FOOTNOTES:
[1] Chapter vi. and Appendix IV.
[2] P. 270, note.
[3] The mode in which we ascertained these measurements was by comparing four, independently made. One was by Mr. Weller, the artist of our maps; the second by the author, being the average of four or five maps; the third by an English official friend in Roumania, who has all the best maps at his disposal; and the fourth from Baedeker. Designating these respectively as a, b, c, and d, we obtained the following very approximate results:—
| From Verciorova to the Sulina mouth. | From Predeal to boundary S. of Mangalia. | ||||
| a | 355 | miles | a | 185 | miles |
| b | 356 | " | b | 188 | " |
| c | 358 | " | c | 189 | " |
| d | 360 | " | d | 190 | " |
From Fife-Cookson's map, in his work With the Armies of the Balkans, the measurements respectively are 355 and 186 miles.
[4] The area is obtained by a somewhat similar process to the linear measurements, excepting that here we have been obliged to employ figures from various works (notably that of M. Aurelian and the Reports of Consul Vivian and of the Roumanian Geographical Society), and to take into consideration the exchange of Bessarabia for the Dobrudscha, which has not been done by Roumanian writers since that alteration was made. The Gotha Almanack of 1881 gives the area as 129,947 square kilos.
[5] There has been no census in Roumania since 1859-60, when the population is said to have been 4,424,961; now it is set down as above, and efforts have been made to analyse this estimate and to classify the population according to nationalities and religion. It is, however, quite impossible to do so with accuracy; indeed the census of Galatz taken last year shows that the whole can hardly be regarded as approximate. What we know is that about 4,600,000 of the population are Roumanians and of the Orthodox Greek faith; probably 400,000 are Jews, 200,000 gipsies, and the rest Germans, Szeklers, Servians and Bulgarians, Hungarians, Armenians, Russians, Greeks, Turks, French, English, Swiss, &c.
[6] Prince Jon Ghika says 87 mètres.
[7] According to various works and maps, the heights of the mountain summits differ. In his work, Terra Nostra, edition of 1880, M. Aurelian gives the height of Pionul as 2,720.1 mètres, or about 8,934 English feet, and that of Caraïman as 2,650.2 mètres, or 8,705 feet; but some of the maps give measurements differing from these.
[8] Fuller details concerning the soil and agricultural productions will be found in the chapter devoted to those subjects.
[9] The Roumanians recognise that a great part of the country is much neglected, and that weeds are allowed to grow to the detriment of agriculture. The Indépendance Roumaine, September 13 [25], 1881, had a strong article on the subject.
[10] We do not intend to discuss this question, which is so interesting to Roumanians, but we cannot help drawing attention to Paget's remarks on the subject. He says, in one of his headings, 'Wallacks of Dacian, not Roman origin;' then (p. 112) lie gives woodcuts of two heads with moustache only (sketched without any reference to the question), and somewhat resembling our cut, and leaves his readers to compare them with the figures on Trajan's Column. He says that he feels satisfied they will agree with his view. They do not, however, in the least resemble either the Romans with bare, or the Dacians with bearded faces, on the column, and throw no light whatever upon the vexed question. The general opinion of persons who have observed the peasantry is that those of the mountain districts afford, in their type of face, habits, and some words, the best illustrations in support of the Daco-Roman hypothesis.
[11] Wilkinson's account of travelling in his day (1820) is worth quoting. 'The mode of travelling,' he says, 'in the two principalities is so expeditious that in this respect it is not equalled in any other country. Their post establishments are well organised; there are post-houses in all directions, and they are abundantly provided with horses. Every idea of comfort must, however, be set aside by those who are willing to conform themselves to the common method of riding post. A kind of vehicle is given which is not unlike a very small crate of earthenware fastened to four small wheels by means of wooden pegs, and altogether not higher than a common wheelbarrow. It is filled with straw, and the traveller sits in the middle of it, keeping the upper part of his body in an erect position, and finding great difficulty to cram his legs within. Four horses are attached to it by cords, which form the whole harness, and driven by one postilion on horseback, they set off at full speed and neither stop nor slacken their pace until they reach the next post-house. Within the distance of half a mile from it, the postilion gives warning of his approach by a repeated and great cracking of his whip, so that by the time of arrival another cart is got ready to receive the traveller' (p. 93). (This is still the system in practice in some parts of Russia, and the author travelled in this fashion, in the winter of 1849-50, from St. Petersburg to the Prussian frontier.) Fifty years later matters seem to have retrograded in Roumania, for Kunisch, an amusing German writer, describes his journey from Giurgevo to Bucarest, now effected in two or three hours by rail, which it then took him twenty-four hours to accomplish, at first with sixteen horses and four postilions, and during the later stages with eighteen and twenty-two horses. (Reisebilder, pp. 73-81. Berlin: Effert and Lindtner.)
[12] Sinaïa may be visited either from Bucarest or Transylvania. If from Bucarest, the traveller may go by the railway from Vienna to that city in about thirty hours, and forward to Sinaïa in about four hours more, or he may land at Giurgevo either on his way from Constantinople by Varna and Rustchuk, or from the steamer down the Danube from Pesth. If he approaches by Transylvania, it is from Kronstadt, which is only a couple of hours from Sinaïa. Although a visit to Sinaïa only is here described, as being the most easily accessible to ordinary travellers, there are many beautiful tours to be made in the Carpathians, and some of the more hardy of the young Roumanians who have visited Western Europe assured the author that the outlying districts of the Carpathians afford features of interest to pedestrians which are not to be found in any of our known mountain districts.
[13] The monastery of Sinaïa was founded by the Grand Spathar Michael Cantacuzene, brother of Voivode Sherban Cantacuzene, in the year 1695.
[14] It is curious to note, in passing, that of about 400 men who were at work on this palace last year, 150 were Germans, and nearly all the rest were Italians.
[15] The chief are R.F. Peters (Die Donau und ihr Gebiet. Leipzig: Brockhaus, 1876. Cap. xii. p. 313), Fuchs, Bernath, and D.T. Ansted. There have also been isolated memoirs published by Roumanians, but, so far as we could ascertain, no systematic work is extant. The best general works, touching also on geology, are those of Aurelian and Obedenare.
