A practical treatise on coach-building historical and descriptive

by James W. Burgess

Crests and Heraldic Bearings.

It would be impossible to give anything like a comprehensive series of these in this, or indeed in a very much larger work, as their number and variety are so great. The examples subjoined are given as exercises in colouring; and, if the student desires to extend his studies in this direction, most stationers will supply him with sheets of them at a trifling cost, and to them he may apply the principles enumerated below.

Fig. 42.

[Fig. 42].—This is a small ornament, but it will disclose to the painter whether he has got hold of the method of handling the “cutting-up pencil.” If, in attempting the circular part, the hand becomes inclined to be unsteady in its motion, and create a lack of confidence, the painter should practise until assured that the hand will obey the will.

The ornamental part to be gold, shaded with asphaltum, and high light with a delicate pink, composed of flake white and light red. The wreaths may be painted blue and white. Mix up three lines of blue, placing the darkest at the bottom or lower part of each band shown, as shaded in the figure. The white bands should not be of pure white, but a light grey, made by mixing a little black with the white colour. For the high light running along the centre of the wreath, use white tinted with yellow. The space covered with diagonal lines may either be left plain, showing the panel colour, or barred across with grey lines made of flake white and black, tinged with carmine.

Fig. 43.

[Fig. 43].—This is the letter V combined with a garter. Size in the entire pattern, and lay the pattern in with gold, and glaze over the inner part of the garter with a light blue, the inner and outer edges to remain gold. The flying ribbon to be pink, composed of carmine and white, and the shading to be clear carmine, with carmine saddened with black for the deeper tones. The stems of the letter V to be green, shaded with a reddish brown, and the leafing to be the same colours.

Fig. 44.

[Fig. 44].—Paint the cap crimson, the wreath green and grey, lighted with a delicate pink. The circular part to be gold, shaded with asphaltum tinted with carmine; the outside border of shield to be gold also; the upper division of the shield to be red, deep and rich in tone. The chevron, or white angular band across the shield, to be a grey, lighted up with pure white. The lower division of the shield to be blue, and the deep shades to be purple. Paint the leafing at the base with a colour mixed of burnt umber, yellow, and lake; shade with asphaltum tinted with carmine, and put in the high lights with orange or vermilion.

Fig. 45.

[Fig. 45].—This is from a design by Gustave Doré. It is an odd but still pretty design. Lay in the whole of the pattern in gold; shade the details with verdigris darkened with asphaltum; put in the high lights with pink, composed of light red and white. The escutcheon may be coloured with light brown, carmine, and dark brown. The edges of the diagonal bar to be dotted minutely with vermilion.

Fig. 46.

[Fig. 46].—Outline the garter with gold; the buckle and slide to be gold also. Fill in the garter with light and dark tints of blue, and put in the high lights with canary colour. Paint the floral gorgons in brown shades, and light with orange and clear yellow. A small portion of lake added to these browns will cause them to bear out richly when varnished. Let the medium lights and shades predominate, and the high lights added, first carefully considering their true positions, and then touching them in with sharp strokes of the pencil, which will give life and “go” to the details. The pendent stems with leaves and berries may be coloured olive green, and shaded with russet. When the painting of this ornament is dry it will be considerably improved by glazing.

Fig. 47.

[Fig. 47].—The central pattern is Caduceus, a Roman emblem. On the rod or centre staff the wings are represented “displayed,” and the two serpents turning round it signify power, the wings fleetness, and the serpents wisdom.

This pattern would look well in gold, with the dark parts shaded with black to the depths shown on the sketch; the lighter tones being greys, warm in tone. The serpents may be put in with carmine, as also the wings and head, and the rod carmine deepened with black.

Various treatments of colouring may be applied to this pattern, and thinking out some of these will be very good exercise for the ingenuity of the painter.

Fig. 48.

[Fig. 48].—Put the pattern in in gold, separating the parts where necessary with shadow lines, and produce the effect of interlacing by a judicious use of high light lines and deep black lines. The best pencil suited to this class of ornament is a “cutting-up” pencil an inch long. Having traced the pattern on the panel, commence by painting the crest, and next the main upper left-hand division of the scroll part, paying no attention to the leafing or minor details. It will be noticed that the centre line of the heavy leafing is a part of the scroll line, which passes from the wreath or ribbon at the top, and is completed at the base; so that to secure easy curves this line should be laid in through its whole length, and the leafing or any minor dividing lines be governed by it. Next lay in the other half of the pattern in the same manner, and having secured these main curves the subordinate details may be added.

Where two fine lines cross each other, the effect of one line passing underneath the other may be produced by simply lighting one of the lines across the intersection, which by contrast will make the gold or colour of the other line appear darker, and as though the lighted line passed over it and cast a shadow.

Paint the wreath blue and white, the crest to be merely lighted with the colour used for high lighting the other parts.

Fig. 49.

[Fig. 49].—This consists of a species of dragon, having the head, neck, and wings of a bird, and the body of a wild beast. He supports a Norman shield, the “fess” or centre part displaying a Maltese cross.

In painting this ornament, first get a correct outline of the whole; then mix up two or three tints of the colour you design painting it, having a pencil for each, and a clean pencil for blending the edges, so that no hard lines may appear at the junction of the different colours. Lay on the shaded portions first, then the half lights, keeping them subdued in tone, so as to allow for the finishing touches showing clear and distinct.

On a claret-colour panel the whole may be painted in different hues of purple and red. On a dark blue panel, varying shades of blue lighter than the groundwork, and so with other colours. The shaded portion must be distinct, and gradually connected with the lighter portions by light tints of the shading colour.

Or the dragon may be painted grey, the high lights with the same colour warmed up with yellow; the outline of the shield in gold; the upper division, a light cobalt blue; the lower division, a pale orange; the cross, brown, shaded with asphaltum; the wreath, blue and white; and the flying ribbon and leafing in gold.

CHAPTER XIII.
LINING AND TRIMMING.

