The Popes and Science / The History of the Papal Relations to Science During the Middle Ages and Down to Our Own Time

by James J. Walsh

CONTENTS.

INTRODUCTION.		[1]
	May Catholics dissect?
	Supposed prohibition of dissection.
	Twenty medical schools in Catholic Europe.
	Medieval universities and medical education.
	Allbutt on medicine down to the sixteenth century.
	William of Salicet and Lanfranc, the great medieval surgeons.
	The nearer to Rome the better the medical school.
	The state of medical teaching and discovery.
	The relation of the Popes to medical progress.
	Supposed Papal prohibitions.
	Ignorance of medieval medicine the reason for misrepresentation.
	The Popes did not hamper medicine nor any other science.
	Galileo's case an incident, not the index of a policy.
	The Papal Medical School the greatest in the world.
	The Papal Physicians leaders in science.
	The Church did for science as much as for art and literature.
	History a conspiracy against the truth. (Cambridge Modern History.)

THE SUPPOSED PAPAL PROHIBITION OF DISSECTION.		[28]
	A new Catholic medical school and dissection.
	Supposed Papal prohibitions of anatomy and of chemistry.
	The bull of Pope Boniface VIII., De Sepulturis.
	Reason for the ball.
	Supposed misinterpretation.
	Misuse of word infallibility.
	Some history of dissection.
	Date of bull important in history.
	Mondino's work.
	Body-snatching.
	Dissections elsewhere.
	How Mondino prepared his bodies for dissection.
	Guy de Chauliac at Bologna sees many dissections.
	Mondino's assistants, Otto and Alessandra.
	Papal permissions to dissect.
	The Church granting anatomical privileges where civil authorities refused.
	How the tradition of this Papal prohibition originated.
	M. Daunou as an authority.
	Reply of Pope Benedict XIV. as to bull.
	This subject a type of certain kinds of history

THE STORY OF ANATOMY DOWN TO THE RENAISSANCE.		[61]
	Presumed failure of anatomy during the Middle Ages a myth.
	Famous Law of Frederick II.
	Dissections at Salerno.
	Taddeo and anatomy.
	Salicet and Lanfranc.
	A famous medico-legal autopsy.
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	Mondino in the history of anatomy.
	Roth's story of dissection.
	Guy de Chauliac's experience at Bologna.
	The story of dissection during the fourteenth century without a break.
	Continued in next century.
	The work of Berengar of Carpi, Achillini, Matthew of Gradi.
	Pathological anatomy born with Benivieni.
	Pres. White's attitude to the evidence for dissection at this time.

THE GOLDEN AGE OF ANATOMY.--VESALIUS.		[90]
	The golden age of anatomy as of letters and art in Italy.
	Not origin, but wonderful development.
	Great predecessors of Raphael and Michel Angelo, as of Vesalius and Columbus.
	Legitimate culmination of anatomical development.
	The pre-Vesalians, Mondino, Bertrucci, Chauliac, Achillini, Berengar and Benivieni.
	The English students, Linacre, Caius, Phreas.
	Italy the Mecca of anatomical investigators.
	Harvey and Steno.
	Graduate work in Italy then as in Germany now.
	Vesalius's career.
	The University of Louvain.
	Vesalius in Paris, in Italy.
	The Father of Modern Anatomy.
	Royal Physician to Charles V.
	Some historical misconstructions.
	What the Popes did for anatomy in the sixteenth century.