[16] Principles of Geology, vol. i. p. 209.
[17] We believe this is really all that is known of the general stratification, and although little that is positive has been revealed, writers have made up for the deficiency by any amount of negative description. Such writers as Aurelian and Obedenare simply deplore the paucity of information, whilst Fuchs, an able and industrious geologist, says: 'It is difficult to describe the country because there are such vast tracts which have a character of despairing monotony; because fossils are rare and badly preserved, if not entirely wanting; and the different elevations present exactly similar petrographic appearances;' in fact, he says that the prominent data are wanting to enable a geologist to make a classification of the various strata.
[18] See Obedenare, 16-19. Also Cantacuzeno, Cenni sulla Romania, Bucarest, 1875; and Ansted.
[19] Copper exists at Baia d'Arana.
[20] Paget, vol. ii. p. 44. Dierauer, p. 73, who adds several more disjointed or isolated letters.
[21] A dish made from maize.
[22] Paget, vol. ii. p. 58. Tocilesco, Plate VII. In the illustrations there given the number of piers varies, but in both cases the intermediate island is shown.
[23] The estimates vary from 630 to 650, but these do not make full allowance for all the windings of the river.
[24] We are indebted for many of those details to M. Tocilesco, whose beautifully illustrated work, Dacia, &c. (Bucarest: Tipografia Academiei Romane, 1880), contains a vast amount of information concerning Dacian and other antiquities.
[25] Chiefly Greek and Turkish.
[26] The correspondence, which extends from June 23 to September 5, 1880, and is chiefly telegraphic, was published in the supplement to the Indépendance Roumaine, Bucarest, December 6 [18], 1881.
[27] After this despatch follows one from M. Bratiano, the Roumanian Secretary of State, finding fault with M. Calargi for his unfriendly tone towards Austria, and here is his edifying reply on that point. 'Let me satisfy you (vous rassurer) as to the consequences that might arise from the handing in of this document. Written on paper without any mark, deprived of every official or individual character, bearing no signature, this historical résumé of the phases through which the question has passed cannot compromise anyone.' This is one of the men who make history, and to whom the lives and interests of the million are confided!
[28] The middle pavement is composed of a very hard kind of brick called 'basalt,' which is very solid and durable.
[29] The national costume is worn by Indies of high position in the country, and on state occasions, but not as ordinary citizens' dress; see the Queen's portrait, Chap. XV.
[30] It may be mentioned for the reader's guidance that French or German will serve him almost anywhere in Roumania.
[31] Engravings of most of the objects here referred to will be found in M. Tocilesco's book, which, through his kindness, the writer has been enabled to deposit in the British Museum Library.
[32] See p. [202]. A high tower attached to it is said to have been built by the soldiers of Charles XII. of Sweden.
[33] The principal hotels are the 'Grand Hôtel du Boulevard' (on the boulevard), the Hotel 'Brofft,' 'Hugues,' 'Imperial,' 'Mano,' &c. The cost of a room varies from six to ten francs per day, and of board about the same. Wine is very dear, varying from three francs for the native wines up to twenty francs for fine French descriptions. All these matters are, however, undergoing change from year to year.
[34] It is not so much a question in Roumania of time actually lost; for if we add the longer working hours on the one hand, and deduct the Saturday half-holiday of our operatives, probably there will not be found to be much difference; but it is the recurrence of feast-days and holidays at irregular intervals, as is the case in those trades in England where men go off 'on the spree' for a day or two at slated or unstated periods. In Romania this is, in its way universal.
[35] Raicewich gives a similar account of them in 1789.
[36] Wilkinson, pp. 168-176.
[37] 'Und da sie ein sehr schöner Volksstamm sind, und andrerseits die übrige Bevölkerung sie darchans nicht zurückstösst, so sicht nichts entgegen dass sie in einer ziemlich nahen Zukunft mit der Masse der roumänischen Bevölkerung verschmelzen.'—Petermann's Mittheilungen, Ergänzungsheft 4, 8. 12. Gotha: J. Perthes.
[38] There are two types of gipsies, the one Indo-European, the other of an African cast.
[39] Œuvres complètes, vol. vii. p. 97.
[40] This article appeared in, and the extract was copied from, the journal in question by the writer whilst he was in Bucarest, but he omitted to copy the date.
[41] An excellent monograph, beautifully illustrated, of this cathedral was published by Ludwig Reissenberger (Braumüller, Vienna, 1860), to which we refer the reader for further details concerning it. Our two woodcuts showing the tracery are copied from that work, but the autotype plate is from a photograph by Duschek.
[42] Reissenberger calls it 'Grobkalk.' Similar stone is found in the neighbourhood.
[43] There are several versions of the legend. In some the prince is called Negru Voda, in others Negoije Voda, and in others again Radu Negru. The poem has been translated by Hon. H. Stanley, Roumanian Anthology, p. 215 (Hertford: Stephen Austin), an expensive and beautifully illuminated drawing-room book, containing some Roumanian poems in the vernacular, and others translated into English.
[44] The date on the tablet is 7209. This is Anno Mundi, according to the chronology of at least a section of the Byzantine Church, Christ having been born, after that reckoning, 5509 years after the creation of the world. (See Brown's Vulgar Errors and Smith's Dictionary of the Bible.) Engel says Neagu reigned from 1511 to 1520. Vaillant says he died in 1518.
[45] 7035 (A.M.) is the date on the tablet.
[46] Vineyard?
