the almost entire monopolization of the Marocco trade by these people, has latterly enhanced the price; for, by contriving to exclude the English, and the Christians in general, as much as possible from commerce, they are too often induced to trade beyond their capital, and by frequently overstocking the market, cause a forced trade, thereby throwing the profits, which before were reaped by the European, into the hands of the natives; the consequence of this is, that the Emperor, displeased at his subjects becoming too suddenly rich, exacts an additional duty on the exportion of the article, whereupon its price in the country immediately falls, and the surplus of profit is, by this policy, thrown into the imperial exchequer.

The Vulture (Nesser).— Excepting the ostrich, this is the largest bird in Africa; it is common in all places where the gum ammoniac plant grows, and it is said to feed on the horned beetle, which lives upon that plant. In the plains east of El Araiche, where the plant abounds, I have seen at least twenty of these birds in the air at once, darting down on the insects with astonishing rapidity. They build their nests on lofty precipices, high rocks, and in dreary parts of the mountains. Mr. Bruce calls this bird the Nessir, or golden eagle, but I apprehend he has committed an error in denominating it an eagle, the generical name of which, in the Arabic language, is El Bezz.

The Eagle.—Bezz el Horreh designates the largest species of eagle, with undescribably clear and beautiful eyes of an orange colour. I shot one of these birds in crossing the Atlas mountains between Marocco and Terodant, and attempted to preserve it for the purpose of sending it to Europe, but it died on the third day. This is the bird which is reported by the Africans to engender the dragon on the female hyæna; a chimera originating undoubtedly in some Arabian fable or allegorical tradition, though generally credited by the inhabitants of Atlas, who affirm the dragon thus engendered to have the wings and beak of an eagle, a serpent’s tail, and short feet like a hyæna, the eye-lids never closed, and that it lives in caves like the hyæna.

Hawks and Falcons.—The Shereefs and Bashaws, and higher orders of society, are much attached to falconry. Muley Teib, brother to the present Emperor, was passionately fond of this kind of sport, and had the best falcons in the country. They teach these young hawks dexterously to fly at and catch ducks, wild-geese, partridges, hares, bustards, and antelopes; the latter, however, is too strong to be held by the falcon, which hovers about its head, and impedes its progress, till the greyhounds come up with it and secure it. I have hunted with the prince Muley Teib and his falconers several times, accompanied by Dr. Bell, an English surgeon who attended him.

White Herons (Bufullel).—The white heron differs from the garde bœufs[107]) ox-keepers; it is called bufula in the singular number; the garde bœuf is called by the Arabs Teer el bukkera, which signifies the cow bird, as the large red-spotted lizard is called Erdar el bukkera, because it sucks the cows’ milk. A person might, however, easily mistake the garde bœuf for the white heron, as I did once myself; having killed about a hundred at different times, I have often shot the former for the latter; the Arabs always persuaded me they were not the same; and in fact so I found, for I never saw a heron killed near a cow; they are found on the banks of rivers, where they feed on worms; at a distance of fifty yards, they are exactly the same in appearance; the heron, however, when examined, appears to differ in the colour of the legs, which are black, whereas those of the garde bœuf are yellowish, or brown: the heron has two long narrow feathers on the crown of the head, hanging over the neck; the garde bœuf has none: the heron has from twenty to a hundred aigrette feathers on its back; the garde bœuf has none. With regard to what is said in the note below,[108] it may be observed that the transposition or omission of one point or dot, in the Arabic language, is sufficient to make bufula, bukula; nay more, what is bukula in the west, is written the same in the east, and pronounced bufula, for the k of the western Arabs is the s of the eastern. But the curlew is called bukula, and the white heron, or egret, bufula in the east, as well as in the west.

The Bustard abounds in the provinces of Temsena, Benihassen, and Duquella; some are also found in Abda and Suse: being a shy bird, the Arabs approach it gradually, and in a circular line: when they reach within a hundred yards, they fall down, and creep along the ground gently till they come within shot. The flesh of this bird is much esteemed, and is considered an acceptable present by men of high rank.

The Stork (B’elharge.)—The general colour of the stork’s plumage is white, the extremities of the wings being tipped with black; they are from two to three feet in height from the feet to the bill. During the summer, the old towns of West Barbary are frequented by these birds, which go generally in pairs: they are migratory, and when they do not return to their usual haunts at the accustomed season, it is considered ominous of evil. Any person that should presume to shoot this sacred bird, would incur the resentment of the whole city, and be accounted a sacrilegious infidel; for, besides being of the greatest utility in destroying serpents and other noxious reptiles, they are also emblematical of faith and conjugal affection, and on that account held in the highest estimation by all true Mooselmin. They build their nests, which are curious, on the top of some old tower or castle, or on the terraces of uninhabited houses, where they constantly watch their young, exposed to the scorching rays of the sun. They will not suffer any one to approach their nests.