This is a department which requires great taste as well as skill. The interior of a carriage should be lined with cloth and silk, or cloth and morocco, with laces specially manufactured for the purpose. The colours should correspond to or harmonise with the painting. Light drab, or fawn colour, used to be a very general colour for the linings of close carriages, such as broughams, because they at once afforded relief to and harmonised with any dark colour that might have been selected for the painting. But a severe simplicity of taste has prevailed of late years in this country, and the linings of the carriages have been made mostly dark in colour to correspond to the colour of the painting. This is often carried to such an extreme as to present an appearance of sameness and tastelessness. It is no uncommon thing, for instance, to see a brougham painted dark green, striped with black lines, and lined with dark green cloth and morocco, with plain laces to correspond. This to us appears to be only one degree removed from a mourning coach, and it will be a great pity if such a taste prevails. On the other hand, violent contrasts outrage all principles of good taste. Morocco and cloth, or silk and cloth, of the same colour as the paint may be used for the linings, but, as the painting should be relieved by lines that harmonise with it, so should the linings be relieved by the laces and tufts, which are intended to give life and character to it.

Landau Back, Quarter, and Fall.

Fig. 50.

The back is made with one full row of squares, and two rows of buttons at the bottom, besides the finishing squares (see [Fig. 50]), then the swell of the back is carried up to within 4 inches of the upper edge, 1⅛ inches being allowed for the swell. Then the top of the back is finished with a large roll, of about 5 inches swell or girth, so that the back has only one row of buttons in the upper sweep.

Fig. 51.

The arm-pieces, [Fig. 51], are made in a peculiar way, and the modus operandi is rather difficult of explanation. In the place of the usual arm-piece block, a piece of plank, 2¾ inches wide by ½ inch thick, is fitted in with the usual sweep to it. Now fit four pieces of single fly buckram, to form as it were a funnel, the shape of the arm-piece desired; then sew seaming lace to the two edges of the funnel, which will show inside of the body; to the lower edge sew a piece of cloth in smooth, so that it will cover the bottom of the funnel or cylinder. To the same lace edge, blind sew in a piece of cloth, for the purpose of forming a wrinkled roll on the inner face of the funnel, wrinkled 1 inch in fulness for every 3 inches in length, and as full the other way as desired, for it ought to be full enough to come out with the bottom side quarter. Next, blind sew the outer edge of this roll to the other or top seaming lace, and stuff lightly with hair, thus forming one roll on the inner face, and having the lower face covered with the smooth cloth.

Now blind sew another piece of cloth to the top lace, as in the other case, to form another wrinkled roll on top of the funnel or cylinder, but the outer edge of this roll is to be finished by nailing to the outside of the piece of plank just mentioned. All this sewing is of course to be done on the bench, one side of the funnel to be left open for this purpose. Next, nail in the bottom side quarter made up in squares, and then nail the side of the funnel, which is fitted against the arm-board, to the board and over the quarter, thus finishing the lower part. Then nail the fourth on top side to the top edge of arm-board; next, stuff from the front the funnel, pretty solid, and finish the top roll, which up to now has been left open, into the outside of the arm-board, thus completing the arm-piece, which shows two wrinkled rolls divided by two rows of seaming lace.

Fig. 52.

The door fall, [Fig. 52], is made on three fly buckram pasted together, but one fly is cut off about an inch from the top to allow the fall to hinge. The fall is made about 12 inches deep, the lower edge being circular. The broad lace is bent to the required shape, and the corners sewed and put on to the buckram, which is cut to the shape intended for the fall. Mark where the inside edge of the lace comes all round the buckram, then mark 1¼ inches from the mark; paste a piece of carpet into the buckram to come within ½ inch from this mark, which will make the edge of the carpet 1⅜ inches from the edge of the lace; cover this carpet with a piece of cloth, pasting on the buckram; take a piece of seaming lace, long enough to reach round the fall, and sew a piece of cloth to it, for the purpose of forming a wrinkled roll round three sides of the fall, inside the broad lace and outside the sewed carpet, between both, with 1 inch fulness to each 3 inches of length; sew this seaming lace and roll to the buckram at the mark, 1¼ inches from the broad lace, gather the other edge with a running string, and sew down and stuff lightly, finishing in such a manner that the broad lace shall cover this sewed edge; next, paste on the broad lace and cover the wrong side with silk or muslin. When dry, stitch both edges.

Fig. 53. Fig. 54.

[Figs. 53 and 54] show two styles of trimming for a door. [Fig. 53] is made as follows:—Paste out three flies of buckram, and lay off for block or biscuit pattern, leaving space enough all round for a broad lace border, and at the top leave double the space. The top space is formed into a plain cloth roll of the same goods as the job is trimmed with.

In this case the trimming is brown cloth; the broad lace is silk and worsted of a shade much lighter than the cloth. The diamond-shaped and connecting figures are worsted and are raised.

The card-pocket is made of tin and covered with Turkey morocco the colour of the trimming.

In [Fig. 54] it will be noticed that the style is somewhat different from the other; the surface of the door is trimmed plain, the fall alone being stuffed. The fall is stuffed in diamond form and enclosed with a lace border. This pocket runs up under the fall to the top, and is there nailed.

The following remarks on lining and trimming are taken from “Cassell’s Technical Educator:”—

“We may with advantage say a word to our carriage lace-makers, who seem to have made but scant use of the various Schools of Design for the improvement of their taste in producing new and suitable patterns in the manufacture of their goods. For a long period we had nothing but the old scroll or flower pattern, which was handed down from father to son as if by a fixed law. At length, when it was felt that some change was required, the absence of all taste in design was shown in the production of entirely plain worked laces, which deprived carriage linings of their chief element of lightness and beauty. Thanks, however, to the taste and discernment of Messrs. Whittingham & Walker, who, perhaps, have devoted more attention to this branch of industry than any other house in London, the trade was relieved from the necessity of either adhering to the old pattern or of adopting the opposite scheme. They introduced small neat designs in laces eminently adapted to the purpose, and in 1857 they registered a pattern, now extensively known as the double diamond pattern, which has not only become general in England, but is largely patronised throughout Europe and America. This, and kindred patterns, exactly fulfil modern requirements, and give us the necessary relief without extreme.