[47] As reference has been made from time to time to Roumanian ecclesiastics, the following brief particulars may not be uninteresting. Christianity was introduced into the provinces bordering on the Danube at a very early date. According to A. de Gerando (Siebenbürgen und seine Einwohner, p. 211, Lorck, Leipzig, 1845), a MS. was found in Hungary, bearing a cross and the date 274 a.d.; and in 325 a.d. a Bishop Theophilus was spoken of amongst the Goths. In 370 a.d. Athanaric, the Gothic king, persecuted and put many Christians to death. In 527 a.d. the Christian churches of Roumania (as then constituted) were taken in charge by the metropolitan of the Greek Church. But it was not until 865 a.d. that the Bulgarians and the native population associated with them were actually converted to Christianity (Lauriani, p. 29). About that time intrigues existed between the heads of the Eastern and Western Churches for the possession of the headship in these countries, but the influence of the former predominated. About 860 a.d. a Slavonian liturgy was introduced into the churches, and, notwithstanding the denunciations and embassies of the Roman Pontiff, a separation occurred about 880 A.D., and the Roumanians joined the Orthodox Greek Church. Of the negotiations between Innocent III. and Johannitz, King of the Second Wallacho-Bulgarian monarchy, we shall speak hereafter, and although after that time the Papal power was in the ascendant in Wallachia and Moldavia amongst the princes and nobles, the people always leaned to the Greek rite, and at length, in 1440, the metropolitan of Moldavia succeeded (Romish writers say by a religious coup d'état) in making the Greek Church dominant. In the middle of the seventeenth century the most important Roman Catholic bishopries were suppressed, and down to the present time the Greek Church has been the state religion, and it is professed by nearly the whole nation; even the King, who was formerly a Roman Catholic, now conforms to the faith. Of the secularisation of the monasteries and other religious movements we shall speak in Part II, and it is only necessary to add that at present there are two metropolitans or archbishops, six bishops with dioceses and several without; in 1876 there were 9,800 secular priests, 1,700 monks and 2,270 nuns, 6,550 churches and 173 monasteries and nunneries. The priests or 'popes' marry and follow secular occupations in the country; in the towns they are 'non-productive' so far as labour is concerned. The services of the Greek Church are not impressive; but although much has been written concerning their superstition, the Roumanians do not differ greatly from the people of other Catholic countries in that respect. There is great indifference to religion, if not absolute atheism, amongst the higher classes, which no doubt results from the great ignorance of the priesthood. The thing most to be regretted, however, is that whilst there are thousands of 'religieuses,' as they are called, in the country, all the nurses in its excellent hospitals should be paid servants, and the Church does nothing whatever towards maintaining the efficiency of those institutions.
[48] Consular Reports, Roumania, 1878, pp. 965-966. This statement applies, we believe, to what was formerly Moldavia rather than to Wallachia. When we were in Bucarest we saw stalls in the street at which English note-paper and writing materials (if they were genuine) were sold; and one day having occasion to buy a pair of scissors we entered a shop for the purpose, and some very dear ones were shown to us. On complaining of the price we were told they were English, but that we could obtain cheap ones of Austrian manufacture at another shop close by. This we did, and although the scissors were doubtless inferior, it shows that English goods are liked and command higher prices.
[49] See Consular Report, Roumania, 1878, pp. 966, 968, where these statements are practically confirmed.
[50] Purchased by the State whilst these remarks were being written.
[51] Several authors, copying one another as usual without enquiry, have estimated the population at 90,000, Aurelian having fixed it at 90,236 in 1866; but when in 1877 our Vice-Consul Bonham enquired of the Mayor of Jassy, he was told that, although no satisfactory data exist, 70,000 was nearer the mark. In like manner the population of Galatz has been set down until lately at 80,000, although an English gentleman residing there maintained that it should be about 50,000. That gentleman told us that according to a recent census there turned out to be only 40,000, but he questioned that result also, inasmuch as the people do not know the object of such a proceeding and fear to make returns, and moreover the census was taken at a time when many labourers and others had left the city for a season.
[52] Vice-Consul Bonham's report, 1877, p. 720.
[53] Ibid. p. 721.
[54] If the reader refers to various works on the subject, Aurelian, Obedenare, Consul Vivian's report, &c., he will find what appear to be distinct though approximate estimates, but they are really one and the same, in hectares (2.47 acres), pogones (1-1/4 acres), and acres; and in none of them is the territorial change of 1878 considered. We received a set of statistics on the subject as relating to 1880, whilst at Bucarest, but on comparing them with Aurelian's work published in 1866 we found the same figures there. The following is the approximate proportion of cultivated land in pogones (1-1/4 acre):—
| Cereals, gardens, vines | 4,945,708 |
| Pasture and hay | 7,693,910 |
| Forests | 4,029,947 |
| Uncultivated | 7,574,336 |
| Total | 25,243,901 |
[55] Any of our readers who desire detailed information concerning the condition of Roumanian agriculture and manufactures will find it in a report which was furnished to his government last year by M.J. Jooris, the Belgian Minister at Bucarest. No doubt the Belgian Government, has published it in pamphlet form; if not it will be found in extenso in La Bourse, Bucarest, July 27, August 2, 9, and 23, 1881.
[56] See Vivian's report, 1875, Obedenare's table (p. 99), and M. Jooris's report. The last named gives the ratio as—maize 22, wheat 15, barley 7, rye and oats 1.
[57] The Gotha Almanack of 1882 (p. 904), which receives its information from official sources, gives the exports of cereals and cattle in 1880 in the proportion of 167 to 12; whilst the Times correspondent (loc. cit.) gives the proportions for 1872 respectively as 117 (cereals) against (animals) 19. Obedenare (p. 147) gives the number of horned cattle in 1860 as 2,751,168 as against 1,886,990 in 1873, a great falling off; but the Times correspondent says there are now 3,000,000 head in the country.
[58] In 1875 we imported a considerable quantity of wool from Roumania, but for the last few years the imports are returned as nil. For further details on all these matters the reader is referred to Aurelian, Notices (chap. v.), Obedenare (chap. v.), British Consular Reports, Report of M. Jooris, Times correspondence. The figures would not sufficiently interest our readers to justify their insertion here.
[59] For exact particulars of peasant tenure see [Appendix IV].
[60] Comparing this statement with the fact that the 'obligations rurales' were almost extinguished in 1880, it is clear that the embarrassed and idle peasants must be only small holders. The information was given to us by the gentleman best acquainted with the history and effect of the land emancipation.
[61] Besides making clothes for their families, and costumes for the ladies of the cities, &c., the Roumanian women make beautiful rugs, mats, and even Carpets of variegated wool.