THE SUPPOSED PAPAL PROHIBITION OF CHEMISTRY.		[120]
	False impression prevalent just as in anatomy.
	Striking similarity of history-lie.
	American writers.
	The Papal decree.
	Its purpose.
	The gold-brick industry.
	Fines to be distributed to the poor.
	Pope John's bull, Super Illius specula.
	Appeal to historians of chemistry.
	Chemistry in later Middle Ages.
	Albertus Magnus, Thomas Aquinas, Roger Bacon, Raymond Lully, Arnoldof Villanova, the two Hollanduses, Basil Valentine, Paracelsus and hisecclesiastical teachers.
	Pope John XXII. a patron of science and of education

A PAPAL PATRON OF EDUCATION AND OF SCIENCE.		[138]
	Pope John XXII. distinguished for his administrative abilities, his learning and his abstemiousness.
	Avarice and the Papal revenues.
	Educational foundations from Papal revenues.
	Modern educators and this old-time patron of education.
	All great Popes subject of slander.
	The personality of Pope John XXII.
	Pres. White's astonishing declarations as to the bull Super Illius specula.
	Pope John XXII. "a kindly and rational scholar."
	His bull for the University {ix} of Perugia.
	Perugia and the history of culture.
	Standards in education.
	Seven years for the doctorate in medicine.
	Foundation of the University of Cahors.
	Modern requirements.
	Why the Pope favored education

THE CHURCH AND SURGERY DURING THE MIDDLE AGES.		[167]
	Mistaken notions as to medieval surgery.
	Supposed Church discouragement of surgery.
	Misinterpreted ecclesiastical documents once more.
	Gurlt on surgery during the Middle Ages.
	Wonderful developments of surgery, when ignorantly said not to exist.
	Allbutt and Pagel on the great surgeons of the Middle Ages.
	Salicet.
	Lanfranc.
	Surprising anticipations of modern surgery.
	Mondeville.
	Surgical common sense.
	Yperman.
	Illustrations of surgical instruments.
	Hydrophobia.
	Chauliac the Father of Modern Surgery.
	Place in surgery.
	Chamberlain of the Pope.
	Technics of surgery.
	Chauliac's career.
	Ardern, the English surgeon.
	His works.
	False impressions with regard to surgical history.
	Professional jealousy not ecclesiastical persecution.
	The college of St. Côme and its lessons.
	False traditions as to the Church and surgery and their meaning

PAPAL PHYSICIANS.		[199]
	Belief in miracles and progress in medicine.
	Prayer and healing.
	The men the Popes chose as their medical advisers.
	Names greater than those of the medical faculty of any university.
	Guy of Montpelier, Richard the Englishman, Pope John XXI., Simon Januensis and the first medical dictionary.
	Arnold of Villanova.
	Guy de Chauliac.
	Cecco di Ascolo.
	Joannes de Tornamira.
	Francis of Siena.
	Baverius of Imola.
	John de Vigo.
	Columbus.
	Eustachius.
	Varolius.
	Piccolomini.
	Caesalpinus.
	Malpighi.
	Tozzi.
	Lancisi.
	Morgagni.
	Contributions to the biological sciences from Papal Physicians.

THE POPES AND MEDICAL EDUCATION AND THE PAPAL MEDICAL SCHOOL.		[222]
	Papal Medical School at Rome since 1300.
	Supported by revenues from Popes at Avignon.
	Previous Papal relations to medicine.
	Monte Cassino and Salerno.
	Pope Sylvester II. and medicine.
	Medical schools and the ecclesiastical authorities.
	A great physician made Pope.
	The Renaissance and the re-established Papal Medical School.
	Columbus original discoverer and practical teacher.
	Attendance at his lessons.
	His book dedicated to Pope.
	Other medical dedications to Popes.
	Eustachius's work.
	Piccolomini as a great teacher.
	Caesalpinus the probable discoverer of the circulation of the blood.
	Father Kircher's work at Rome.
	Malpighi the Father of Comparative Anatomy.
	Tozzi the best teacher of his time.
	Lancisi as a founder in clinical medicine.
	On Sudden Death.
	Morgagni's place as an adviser.
	Bologna in the Papal dominions.
	Medical schools at Ferrara and Perugia.
	Protestant traditions with regard to the Popes and medicine.