“But with materials well and tastefully selected the trimmer has still his work to do. The lining of a carriage is divided into many different parts, all of which have to be designed. Canvas or paper patterns have to be cut to these, and properly fitted before the material is touched with which the carriage is to be lined. Wherever superiority of workmanship is to be shown in this department, the French method of trimming is adopted as being more elegant than the English. We shall therefore confine our observations to this method.

“In adopting the French method silk is mostly used in the place of morocco, and its peculiarities consist in the manner of quilting. The different squabs are made up in horizontal pipes or flutes, which are tufted in different ways. To proceed, cut a pattern in strong paper the size and shape of the space to be trimmed, and draw on it with a pencil the pipes, also mark the position of the tufts. On large pieces only mark one-half, the other half being the same. The pipes of the back are usually 12 inches high and from 3 to 5 inches wide.

“The position of the tufts is considerably varied. Next stretch a piece of strong muslin in the stretching frame, lay the paper pattern on it, and mark the position of the tufts with an awl. Mark the lines of the pipes on the muslin with red chalk or pencil. In the same manner the pattern must be transferred upon the inside of the material used for covering, making of course due allowance for the depth of the pipes; about 3 inches is a fair average for fulness at the top, 1 inch for the height of the pipes, and 1½ inches for the width. For the last pipe an extra allowance is made in a narrow strip sewed on to it.

“Next lay a quantity of hair on the frame and form it the swell desired. Keep the hair in position with a few long stitches, and lay the silk over it. Commence tufting in the middle of the lower row of pipes, and continue equally to both sides. Silk cords stretched into the channels between the pipes were at one time considered elegant, but their main merit was that they aided materially in preserving the original shape of the pipes. Backs are usually made couch-shaped, with a roll all round on the top, which at the same time form the elbow-pieces on the sides. In elegant carriages this roll is often elaborately executed in a helical or screw-like shape, and continued from the door-pillar down to the seat-frame, being made by winding silk cords around the roll. These silk cords appear as a single thread, but in reality there are three different cords which are wound at even distances. A style of trimming much used of late both in France and Germany for low backs, is a row of pipes at the lower end, which are pinched to points at the top, and above these are three rows of regular squares. Squares are preferred to diamonds as they are softer.

“Usually the back is laid on spiral springs, which are fastened as follows:—The back of the body is covered with coarse muslin, after being slightly stuffed, and on this muslin four rows of seven small springs each are set. For the lowest row, springs a little stronger may be used than for the other rows. The highest row is set about 1½ inches below the edge of the back-board, and the lowest row at 6 inches above the seat-frame. The springs having been sewn on with a bent needle, are tied first from right to left and then from top to bottom. A thin cord will answer for this purpose.

“The cord is first cut in lengths, and when the tying begins about 6 inches are allowed at the ends. The cord is wound about the third ring of the first and last spring in each row, and afterwards the first ring is brought into the right position with the piece of cord allowed over. This will make the spring stand upright, and it can be raised or lowered on one side. The springs being thus all placed in position, they are finally tied crossways.

“The squab, in this instance, is worked in coarse muslin or canvas, stiffened with a little thin paste. It is set in the frame and marked as we have described above. When the cushions press against the back and side pieces, frequently no stuffing is made, but simply a piece of fine linen is sewed reverse to the main piece, and this is called the ‘false finish.’ In fine work the stuffing extends clear to the seat-frame.

“Of course each of these variations requires a different calculation for the muslin at the back as well as for the cover. For the latter an allowance of 1½ inches is made for the pipes from the lower to the upper end, and also for the points an addition of ¾ inch. For each square in the height 1½ inch has to be calculated. The folds of squares when laid over springs being diagonal, easily draw apart when stretched out, while the folds of diamonds running up and down may be drawn tighter to a certain degree of stretching.

“For the upper row of squares we have to allow for the backs at least double what we have to allow for the other rows—namely, 3 inches. For the width of every pipe an addition of 1½ inches is calculated.

“Both cover and muslin being thus marked, we commence to draw in the tufts. Every point marked on the cover has to lie exactly on the corresponding one of the muslin. The lowest tufts are first drawn in; then turn the frame and commence on one side at top, every point of the pipes being singly stuffed and the folds adjusted. This being done, every fold of the squares can be tufted right through, stuffed, and folded. Squares are easier to be worked than diamonds, but pointed pipes give more trouble than the ordinary straight ones.

Fig. 55.—Double Brougham.

“The elbow-pieces of this finish consist of two rolls made of muslin; they are thinner towards the front of the seats. After being stuffed, a piece of muslin 8 inches wide is sewed on all the length to the bottom of the roll, which serves, after the roll is tacked to the door-pillar and back, to give it the required sweep in stretching and tacking it to the sides of the body. Then mark on the roll the width of the pipes, and cut the cover for it, allowing 1 inch of width; and as to the height, the cover must go all round, the roll having to be sewed back and front to the linen with which the roll is tacked to the body.

“After we have put in all the lining, we have to adjust the silk curtains, the blinds and glasses to doors and front part, to cover the iron dash-frame with the best patent leather, trim the coach-box seat, put on all the mouldings and bearings to the body, arrange the position of the lamps and fix them, and generally attend to all those little finishing points which give the appearance of neatness and finish to the whole.”

[Fig. 55] shows a double brougham with a circular front.

CHAPTER XIV.
GENERAL REMARKS ON THE COACH-BUILDING TRADE.