[62] Nothing shows the importance of the agricultural interest in Roumania so effectively as an analysis of the occupations of the people. This is thoroughly trustworthy, as it is computed from the number of taxpayers, and the following is a table condensed from the data supplied to us by the authorities at Bucarest:—
| Agriculturists | 684,168 | heads of families |
| Artisans and labourers | 83,061 | |
| Traders | 30,117 | |
| Officials (fonctionnaires) | 22,811 | |
| Professors and teachers | 6,066 | |
| Medical and legal professions and druggists | 995 | |
| Artists (meaning probably persons engaged in the arts) | 2,156 | |
| Priests, monks, and religieuses | 18,452 | |
| Various | 125,815 | |
| Of the total heads of families | 973,941, | seventy per cent. |
| therefore are agriculturists. |
[63] Statistica din Romania, Ministeriu de Interne, Bucuresci, 1881 (State Printing Office); and Gotha Almanack, 1882. It may be interesting to compare the outlay in Roumania with that of Great Britain. Last year our State expenditure was 2,683,958l. against about 110,000l. in Roumania, for primary instruction only. (See Statistica, pp. 13 and 22: the amount in lei or francs is 3,650,698.) The population of the United Kingdom is about seven times that of Roumania, and the average attendance of children in 1880 was 3,155,534. This gives about 17s. per head for State aid, without reference to school rates, which brings the total cost for each child in Great Britain to 2l. 2s. In Roumania it is 1l. 8s. as above.
[64] Œuvres complètes, vol. vi.
[65] Pp. 103 et seq.
[66] We heard similar complaints in Transylvania.
[67] It may be interesting to philologists to consider the derivations of the English names of these common things, and compare them with the Roumanian; the preponderance of the Anglo-Saxon element in the one and the Latin in the other is very apparent.
[68] Das Magyarische im Romänischen, Roesler, Appendix, p. 346. We have been compelled to translate Roesler's German into English for the significations, and the sense may thus have been changed or lost; he is therefore not responsible for such errors. The words marked with an asterisk are the most striking for our purpose, and they are in constant use in Roumania.
[69] A. de Gerando, Siebenbürgen und seine Bewohner, p. 213. Lorck, Leipsig, 1845.
[70] Most of the works on Roumania deal with the question. Ozanne (cap. xi.) has a few remarks on the subject; Wilkinson (appendix iv. p. 201) gives along list of words derived from Latin, Italian, modern Greek, and Turkish roots, but the Roumanian words are since changed; Vaillant, Obedenare, Neigebaur, Henke, Pic, Roesler, all treat the subject more or less fully. The chief authorities in Roumanian are Hasdeu, Ubicini, and Lauriani.
[71] Reports on Laws of Foreign Countries, presented to the House of Commons, 1881.
[72] In 1874 the Assize Courts had judged in all 1,493 persons (1,441 men and 52 women). Of these there were:
| Peasants | 961 | Roumanians | 1,394 | Above twenty years of age | 1,303 |
| Artisans | 186 | All other nations | 99 | Above sixteen and under twenty | 153 |
| Traders | 54 | Under sixteen | 11 | ||
| Officials | 60 | Age unknown | 26 | ||
| Sundries | 232 | ||||
| 1,493 | 1,493 | 1,493 |
In looking over the statistics given to us (by authorities) we found several small errors. In the main, however, they appear to be correct.
[73] Obedenare names four, but we believe he has coupled two neighbouring mines together as one.
[74] This does not, however, keep the water effectually out of the mine, for, from whatever source, one portion of it was partially flooded whilst we were there. Some of the prisoners had struck and refused to enter the shaft, and the chief inspector who had come from Bucarest to enquire into the cause of the émeute said the men were justified in their refusal to work, considering the condition of that part of the mine.
[75] We understand that the mine is to be lighted with the electric light this year.
[76] A touch of the ludicrous intervened to relieve the painful feelings we experienced on this occasion. We were standing with the engineer of the mine watching the men hewing salt, when the latter said (in German) 'Here are the worst criminals'—meaning in that mine. Not quite understanding him, we got the undeserved credit of making a joke by asking,' Here, where we stand?'—meaning in that part of the mine. The engineer burst into a laugh, which sounded very hollow there, and then we noticed the double entendre, and mutual explanations ensued.
[77] Full accounts of the relations, or supposed relations, between the Thracians, the Getæ, and the Dacians will be found in Smith, Geog. Dict., articles 'Dacia,' Geography; 'Thracia,' p. 325; 'Mœsia,' p. 677; and 'Dacia,' p. 679. In Dierauer (pp. 63-4 and note 1) and Roesler (chap, i.) everything of interest from the Greek and Roman historians is fully discussed, but the other German, French, and English writers treat the matter with more or less brevity, in some instances dismissing it in a few words.
[78] Vol. ii. pp. 105-106. The whole question is involved in obscurity.
[79] Dion Cassius (Cocceianus), the Roman historian, was born 155 a.d. at Nicæa in Bithynia, where he also probably died in retirement after a long and eventful political life; the date of his death is unknown. He was governor of Pannonia under Severus, and had opportunities of learning about Trajan's expeditions into Dacia. He wrote a history of Rome, including one of Trajan, but of the latter there is only an abridgment by Xiphilinus made in the eleventh century; our extracts are from the French version referred to in the Appendix.
[80] See initial letter, and vignette at the end of this chapter.
[81] Bohn's Tacitus, vol. ii. p. 164. This occurred 70 a.d. under Vespasian. Mœsia had been formally constituted a Roman province 9 a.d. (or 2 b.c., Merivale).
[82] According to Merivale, vol. vii. p. 103 note (Longmans, 1862), it was a title: 'interpreted by some writers "The Strength of the Dacians," by others "Dakhi-Valhus," the Scythian for the Day Falcon.' Smith (Biography, article 'Decebalus') says it was probably a title of honour amongst the Dacians equivalent to chief or king, since we find that it was borne by more than one of their rulers, and that the individual best known to history as the Decebalus of Dion Cassius is named Diurpanus by Orosius, and Dorphaneus by Jornandes. Roesler and Dierauer expend a large amount of research and learning upon the name. The former (p. 35) believes that 'the Dierpaneus of Jordanes' is a king Duras from whom Decebalus received his crown, and he leaves the question an open one. Dierauer says (p. 67) that Decebalus was his name, and quotes an inscription in which he is spoken of as 'Regem Decebalum.'