The cities and towns of Mequinas, Fas, Marocco, Muley Driss Zerone, Rabat, Salée, El Araiche, Azamore, and Saffy, are annually visited by the stork; there are none at Mogodor, it being not only a new town, but situated on a peninsula, at the extremity of vast heaps of moving sand, which separate it from the cultivated country, and prevent serpents and other noxious animals from harbouring there.

The Partridge.—This beautiful bird abounds in every part of West Barbary; it is larger, and finer feathered than that of Europe; the legs are red. The Moors have a peculiar manner of hunting the partridge: in the plains of Akkermute and Jibbel Hedded, in Shedma, they take various kinds of dogs with them, from the greyhound to the shepherd’s dog, and following the birds, on horseback, and allowing them no time to rest, they soon fatigue them, when they are taken by the dogs: but as the Mooselmin eats nothing but what has had its throat cut, he takes out his knife, and exclaiming (Bismillah), “In the name of God,” cuts the throat of the game, and by letting it bleed destroys the flavour; for this reason game is not esteemed at the repasts of the Arabs, where mutton and beef are preferred; lamb and veal are unlawful, it being an injunction of the Mohammedan law to eat nothing till it is full grown, which is one cause of the great quantity of cattle which feed in the plains.

El Rogr.—This bird is similar to the English partridge, having however darker plumage; it is found only in arid stony places, where the shrubs are stunted, and in all (harushe) plains or places covered with basaltic rocks; but I believe no where else, except when on the wing to drink at some river, which they do regularly at noon and at sun-set; basking in the sun all the day, and pecking at the harsh stunted shrubs found in the above mentioned situations. The Rogr is unknown in Europe, according to Dr. Broussonet, an eminent botanist, for whom I shot several during his residence at Mogodor, in the quality of French Chargé des Affaires.

Pigeons.—Pigeons, denominated El Hammem by the Arabs, are in prodigious numbers all over West Barbary, tame as well as wild: the turtle dove (called El Imam) also abounds in the woods and gardens, adding considerably, by their plaintive notes, to the soothing pleasures of the country. There are immense quantities of wild pigeons in the island of Mogodor, which build their nests in the holes, and excavated rocks of the island; and as it is unlawful to shoot there, it being the state prison of the empire, they are harmless and domesticated. Early in the morning, they fly in immense flocks, to the adjacent province of Haha, where they feed on the corn and vegetables during the day, and return about an hour before sun set.

The beautiful cream-coloured dove, with a black ring round its neck, is a native of Marocco and Terodant.

Curlews (Bukullel[109]).—These birds abound in various parts of West Barbary, and are so numerous at El Waladia, that one would imagine it was the roosting place for all the curlews on the earth; the peninsula which encompasses the large bay of water at this place, being rocky and uninhabited, is full of all kinds of them; it is a very delicious bird when the blood is not lost by the throat being cut.

Tibib.—The sparrow, denominated Zuzuh, is rare in most parts of Barbary; but the Tibib, which resembles it, is very common: this little bird visits the houses every morning, coming into the rooms undismayed. It is originally an inhabitant of Atlas, from whence it was brought by an English merchant[110] about twenty years since, to Mogodor, where the breed has continued to multiply ever since.

The Crested Lark is common also in this country.

The Cuckoo, Deekuke, as it is called by the Arabs, is a gray bird, with large black spots, having much feather, and long wings, with a small and short body. They are esteemed a delicacy by the Arabs. I shot some one day for the purpose of tasting them, and found them extremely delicate, and not inferior to a partridge.

El Hage. This is a small cinereous coloured bird, and scarcely so large as the common blackbird; it lives upon beetles and other insects of a similar kind, which it never eats till they begin to putrify; it frequents thorny bushes, on the upper thorns of which it sticks the beetles, where remaining till they begin to decay, the Hage, in passing through the air is attracted by their scent, and feeds upon them. The argan tree is the favourite resort of this bird; on the top, or some conspicuous part of which, it is generally seen, and often alone, without its female. It is called El Hage, because it accompanies the caravans to Mecca;[111] it is therefore held to be a sacred bird; on this account it would be imprudent to shoot it in presence of any Mooselmin. As they destroy beetles and vermin, they are certainly entitled to the deference paid to them; and are canonized, perhaps, from having visited the tomb of Mohammed.

The Owl.—The owl of Africa (called Muka) is similar to that of Europe, having the eye of a bright yellow. The screech owl (called Saher) is an ominous bird, and is superstitiously thought to be the forerunner of evil.