It is pleasing to be able to refer to the increased skill and ingenuity of the coach workmen, especially among the rising generation of operatives. This fact was elicited by the recent exhibition of coaches, &c. Not only were there shown several excellent working drawings of carriages—drawn to scale and difficult of execution, and showing that there are forthcoming more highly educated and more competent men well acquainted with the details of their crafts, and of the proper and scientific manner of setting out their work, now that frequent change of construction renders this knowledge so desirable—but there were also shown many clever models of proposed improvements, the work of the ordinary carriage artisans, showing that their originators were men of thought and energy. And no doubt if more prizes were offered, and these exhibitions more frequent, greater competition would be aroused, which would be the means of bringing out a great deal of talent which at present lies dormant for want of some inducement to call it forth.

The art of the coachmaker being an intricate one, inasmuch as he has to combine in one harmonious whole a number of most varied products—wood, iron, steel, brass, paint, silver, cloth, leather, silk, ivory, hair, carpet, glass, &c., each worked by a separate trade, but generally in one manufactory, and each of which may be spoilt or injured by careless or improper treatment in any process—it behoves all engaged in the production of carriages to work in harmony, that their united labours may approach perfection. It would add much to this desirable end if in each manufactory, large or small, were issued a series of printed “general directions” for conducting the work; not rigid rules that would, if strictly enforced, reduce men to mere machines instead of free and intelligent operatives, but such as would so guide each worker in the execution of his work as not only to give satisfaction to his employer by its excellent and honest execution, but bring equal credit and satisfaction to himself. This state of feeling would be a very desirable one to bring about; it would be the means of bringing about mutual respect between employer and employed, and lead the way to a more cordial appreciation of each other’s wants and difficulties; at the same time it would lessen the incessant watchfulness and anxiety necessary to insure the work being executed in such a manner that it may be depended upon for accuracy and excellence when completed.

It is not so generally known as it should be, that in France, Belgium, Germany, and some other European States, the training of workmen and apprentices receives a great deal of attention, the Governments in these countries considering money and trouble bestowed on such objects to be of national importance. Technical schools in these countries furnish instruction in drawing, modelling, the harmonious arrangement of colours, the application of chemistry to manufactures, metallurgy, and the proper working of metals, the principles and applications of mathematics and mechanics to manufactures, together with much that is strictly technical. In some parts of Germany, before an employer of labour can commence business on his own account, he must prove to competent persons, by the execution of some trial work, that he understands what he undertakes; and, moreover, that he has travelled for three years in foreign countries, working at his trade, to acquire a knowledge of its processes in other countries besides his own. There is doubtless much pedantry in many of the regulations that interfere with the free exercise of trade, but culling the best points of the system there is much good that results. The training of apprentices in most trades in England is very unsatisfactory, and were public attention directed to the matter, after discussing the subject in its different bearings, there might be some good general recommendations circulated relating to the subject.

The carriages of America are so different from our own and from those of Europe, that they require special attention. It is quite possible that in the future their style may greatly influence carriages in all parts. The first noticeable trait in them is lightness, and English coach-builders generally agree that they carry this lightness too far, more especially in their larger carriages. We are supported in this view by the fact, that for some years, these—such as landaus, broughams, and coaches—have been materially modified by European types. The Americans have adopted some of the shapes of Europe, and the European mode of constructing the under-carriages, retaining their own method of making the pole and splinters, as giving greater freedom to the horses.

This principle of allowing the horses greater freedom for action is well worthy of the attention of coach-builders. The manner in which our horses are confined by tight, heavy strapping and traces, by tight pole chains, by bearing reins, and the indiscriminate use of blinkers to the bridles, has been much overdone in England. If a horse with a heavy load and driven fast over slippery roads should stumble, it is most difficult for him to recover himself. He generally falls, and is pushed along by the impetus of the carriage, and is more or less injured in his limbs or nerves by the accident, while it is a matter of great difficulty, if not impossibility, for him to rise again till the harness be unstrapped and the carriage is removed from above him. Our horses are also harnessed too closely to their work in two-wheeled carriages. We have thought only of the ease of turning and moving the vehicle in crowded or narrow ways, without observing the advantage of long shafts over short shafts. If the shafts are considered as levers, by which the horse supports and moves the weight behind him in a two-wheeled cart, it will at once be obvious that although (whilst those levers are parallel with the road) it does not so much signify whether they are long or short, yet the moment they cease to be parallel with the road, when they point upwards, or more particularly when they point downwards, the difference between long and short levers is severely felt by the horse. We can all of us lift a weight or support a weight more easily with a long lever than with a short one, and it is the same with a horse.

Those who have travelled abroad must have noticed the great weights placed upon two-wheeled carts in France and Belgium, and the greater comparative distance the horse is placed from the wheels, and yet he carries his load easily enough, because he does not feel its weight upon his back. Many English drivers seem to have observed this, and try and ease the horse and lessen his chance of stumbling by tipping the shafts up in front; but in this way the horse is made to feel a pressure on the under part of his body, which certainly will not improve his health. It is very probable that in future years public opinion will be in favour of longer shafts and poles. This will also tend to preserve good carriages from the damages they at present suffer from the heat of the horses and the quantity of mud which is thrown by their heels upon the front of the vehicle. The reins will of course have to be longer, but this cannot be of much consequence; the driver of a brougham is farther from the horse than the driver of a mail phaeton, but it is not by any means true that the brougham is any more difficult to drive than the phaeton on that account.

There is another fashion prevalent in this country which is certainly a fallacy, viz. the supposed necessity for the driver to sit nearly upright, which necessitates a deep boot and a clumsy, thick coachman’s cushion. In America, Russia, and parts of Germany, the driver sits low, but places his foot against a bar in front of the footboard; this in their carriages is longer than in ours. Four horses can be driven very well and easily in a low landau, and very powerful-pulling and fast-trotting horses held in with apparent ease. Our coachmen are often in danger of being pulled over by their horses, and certainly when an accident happens in a collision they are easily thrown from the boxes. They do not have the purchase and security that the Russian drivers seem to possess.