[83] Bohn's Agricola, p. 382.
[84] See historical map.
[85] The fullest account of the probable number and constitution of his army, his generals, &c., is to be found in Dierauer, pp. 76 et seq. and the numerous notes appended.
[86] See map.
[87] Erected after the final subjugation of Dacia, probably upon the designs of Apollodorus, who also designed the bridge across the Danube.
[88] This is by no means the unanimous view as to the course which was taken by the army, although most are agreed that it was divided into two sections.
[89] This must not be confounded with the Iron Gates (sunken rocks) in the Danube. The reader will find all the leading places referred to in our historical map.
[90] Nothing certain is known as to the position of Tapæ. By some writers it is said to be identical with Crossfeldt near Thorda; but this hardly agrees with the account of the operations against Decebalus after his first defeat.
[91] Dion Cassius, lxviii. 8.
[92] Dion Cassius, lxviii. 9.
[93] See vignette at the end of this chapter.
[94] All these places, along with the lines indicating existing remains of Roman roads, will be found on our map.
[95] Full details of games, gladiatorial fights, coins struck, &c., in Dierauer, pp. 105 et seq.
[96] Those of our readers who desire to follow these superficial outlines of the story, as represented on the column, will do well to inspect the beautiful line engravings of Piranese, without however accepting his interpretations as conclusive.
[97] According to certain writers, Transylvania was Dacia mediterranca; the Banate, D. ripensis; and Roumania, D. transalpina; but Smith (Geography, 'Dacia') gives those names to divisions of Mœsia after the withdrawal of the Romans from Dacia; and later historians mate no reference to the divisions. Dicrauer (p. 103) only refers to one or two leading colonies, and Roesler (p. 45) says that Trajan did not subdivide his conquest at all, but that under Antoninus Pius (168 a.d.) there existed three non-political divisions: D. Apulensis, D. Porolissensis, and D. malvensis. Gibbon (chap. i. pp. 7 and 8) gives what he calls 'the natural boundaries,' and says the province was about 1,300 miles in circumference.
[98] Neigebaur (p. 43) gives a list of twenty-eight towns known (and many doubtful ones) in Trajan's Dacia, built during the Roman occupation. Of these the ruins of some still remain, and on the site of others modern towns have been built, whose names vary but little from the Roman appellations, e.g. Zernes, now Cernetz; Caracalla, Karakal; Castra Severum, Turnu Severunul (where there is an old Roman tower); Ardeiscus, Ardeish or Ardges; Pallada, Berlad; Kallatia, Galatz; Thermæ ad Mediaș, Mehadia.
[99] Carra, p. 3.
[100] As in the case of Britain; see Smith, Geography, article 'Colonia.'
[101] Carra takes his account from Eutropius, who says (Book VIII. cap. 6): 'Trajan, when he conquered Dacia, transferred thither from all parts of the Roman Empire considerable numbers of men to till the fields and live in the towns. For by its long war under Decebalus Dacia had been exhausted of its men.' he says nothing of the 'scum of the towns.' But in Book IX. cap. 15, Eutropius, in speaking of the Roman withdrawal from Dacia under Aurelian, says: 'He took the Romans away from the cities and fields of Dacia, and planted them in the middle of Mœsia.'
[102] Smith (Dacia) says it was evacuated between 270 and 275 a.d. Neigebaur and other German as well as French writers name years between these two, the edict of Aurelian being dated, it is said, 274 a.d.; whilst Roesler (pp. 60-51) believes that the actual withdrawal of the Roman army did not take place until 280 a.d.
[103] lxviii. 13. He says (after describing the bridge in glowing terms): 'Trajan, fearing lest, when the Ister was frozen, the Romans on the farther bank should be attacked, built it in order to afford an easy passage for the troops; Adrian, on the other hand, apprehensive that the barbarians, after having overcome those who guarded it, would find it an easy means of penetrating into Mœsia, demolished the upper portion of it.'
[104] Freeman (General Sketch of European History) says 269-270 a.d.
[105] Trebellius Pollio. Gibbon sets down the number of Goths slain at 50,000.
[106] Vol. ii. p. 17. The other writers here referred to are Pic, Roesler, Paget, Petermann, &c.
[107] Ibid.
[108] Vol. i. p. 330.
[109] See [Appendix I].
[110] The reader will find most of the chief places named in the course of this historical sketch indicated on the historical map, but we have purposely refrained from making repeated references to it, and even, in many cases, to authorities on history, where that would interfere unnecessarily with the continuity of the narrative.
[111] Vol. iv. pp. 258-262.
[112] Between 453 and 469 a.d. according to different writers.
[113] Le Sage, Table 8.
[114] Gibbon, vol. vii. p. 104.
[115] This character is by some writers given to the Wallachs or Roumanians, and Bonfinius (Book IV.) says that their name is derived from certain Greek words indicating their skill in archery.
[116] Roesler, p. 234 et seq. It is necessary to add that Roesler derives much of his information from Turkish sources. (Appendix, pp. 359-361.) According to one writer, Abu-Ali-Ahmed Ben Omar Ibn-Dasta, the settled Bulgarians were an agricultural people cultivating cereals, in whose villages were mosques, elementary schools, &c. Many, however, were heathens, who prostrated themselves whenever they met an acquaintance.
[117] Roesler, p. 156 et seq.
[118] Roesler, p. 164 et seq.
[119] Vol. i. p. 20. Hallam says, in a note loc. cit.: 'In Italy they inspired such terror that a mass was composed especially deprecating this calamity, "Ab Ungarorum nos defendas jaculis."'
[120] E. Duller, Geschichte des deutschen Volkes, p. 108. Leipzig: Wigand. 1840.