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THE FOUNDATION OF CITY HOSPITALS.		[248]
	Pope Innocent III., the Father of City Hospitals.
	Santo Spirito at Rome.
	Virchow on the effect of this in Germany.
	French hospitals and the Hotel Dieu.
	English hospitals.
	The five royal hospitals.
	Virchow's tribute to Pope Innocent III.
	Hospital regulation.
	Care for the poor.
	Longings of patients.
	Religious nurses and modern nursing.
	Virchow's opinion.
	Contemporaries on hospital accomplishment.
	Magnificent hospital building.
	Models for all future time.
	A modern architects's opinion.
	Hospital decoration.
	Siena Hospital.
	Hospital abuses.
	Problem of malingerers.
	Leper hospitals.
	The eradication of leprosy.
	Lesson for our generation as to tuberculosis.
	Special hospitals for erysipelas.
	Benefit of segregation.
	The religious dress and its anticipation of aseptic needs.
	Hospitals ruined when taken from the Church and the religious.

THE CHURCH AND THE EXPERIMENTAL METHOD.		[281]
	The doubting mood so important for science supposed to preclude faith.
	Most great scientists Catholics.
	Francis Bacon, the supposed Father of Inductive Science.
	Only the popularizer of the experimental method.
	Bacon and Copernicus.
	Gilbert of Colchester before Bacon.
	Friar Bacon on the experimental method.
	Peregrinus and the value of experiments.
	Bacon's four grounds of human ignorance.
	Bacon's great teacher, Albertus Magnus, and the experimental method.
	Christian tradition as to scientific inquiry as begun by Augustine.
	Albert's place in the history of inductive science.
	Interest of the Middle Ages in physical science.

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CHURCHMEN AND PHYSICAL SCIENCE IN THE MEDIEVAL UNIVERSITIES.		[302]
	The Popes and the medieval universities.
	What the scholastic philosophers did for science.
	Scientific teaching at the early universities.
	"Foundations of knowledge for Galileo, Harvey, Newton and Darwin." (Allbutt.)
	Magnetics.
	Philosopher's stone and the transmutation of metals.
	Constitution of matter.
	Matter and form.
	Indestructibility of matter.
	Conservation of energy.
	Albertus Magnus on the antipodes.
	Humboldt's appreciation of Albert.
	Albert's scientific accomplishments.
	Astronomy, botany, geography and biological sciences.
	Roger Bacon and explosives; achievements in optics and astronomy.
	Aquinas and chemistry.
	The relations of these men to the Popes.
	Bacon's difficulties.
	Medieval accomplishments in applied science.
	Scientific applications in medieval cities (Kropotkin).
	Decadence in science after Middle Ages.
	The place of the reformation so-called.
	The first encyclopedia.
	Vincent of Beauvais and interest in his work.
	Thomas of Cantimprato and Bartholomaeus Anglicus.
	Craving for information in natural science.

THE MEDIEVAL UNIVERSITY MAN AND SCIENCE.		[340]
	Dante a type of the medieval university student.
	His knowledge a proof of how he was taught.
	Dante as a student of nature.
	Ruskin's opinion.
	Trobridge's suggestions.
	Dante's early education.
	Azarias and Kropotkin on the public schools of Florence and Nuremberg.
	Kuhns on Dante's science.
	Optics.
	Astronomy.
	Humboldt's praise of Dante's scientific knowledge.
	Dante the observer, phosphorescence, flies, bees and ants.
	Dante knew more science than any modern poet.
	His contribution to the science of education.

THE CHURCH AND THE MENTALLY AFFLICTED.		[363]
	Disease and supernatural agency.
	Denial of disease.
	Scientists and spiritualism.
	Reaction in recent years.
	Anticipations in psychiatry.
	Supposed evolution of treatment of the mentally diseased.
	Medieval care of the insane.
	Psychopathic wards in hospitals.
	The open door treatment.
	After-care of the insane.
	The colony system.
	Religious suggestion and cure--ancient and modern.
	Prayer and mental disease.
	Care of the insane at Gheel.
	Neglect of insane not exclusively medieval.
	Milder measures quite modern.
	Spiritual agencies in life.
	Alfred Russell Wallace, Sir William Crookes, Sir Oliver Lodge, Prof. Charles Richet, Lombroso.

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