One of the greatest novelties introduced by the Americans into the United States is the “buggy,” a name first given in England a hundred years ago to a light two-wheeled cart, carrying one person only, and which we now call a “sulky.”

The Americans have lavished all their ingenuity upon these buggies, and they have arrived at a marvellous perfection of lightness. They are hung upon two elliptical springs. The axles and carriage timber have been reduced to mere thin sticks. The four wheels are made so slender as to resemble a spider’s web. Instead of the circumference of the wheel being composed of a number of felloes, they consist of only two of oak or hickory wood, bent to the shape by steam. The ironwork is very slender and yet composed of many pieces, and in order to reduce the cost these pieces are mostly cast, not forged, of a sort of iron less brittle than our cast iron. The bodies are of light work like what we call cabinet work. The weight of the whole vehicle is so small that one man can easily lift it upon its wheels again if it should be accidentally upset, and two persons of ordinary strength can raise it easily from the ground. The four wheels are of nearly the same height, and the body is suspended centrally between them. There are no futchells; the pole or shafts are attached to the front axletree bed, and the front of the pole is carried by the horses in just the same way that they carry the shafts. The splinter-bar and whipple-trees are attracted to the pole on swivels. Some are made with hoods and some without. The hoods are made so that the leather of the sides can be taken off and rolled up, and the back leather rolled, removed, or fixed at the bottom, a few inches away from the back, the roof remaining as a sun-shade. The leather-work is very thin and of beautifully supple enamelled leather.

The perfection to which this vehicle has been carried is certainly wonderful; and every part that is weak or likely to give way is carefully strengthened. If well made they last a long time without repair. The whole is so slender that it “gives” and recovers at any obstacle. The defect in these carriages in English eyes consists of the difficulty of getting in or out, by reason of the height of the front wheel and its proximity to the hind wheel. It is often necessary to partly lock round the wheel to allow of easy entrance. There is also a tremulous motion on a hard road that is not always agreeable. It is not surprising, however, that with the great advantages of extreme lightness, ease, and durability, and with lofty wheels, these vehicles travel with facility over very rough roads, as there is a great demand for them in our colonies. It must be remembered that the price is small, much less than the price of our gigs and four-wheeled dog-carts. This cheapness is attained by making large numbers to the same pattern, by the use of cast iron clips, couplings, and stays, and by using machinery in sawing, shaping, grooving, and mortising the timbers, and by the educated dexterity of the American workman, always ready to adopt any improvement. An educated man will make a nimble workman, just as an educated man learns his drill from the military instructor more quickly than a clown; and an educated man finds out the value of machinery and desires to use and improve it. Instead of fearing its rivalry he welcomes it; he remembers that all tools, even the saw and the hammer, are machines, and that the hand that guides these tools is but a perfect machine obeying the guidance of the brain more quickly and in a more varied manner than any man-made machine. The American workman, therefore, uses machines more and more.

In England machinery for wood shaping is used at Derby, Newcastle, Nottingham, Worcester, and other towns, and in Paris some very good machinery is at work in coach factories. In London it is chiefly confined to patent wheel factories, a few steam-driven saws, patent mills worked by hand, and drilling and punching machines. But until the use of machinery is more generally adopted in London, it is probable that the trade of building carriages for export will drift more and more to the provinces and the continent. The saving effected by machinery in cab and omnibus building would be great, because the patterns vary so little, and all the other parts of a carriage would correspond with another, and counter-change when repairs were needed.

The coach-builders of the future will look to steam and hand machinery as their great assistance in cheapening the cost of first-rate carriages, in multiplying them for the probable increased demand, and also to build carriages more speedily. It now takes from two to three months to build a brougham, of which at least five weeks are consumed simply in the wood and ironwork, a period which by the use of machinery might easily be shortened.

There has been much controversy about difference in the length of the front and hind axletree. It has been usual to make no greater difference than will allow the higher wheel to follow in the same track as the lower wheel. In France, however, it has been the practice since the year 1846 to make the front axletree of broughams 6 inches shorter than the hind ones. The object has been to allow the front wheel to be placed nearer to the body. As the front wheel of a brougham must turn entirely in front of the body, the additional gain of 3 inches was very desirable. Some English coach-builders have followed the example of the French. There is a decided gain. The eye is pleased with the proportions, the horse is eased, and upon hard roads the difference of track is of no consequence. On the other hand, in the country roads, the well-worn ruts make the running of the carriage uneasy, whilst in town the driver often forgets that the curbstones will strike his hind wheels sooner than his front ones, and also more mud is thrown upon the panels. Under these circumstances it is very probable that the French plan will not find universal favour.

If carriages had always to move along perfectly smooth roads such as a tramway of wood, stone, or iron, the use of wheels in overcoming friction would be their sole utility, and their height would be of small consequence. But as carriages are drawn along roads with loose stones and uneven surfaces, wheels are further useful in mounting these obstacles, and it is plain that a high wheel does this more easily than a low wheel. To demonstrate this, let us suppose a shallow ditch or gulley of a foot wide and 2 inches deep, a wheel 2 feet high would sink into this and touch the bottom, but a wheel 3 feet high would only sink an inch, and a wheel 4 feet 6 inches high would only sink half an inch (the wheels are supposed to cross the above-mentioned gulley at right angles), on account of their greater diameters. Consequently, while the large wheel would have to be lifted by a force sufficient to raise it half an inch, a force will have to be applied to the smaller wheel to raise it 2 inches, and under more disadvantageous circumstances, because the spokes are in this case the levers, and we know that the longer the lever the more easily is the load raised.

That the leverage power of a high wheel is very great is shown by the advantages gained by a large wheel in locomotives and bicycles.