[121] During their passage across the Carpathians the Hungarians are said to have encountered and reduced to submission a number of petty chiefs and tribes, believed by certain writers to have been the descendants of Daco-Romans who had settled in those mountains many centuries previously. Amongst them 'Dukes' Gellius or Julius, Claudius, and Mariotus are mentioned. The chronicler of these events is known as the 'Anonymous Notary of King Bela' of Hungary, and his narrative is adopted by those modern writers who hold the view that the early princes of Wallachia descended from the Carpathians, whilst other writers, and notably Roesler, who denies that theory, throw discredit upon the whole story, and consider the writings of the 'anonymous notary' a fabrication. The bias exhibited by the different historians makes it impossible to arrive at any just conclusion on the subject.
[122] Modern French and German writers called them Petschenigues and Petschenegen.
[123] For further details concerning the Patzinakitai and Wallachs the student must consult the pages of Roesler, Pic, Engel, Lauriani, &c.
'Die Menschen, die noch jetzt fast römisch Muster tragen,
Zwar schlecht, doch witzig sind, viel denken, wenig sagen.'
[125] Pic (p. 64) says the Roumanian Wallachs were first referred to in 970, and (p. 113) first mentioned north of the Danube in 1222.
[126] He calls himself 'Calojohannes Imperator Blacorum et Bulgarorum,' which Lauriani translates 'Kaiser der Romänen und Bulgaren,' Emperor of the Roumanians, &c. In this and the preceding letter the reader has illustrations of the bias which weakens the evidence of alleged facts in Roumanian history. Those writers who are unwilling to concede Roman descent to the people make no mention of such expressions as that used by Innocent concerning their ancestry, whilst the patriotic native historians use license in translation in order to improve their position.
[127] In the Bull they are called 'Imperatores totius Bulgariæ,' which Lauriani (p. 56) unfairly translates 'Die Kaiser von ganz Bulgarien und Romänien' (Emperors of all Bulgaria and Roumania!).
[128] For the details of this controversy the reader is referred to the recently published pages of Roesler and Pic, the first an Austrian and the second a Slav writer.
[129] His full title was 'Mircea, D.G. Voivode of Wallachia, Duke of Fogaras and Omlas, Count of Severin, Despot of the lands of Dobrudscha and Silistria,' and, making allowance for the exaggerations of a conqueror, it is clear that he must have ruled over an extended territory.
[130] The substance of this treaty, which was reaffirmed in later ones, will be found in Appendix II., with some data concerning its history, for which, along with much other valuable information, we are indebted to Prince Jon Ghika, the Roumanian Ambassador at St. James's, and to Mr. White, our own Minister at Bucarest.
[131] The word 'boyard' originally meant soldier or warrior.
[132] One of his corps of cavalry were called 'Scutelnici' (or substitutes), a term which we shall find applied to government serfs later on; and Vaillant (vol. i. p. 185) says the term 'scutage' in England was derived from the same source (scutum, a shield).
[133] The two crowns had been united under him.
[134] To show what uncertainty hangs over the history of this man, and in fact of the whole period, it may be mentioned that Neigebaur and other writers make this treaty to have been signed between Vlad II. and Mohammed III., who reigned 135 years later, whilst French writers state that it was between Vlad V. and Mohammed II.; but they all agreed as to the date 1460. Henke calls him Vlad III. He was universally named the Impaler in consequence of a practice which is well known to our readers through the so-called Bulgarian atrocities. A sharpened pole was forced into the body of the victim, and the other end was then driven into the earth, the unfortunate man, woman, or child being left to writhe in agony until relieved by death.
[135] For the terms of this treaty see [Appendix II].
[136] Called also Nyagor, Negoje, Nyagoe.
[137] Paget, vol. ii. p. 8.
[138] Teutschländer, from whose excellent little treatise, Michael der Tapfere (Wien, C. Gräser, 1879), these details are taken, mentions many customs as existing in the time of Michael which were in all probability only introduced at a later period. The tobacco-tax is clearly one of them.
[139] The reader will find full accounts of the officials and their various duties, as well as a description of the investiture of the princes, in Raicevich, p. 62. In Wilkinson, p. 55, he will find that in his day there had been a great multiplication of the offices; there were second and third Logothets, second and third Vestiars, &c.
[140] Reissenberger, p. 39, in part quoting Engel.
[141] Some modern Roumanian historians affirm that Mircea already had a regular army, but Roesler and others treat the assertion with ridicule. As to Michael, the reader will judge for himself whether or not it would have been possible to accomplish what he did without a disciplined force.
[142] Siebenbürgen was so called from seven forts erected there.
[143] Teutschländer, p. 201.
[144] According to Vaillant and others there were two officers each with 300 men, and Michael ran his sword through one of the officers, but before he could withdraw it the other, called Bory, struck him down with his halberd.
[145] Vaillant (chronological table, vol. ii. p. 444) gives nineteen distinct princes, some of whom reigned twice in Wallachia, and twenty-eight, of whom one reigned three times in Moldavia, between 1601 and 1714. His dates and names must not, however, be regarded as authoritative.
[146] The reader who is interested in this subject will find a concise history of the following families in Carra, namely, Cantemir (said by some to be of Tartar origin), Ghika, Petreczeicus, Duca, Cantacuzene, Brancovano, Mavrocordato.
[147] A lion, crown, or ecu, of gold was worth about 4s. 8d., of silver 2s. 8d.
[148] An interesting reference to his good deeds will be found in the description of the cathedral of Curtea d'Ardges in the first part of this work.
[149] The carelessness of the Roumanian chroniclers is simply intolerable. Vaillant, vol. ii. p. 88, says that Serban was poisoned on October 19, 1688; at p. 91 he says Constantine Preda, his successor, began to reign 1687; and in his chronology, p. 445, he says 1688. Such discrepancies constantly recur. Wilkinson makes the successor of Serban, Constantine Brancovano, the Voivode who secretly aided the Germans at Vienna, and places the event after 1695. He says the Voivode was probably bribed by the German Emperor to remain neutral. The siege of Vienna was in 1693.
[150] Brancovano is also called Constantine Bassarab and Constantine Preda.
[151] The following story is related of the conduct of the Russians whilst they were encamped before Jassy, during the early part of the campaign. It appears that Peter and his generals were invited to a banquet by the Prince, and, having drunk freely, hosts and guests lay scattered promiscuously about the floor. The Russians were the first to recover consciousness, and when their eyes fell upon the gold-laced boots of the boyards, the desire to possess them was so irresistible that they took advantage of the helpless condition of their hosts to perpetrate a common theft. Drawing them from their feet, they made off with the boots to their tents, leaving their own weather-worn chaussure in exchange.
[152] Wilkinson (p. 40) says that in his day a descendant of the grandson of Brancovano was living in Wallachia in great state, and was considered one of the wealthiest boyards; and there is still a family assuming the title of Prince Bassaraba de Brancovan. See Gotha Almanack, 1881, p. 225.
[153] Although Nicholas Mavrocordato is chiefly referred to as the first Phanariote Prince of Wallachia, in 1716, a comparison of the authorities (Engel, Wilkinson, Neigebaur, &c.) shows that he had already ruled in Moldavia since 1712. Vaillant is, as usual, vague, and supplies the place of precise facts by abundant rhetoric.
[154] 3 Henry VII. cap. 1, and 21 Henry VIII. cap. 20.
[155] Voda, or Domnu (Dominus), was the Roumanian designation for the prince, and Hospodar was a title of Slavonic or Russian origin (Russian, Gospodin = Lord).
[156] P. 46.
[157] The most authentic work on the Phanariotes is that of Marc. Philippe Zallony (Marseilles, Ant. Ricard, April 1824). That author calls himself 'the medical attendant, of several Fanariote hospodars,' and his account of the princes and their rule is sufficiently humiliating without the exaggerations and embellishments of one or two subsequent French writers. Wilkinson, whose work we have quoted, and who was 'British Consul Resident,' in 1820, at 'Bukorest,' as it was then called (he says, after one Bukor who owned the village four hundred years previously), gives a good deal of information on the same subject.
[158] Zallony.
[159] Vaillant, at vol. ii, pp. 219-220 and 224-226, gives some interesting details of receipts and expenditure. In one place (p. 225) he gives a list of 'presents paid by the principality of Moldavia.' The amounts arc stated in piastres, which he says were then worth 2 fr. 50 c. One item is 'secret presents at Constantinople 250,000 piastres,' whereas the tribute was only 65,000! The list appears to include the whole expenses of the prince and princess and some military and State expenditure, the total being 1,162,267 piastres, or, according to Vaillant, about 116,200l., an enormous sum in those days (1769).
[160] In Vaillant's list referred to, the charge for the dresses of the princess is put down at 22,908 piastres, or 2,290l., against 36,000 piastres, or 3,600l., the entire expenses of the palace. The list shows that the prince kept many Turkish soldiers, musicians, &c., in his service, and had borrowed large sums in Constantinople before acquiring the hospodarship, as there is an item of 68,620 piastres for interest thereon.
[161] This phase in the Phanariote rule still rests as a blight upon Roumanian society, and the causes of the laxity of the marriage tie and of divorces are to a large extent the same as formerly. Young men of the upper classes who have been nurtured in affluence find themselves unable to indulge in the luxuries to which they have been accustomed upon their limited incomes. They therefore frequently marry women who are much older than themselves, but are possessed of large pecuniary means. Neither cares for the other; they go their own ways, with the usual unfortunate results. If the reader refers to the statistics of the country, he will find that in 1880 there were 3,891 divorce causes set down for trial, and that the number of divorces legally granted or judged for the six years previously varied from 760 to 929 annually.
[162] Zallony tells us that amongst the modern Greek families the Mavrocordatos and Mavrojeni originally came from the Isle of Miconos (Archipelago); Ghika is of Albanian origin; Racoviça and Manolvoda, Asia Minor; Ypsilanti and Morousy, Trebizonde; Soutzo, Bulgaria; Caragia, Ragusa Canzerli, Constantinople, &c.
[163] This is not the Gregory Ghika already referred to. Members of the different families were distinguished by the affix I. II. III. &c.
[164] Who this 'Sir Francis' was, we have not been able to ascertain.
[165] P. 44.
[166] Neigebaur (pp. 327 et seq.) gives a long list of important works published in the Principalities up to his time (1854), and amongst them will be found a large number either composed or published by Heliad on various subjects in theology, philology, grammar, history, mathematics, and medicine, besides original poems, translations, and dramas.
[167] Regnault says (p. 437): 'Twice in three weeks the provisional government had fallen, first through an audacious coup de main, then through a spontaneous act of weakness. Twice the people had reinstated it, setting a resolute example for the conduct of their leaders. It is worth noting that this nation, new to political life of which the birth is manifested by courage and wisdom, retired before its leaders when they triumphed, raised them when they fell, giving alternate evidences of energy and moderation.'
[168] P. 183.
[169] As the event is comparatively recent, we have considered it desirable to suppress two or three names of persons who may be still living, and whose connection with the revolution is of no moment.
[170] That would have been cowardly.—Author.
[171] One of his mistresses, who was with him.
[172] The Conservatives were overthrown in 1875, and although there are at present nominally three parties in the State there can hardly be said to be an opposition. When the author was in Roumania, in the autumn of 1881, the two Liberal chiefs were John Bratiano, President of the Council, and C.A. Rosetti, who has held more than one portfolio. We shall speak of these statesmen in the sequel. The Liberal party in the Chamber of Deputies numbers about one hundred and twenty; whilst the Conservatives, led by MM. Catargi, Labovari, and Maiorescu, and the Radicals, with MM. Vernesco and Nicolas Jonesco, number together only about thirty-five members. In the Senate, out of seventy-six members only about sixteen or eighteen are in opposition. This is not altogether to be regretted; such disparities do not last long, and whilst on the one hand criticism of the mistakes or misconduct of Government officials (and more particularly against sub-officials, who are often charged with grave offences) is now confined chiefly to the press, on the other hand a little constitutional despotism is very much needed, not only to correct such abuses promptly, but also to hasten the necessary reforms and to ameliorate the condition of the country. This is the result of personal observation and contact with official life, and not a mere speculative opinion.
[173] The critics of her conduct during and immediately after the close of the war were more bitter than at the present day, charging her with perfidy of the worst kind, and predicting that she would become a vassal state of Russia. See, amongst others, Ollier, History of Russo-Turkish War, vol. i. p. 537.