There is an idea deeply rooted among coach-builders and coach-buyers too, that the draught of a vehicle is diminished by placing the front part of the carriage as far back as possible. Intelligent men who have given the subject great attention, and tested the actual working of this idea, say that it is a fallacy; but other intelligent men, who also say they have tested its working, say that it would effect a great saving in the draught if it were successfully accomplished. The general idea amongst practical men is, that it would not be an advantage. We have already seen that the draught of a vehicle with large wheels is less than that of a vehicle with small wheels. If, therefore, a load has to be placed on a four-wheeled vehicle, it should be so placed in relation to the front and hind wheels that the greater part of the weight should rest on the higher wheels. To obtain this result, it is sufficient to bring the hind-carriage part as far under the body as it will work with comfort and safety, in order that as little weight as possible rests on the fore-carriage part. English coachmakers have been working at this for thirty years, but for the most part blindly; they have copied well known builders in construction as well as shape; they hear that these well known firms’ carriages run and follow very lightly, and if they could copy accurately they would obtain the same reputation.

But while there is some doubt as to throwing the front wheels backward for the purpose of lessening the draught, Mr. Offord of Wells Street, Oxford Street, has been exercising his ingenuity for the purpose of throwing the back wheels further forward, and has produced a brougham that offers peculiar advantages in this respect ([Fig. 56]). The hind wheel appears to be placed right across the door, but the facilities for ingress and egress are quite equal to those given in the ordinary brougham. This novel contrivance presents nothing singular in appearance, while a very little reflection will satisfy the practical thinker that the advantage sought after, of lessening the draught of the carriage, must be obtained far more completely with this arrangement than by throwing the front wheel backward.

Fig. 56.—Single Brougham.

The rattling so constantly complained of in carriages can in a great degree be obviated by placing pieces of india-rubber so that the doors shall press upon them when closed; it is a good thing also to have india-rubber at the bottom of the doors for the windows to drop upon when let down.

The difficulty of protecting carriages from the dirt has recently been met by placing what is called a “mud scraper” just at the back of the hind wheels. It is formed of a piece of india-rubber about 3 inches square and a ¼ inch thick, held in position by a short iron rod attached to the end of the hind spring.

The elaborate dress carriages, hung with braces upon a C and under-spring perch carriage, require so much skill and practice in their manufacture that it is impossible to give ample directions for their construction in a work like this. Some years ago it was thought that no carriage could be made comfortable unless it was hung upon the old-fashioned perch carriage with braces; but it was found that by the introduction of india-rubber, especially in the ends of each spring, that what are termed elliptic spring carriages (which are of course much lighter in draught and less in cost) can be made extremely pleasant in motion.

[Fig. 57] shows an iron-framed or “skeleton boot” for a landau. It is extremely light and strong.

Fig. 57.

It is desirable to direct attention to the proper horsing of carriages, that the owners of carriages and horses may so adapt their plans as to get the most satisfactory result from their arrangements. Not unfrequently a carriage is ordered for one horse only; when it is partly made, or perhaps finished, fittings are ordered for two horses; and it sometimes happens that the two horses put to the light one-horse carriage are coach-horses, between sixteen and seventeen hands in height. Such horses, though well adapted to a family carriage, are quite out of their place attached to a light one. Although they can draw it at a good pace, and over almost any obstacle in the road, and do their journey without fatigue, the carriage suffers sooner or later. The lounging of such horses against a light pole, the strain thrown on the pole in case of a horse tripping, the certain breakage that must occur in case of a fall, and the risk of overturning the carriage, should all be considered before putting a very light carriage behind very large horses. It also sometimes happens that miniature broughams and other very small carriages, built as light and as slight as safety will allow, are afterwards used with a pair of horses. In such cases, if accidents do not occur through the great strain of a long pole acting as a lever on very light mechanism, the parts become strained, do not work as they were intended to do, and necessitate constant repair from not being adapted to the work put upon them. Carriage owners should, in their own interest, have their carriages and horses suited to what they ought and can undergo, bearing in mind that there are advantages and disadvantages both with heavy and light carriages. The former are easier and more comfortable to ride in; they are safer for horses, drivers, and riders; and the necessary repairs are less frequently required. The lighter carriages follow the horses more easily, and can therefore do a longer day’s journey; and, although the necessary repairs may come more frequently, the saving of the horses may be an advantage that many persons will consider of the utmost importance. Such light carriages should, however, be made of the choicest materials and workmanship, that they may do the work required of them.

A feature in the financial department of coach-making must not be overlooked, as it has much influence on an important trade. In former times a large proportion of the carriages were built to order for the owners; the reverse is now the case; most persons select a finished carriage which pleases their taste, or an advanced one, and get it completed their favourite colour. This, of course, necessitates the employment of a larger capital to meet the altered state of trade, which now requires so large a stock of carriages to be kept ready for use.

The excessive competition of recent years has so reduced the profit on each carriage, that in order to carry on his business without loss, the builder has to require a prompt payment from his customer instead of giving a long credit.

The modern system enables the coach-builder to make his purchases for ready money, and so buy not only better in quality but at a less cost than for extended credit, in order that he might in his turn give long credit to his customers, so that he is now obliged to depend on small profits and quick returns by turning over his capital more rapidly. He is not now, as much as in former times, the agent of the persons who supply the materials that he and his workmen convert into a carriage, but rather the designer, capitalist, and director of those who seek his service or custom, whether to supply labour or materials.

From the Government returns we find that carriages of all sorts have increased from 60,000, in 1814, to 432,600 in 1874—a benefit to the general population, it is clear, as well as to the workmen. In 1874, 125,000 carriages paid the Government duty.

The valuable library and fine series of photographs of state and other carriages of the Coach and Coach Harness Makers’ Company are open to coach artisans every Saturday afternoon. Tickets of admission may be obtained at the principal coach-builders in London.

In Calcutta there are several coach-builders of good reputation, and who employ large numbers of native workmen. Messrs. Dyke employ 600 hands; Messrs. Stewart and Co., 400; and Messrs. Eastman, 300. The men are chiefly Hindoos, and are clever and industrious, but have a singular habit of sitting down to their work. Owing to the prejudices of the people in regard to the use of animal fat, the labourers who have to use grease are chiefly Mahommedans. The wages in the trade vary from sixpence to two shillings per day.