[174] These details are from Von Wittinghausen's work on Roumania, from a military point of view (Vienna: Carl Gerold's Sohn).
[175] The army organization has progressed rapidly since the war of complete liberation, and it is estimated that in 1884 the total forces of Roumania, regular militia, and Landsturm, will exceed 215,000 men. Full information will be found in Von Wittinghausen, Obedenare and in the Gotha Almanack, 1881, p. 903, where the present state of the forces is given in detail.
[176] Daily News War Correspondence, vol. i. p. 73.
[177] There are two monuments, one at Simnitza and the other at Sistova, which are visible to the traveller as he passes up or down the river. The first indicates the spot where the Russians embarked, whilst the last is a handsome memorial to the slain.
[178] These operations are graphically described in the interesting work of Col. Fife Cookson, With the Armies of the Balkans, Cassell, 1880; in the Daily News War Correspondence, Macmillan, 1878; and in Ollier's History of the Russo-Turkish War, Cassell.
[179] According to Col. Fife Cookson the Bulgarians, during this war, were guilty of atrocities as deep-dyed as any that had previously caused such indignation in Europe; but he also says (p. 23), 'In this war armed Bulgarians resisting the Turks were looked upon as rebels, and received no quarter.'
[180] War Correspondence, vol. i. pp. 131-132.
[181] War Correspondence, p. 82.
[182] Ibid. p. 390.
[183] War Correspondence, vol. i. pp. 441-442. Cassell (Ollier), pp. 404-405, where a plan of the Loftcha struggle is given.
[184] It is not clear what these were; probably the tenth and thirtieth divisions, composing the fourth corps. Compare Daily News War Correspondence, vol. i. pp. 443 and 444.
[185] War Correspondence, vol. i. pp. 482-483.
[186] Ibid. p. 444.
[187] Daily War Correspondence, vol. i. p. 485.
[188] Ibid. p. 487.
[189] Daily News War Correspondence, vol. i. p. 491.
[190] Ibid. p. 495.
[191] Ibid. p. 496.
[192] Daily News Correspondence, vol. ii. p. 153.
[193] Ozanne, p. 226.
[194] The first three verses of the dedication in Rumänische Dichtungen, by Carmen Sylva (the Queen's nom de plume), Leipzig, W. Friedrich, 1881. Lest our halting verse should prejudice the illustrious authoress, we append the original for those who know German:—
'Du Rebenland, du grüner Wald,
Du Rhein mit deinem Schimmer:
Dein Glanz ist fern, dein Sang verhallt,
Ich bin entflohn für immer!
'Oft, oft schliess' ich die Angen zu,
Dann hör' ich's singen, rauschen,
Seh' Schiffe zieh'n in sonn'ger Ruh',
Den Wind die Segel bauschen.
'Dass ich die schönste Heimath hab'
In deutschen Gau'n besessen,
Das macht, dass ich sie bis zum Grab
Nun nimmer kann vergessen.'
[195] When the above lines were penned, M. Rosetti was the Home Secretary, although he has since resigned. It was as such that we knew him, and we therefore prefer to leave our account, of him and his amiable lady as it was originally written.
[196] Légendes démoeratiques du Nord, Madame Rosetti, p. 279 et seq.
[197] There are daily papers in Bucarest for readers of every nationality resident there, the Romanal, Indépendance Roumaine, Bukarester Tagblatt, &c., all of which are free to say whatever they please—and they say it!
[198] Despatch, February 1, 1880.
[199] Of the leaders of intellectual thought and industries in Roumania we have already spoken elsewhere.
[200] According to some, there are more.
[201] Although we have endeavoured as much as possible to avoid burdening this popular treatise with statistics, one set of figures which have been kindly supplied to us by friends at Bucarest and in London is so significant, and indeed of such general interest, that we must claim the reader's indulgence for giving it in extenso. It comprises the values of Russian, Turkish, and Roumanian securities from 1870 to 1880, which are as follows:—
| Russian. Six per Cents. | Turkish. General Five per Cent. Debt. | Roumanian. Oppenheim. | |||||||
| 1870 | 83-1/2 | to | 94-1/2 | 45 | to | 51 | 75 | to | 98 |
| 1871 | 88 | " | 97 | 44-1/2 | " | 52-1/2 | 86 | " | 96-1/2 |
| 1872 | 95 | " | 100 | 46-1/2 | " | 55 | 91 | " | 104 |
| 1873 | 96 | " | 100-1/2 | 45 | " | 47 | 98 | " | 104 |
| 1874 | 97 | " | 103 | 45 | " | 46-1/2 | 98 | " | 108 |
| 1875 | 95 | " | 104-1/2 | 23 | " | 45 | 100 | " | 109 |
| 1876 | 74 | " | 100-1/2 | 11-1/2 | " | 23 | 74 | " | 106 |
| 1877* | 71 | " | 93 | 6-1/2 | " | 11-1/2 | 58 | " | 91 |
| 1878* | 74 | " | 91 | 8-1/2 | " | 12 | 87 | " | 105 |
| 1879 | 84 | " | 93 | 10-1/2 | " | 12 | 93 | " | 110 |
| 1880 | 85 | " | 96 | 10 | " | 12-1/2 | 102 | " | 112 |
And in 1881 the prices of the Oppenheim loan ranged from 105 to 116. From these eloquent figures it will be seen that whilst Russia has been stationary, and Turkey has fallen 75 per cent, the condition and security of Roumania has risen, roughly speaking, 25 per cent, in the eslimation of the financial world during the last ten years. The two years marked with an asterisk were years of war.
[202] This abstract is made from the French translation of the Constitution; the actual divisions of the country are as follows:—
Județu is a department or district, the head of which is a prefect. Of these there are at present thirty-two in all.
Plasa, subdivision of a Județu, the head of which is a sub-prefect.
Comuna, a parish.
Urba, a city.
Orage, a town.
[203] The numbers in parentheses refer to the articles.
[204] A few old families have retained their titles, but many who would have the same justification for doing so have discontinued their use.