“In Hindostan” (says Mr. Thrupp) “there are a large number of vehicles of native build. It has been frequently remarked that there is little change in Eastern fashions, that tools and workmen are precisely as they were a thousand years ago, and the work they produce is precisely the same. In examining, therefore, what is now done by Indian coach-builders, we are probably noticing carriages of a similar, if not identical, sort with those in use three thousand years ago. The commonest cart in Hindostan is called ‘hackery’ by Europeans; it is on two wheels, with a high axletree bed and a long platform, frequently made of two bamboos which join in front and form the pole, to which two oxen are yoked; the whole length is united by smaller pieces of bamboo, tied together, not nailed. In France two hundred years ago there was a similar cart, but the main beams terminated in front in shafts; in neither the cart of India nor of France were there any sides or ends. The French cart is called haquet, and it is probable that the French, who were in India as well as ourselves, may have given the term hackery to the native cart which was so like their own. The native name, however, is gharry. Other carts have sides made by stakes driven into the side beams; the wheels are sometimes of solid wood or even of stone. Wheels are also made by a plank with rounded ends and two felloes fitted on to complete the circle. Again wheels are made like ours, and also with six or eight spokes, which are placed in pairs, each pair close to and parallel with one another. If a carriage for the rich is required the underworks are like those of a cart, but the pole is carefully padded and ornamented with handsome cloths or velvet; the sides of the body are railed or carved, and the top is of a very ornamental character, similar to the howdah of state that is placed on an elephant. It has a domed roof supported upon four pillars, with curtains to the back and sides. The passengers ride cross-legged under the dome on pillows. The driver sits on the pole, which is broad at the butt end, and he is screened from the heat by a cloth which is fastened to the dome roof, and supported upon two stakes which point outwards from the body. A variety of different shaped native vehicles may be seen in elaborate models in the Indian Museum at South Kensington, although they do not show much originality of design or beauty of execution, and are said to be really creaking and lumbering affairs. When the Hindoos wish for a four-wheeled vehicle, the plan appears to be to hook on one two-wheeled carriage behind another, connecting them with a perch bolt, and on the hindermost they place the body. There is a singular addition to their vehicles outside the wheels; a piece of wood curved to the shape of the wheels is placed above it, frequently supported by two straight uprights from the end of the axletree outside the wheel. This acts as a wing or guard to keep any one from falling out of the vehicle, and also the dress of the passengers from becoming entangled in the wheel. In addition, a long bar of wood, rather longer than the diameter of the wheel, curved to the shape, called ‘Cupid’s bow,’ is fastened to the axletree, the linch-pin being outside of it, and the ends of the bar tied to the ends of the wing by cords. I imagine it to be placed in order to be a safeguard for the people in crowded streets, who might be pushed by the throng against the wheel. It will be seen in many of the models, and also in ancient drawings of Indian and Persian vehicles. Many of the carts which are designed to carry heavy loads have a curved rest from 20 to 30 inches long attached to the lower side of the front end of the pole; this serves not only as a prop while the vehicle is being loaded, but should the oxen trip and fall it supports the cart and prevents the load, yoke, and harness from weighing down the poor animals, as they struggle to recover themselves. In England we have very few of these humane contrivances; we have, however, short rests to prop up a hansom cab when not at work. In India there are several huge unwieldy structures on wheels called ‘idol cars;’ the name of the car of Juggernaut must be familiar to many. The wheels of some of these are of enormous blocks of stone, shaped and drilled for the work. In the Indian Museum is a photograph of an idol car from South India, in the district of Chamoondee and the province of Mysore, which deserves examination. The car appears well proportioned, and the ornamental carvings are beautiful in design and would bear comparison with most European work.

“The hecca, or heka, is a one-horse native car, resembling an Irish car. It consists of a tray for the body fixed above the wheels on the shafts, and has a canopy roof; the driver sits on the front edge of the tray, and the passenger cross-legged behind him. The shampony is the usual vehicle for women, which resembles the former, but it is larger; the wheels are outside the body, and it is drawn by two bullocks; the canopy roof is furnished with curtains that are drawn all round, and the driver sits on the pole in front of the body. All these native vehicles have wooden axles, which until recently, I am told, were used without grease, from the prejudices of the people forbidding them to use animal fat. Some used olive oil or soap, but in most large towns there are now regulations obliging the natives to use some substance to avoid the noise and creaking of the dry axles. The commonest carriages in Central India are called ‘tongas,’ but the universal native word for a vehicle is ‘gharry.’”

In 1860 a carriage was made for one of the ladies of the Sultan of Turkey’s harem. It was built, I believe, from a design by the late Owen Jones—a great authority upon Oriental art—and cost £15,000 of English money—a very expensive present for the Commander of the Faithful to make to one out of many wives.

The following is given in an American trade periodical, under the heading of “Are they Competent Judges?”—

“Carriage-makers who seldom if ever take the lines into their hands and ride out in carriages of their own manufacture, are they competent judges of the merits or the demerits of the vehicles which they with confidence recommend to others? We think not. It is one thing to oversee and pay well for the building of a fine buggy or any other kind of vehicle, and quite another to experience the sensations produced by putting them into actual wear. A buggy may be handsome in general appearance and composed of the best material, yet defective in ease of motion and comfort to the occupants. The set of the axle may cause the vehicle to run heavy, and communicate to the rider an unpleasant jarring motion, and at the same time add unnecessary labour to the horse. The springs may be too stiff for their length, and fail to vibrate sufficiently under the greatest weight they may be called upon to sustain. The seat may be too low, the back placed in such a position or so trimmed as to be a continual source of uneasiness, and the foot-room be cramped. These and other defects may exist while the carriage-maker who seldom rides out remains in total ignorance of them, in so far as his own personal experience extends. Now an individual having purchased a buggy of such a one, might drive up to his door and inform him that this or that defect existed and needed to be remedied, and fail to convince the maker that such was the case. He would probably plead the skill of his workman, the care with which every buggy was carried forward to completion, and thus fortify himself in his own opinions, through gross ignorance of what constituted comfort while seated in a vehicle carried along over roads of different degrees of smoothness.

“The tendency of such a course is toward a standstill point in the way of needed improvement, and must certainly work adversely to the carriage-makers’ interests. So far as our observation extends, we are well satisfied that the builder who adopts an opposite course is by far the most successful. Becoming sensible of defects by personal experience, he is keenly sensitive and anxious to remove any cause of complaint brought to his notice by others. With such a one the customer feels that he is dealing with a manufacturer alive to his convenience and comfort, and will not be apt to go elsewhere to purchase, although he may have had occasion to point out several weak points.”

“The truly progressive carriage-maker tests his own work by frequently taking airing and criticisms of those who ride a great deal and are competent to speak on such points, and to any little defects that may be shown he gives the most careful examination and attention. No matter who may suggest a new idea of value, he puts it away as so much gained. He gathers here a little and there a little, which, in the aggregate, when applied as little things, amount to something so important as to give to his work an indescribable something which marks it as superior, and in short gives it a distinctive character.”

It is too often the case that we look upon success in business as that condition only in which a man has secured to himself sufficient income to retire and lead a life of comparative ease and pleasure. While we would say nothing against an individual choosing to retire from active pursuits and enjoy the fruits of his labour, nevertheless the example thus set has a tendency to create in others a desire to speedily arrive at such a position careless of the means used to attain the end, and bringing into the business other elements than industry and the other good qualities necessary for the safe conduct of business, viz. grasping avarice, cunning deceit, and at times heartlessness, or, in fact, any legal means by which they can follow the American’s advice to his son: “Get money, honestly if you can, but get money.” These mean, sordid feelings of course react upon the employés, and they feel them in the shape of reduced wages and having the greatest amount of work literally ground out of them.

We hear occasionally of a man who, by a bold speculation, has “made a fortune” in a few months, but the majority of business men are not gifted with that keen foresight and courage which are so essential to the speculator, and must therefore be content with small gains, accumulating slowly year by year.

It is well that it is so, for the cares and disappointments attendant on the conducting of any business keep down pride of heart, and secure to society a majority of that class of men who can sympathise with the unfortunate and down-trodden, and who give more liberally to the rearing of those institutions which benefit and improve the masses.

Success depends in a great measure on the knowledge of the business engaged in, the proper application of industry to the materials required, frugality, promptness in meeting engagements, and good moral character.

In no occupation are the above qualities more essential than that of the manufacture of carriages, yet how few out of the whole number who claim to be carriage-makers have a good general knowledge of the business. Four distinct branches have to be looked after—woodwork, blacksmithing, painting, and trimming. The materials used by the respective branches are entirely dissimilar and costly, and require the utmost vigilance on the part of the proprietor to see that there is no unnecessary waste.

We shall close this chapter with the following remarks on “Taste” from W. Bridges Adams’s valuable book on “English Pleasure Carriages:”—

“There is a notion prevalent amongst uninstructed people that the quality called taste is a peculiar gift which an individual is endowed with at birth, and which cannot be acquired by any amount of application. Some portion of this belief is founded on reason, inasmuch as the physical faculties of some individuals at their birth are more perfect than those of others. Some are born with weak and some with strong eyes, and the same difference may exist in the perceptive faculties generally, on which faculties the quality of taste must depend. But even as weak eyes may be strengthened by judicious treatment, and strong eyes may be weakened by injudicious treatment, so inferior perceptive faculties may be improved by cultivation, and those which might have been first-rate may disappear by neglect. Even in those nations where the germs of taste are developed in but few individuals, where the mass of the community cannot discover beauty for themselves, they are yet susceptible of its influence when it is placed before them by others.

“Taste may be considered as another word for truth or proportion, both morally and physically. Much false taste exists in the community, and always has existed, but the total amount is continually lessening. The reason of the false taste is the imitative nature of man, which in an uncultivated state follows without examining. But even as it is the nature of water to attain a state of rest after violent oscillation, so it is the tendency of truth and proportion to grow out of the chaos of either thought or matter.

“Carriages constructed for the purposes of pleasure are works of art, in which taste may be widely developed in form, colour, and proportion, but the former is of course subservient to the mechanical construction. The hitherto defective mechanism of carriages, in which ‘a large wheel is made to follow a small one,’ has to a great extent destroyed proportion, and given a general license to all kinds of heterogeneous devices and barbarous ornaments, as if to overlay defects which there were no apparent means of obviating. Custom has reconciled the public to this discrepancy, which, were it now to appear for the first time, would excite universal distaste and ridicule.

“In an ordinary coach the side form of the body is composed of elliptic lines, from which the supporting iron brackets or loops are continued into reversed curves. This contrivance keeps the centre of gravity low. The four C springs from which the body is suspended are each, or ought to be, two-thirds of a circle, with a tangent to it to form a base or support. The perch beneath the body, which connects together the framework supporting the spring, is curved into a serpentine line corresponding to the bottom of the body and the loops; and thus an agreeable form is preserved. But the double framework in front and the unequal wheels entirely discompose the whole effect, and from an art point of view it is extremely disproportioned, and consequently unsightly.

“Now the manufacturer possessing taste steps in, and by lightening the heavy parts by beading, carving, &c., fine lines of colour, and the arrangement of the hammercloth, redeems the vehicle from positive ugliness, and produces a work of art by the harmony of the various curves as a whole, though to produce this harmony there are no well-ascertained rules. Therefore it is that the builder who possesses taste produces combinations pleasing to the eye, and he who is without taste produces unsightly works, which he is necessarily obliged to sell at a low rate of profit as mere articles of convenience, not of refinement. And even as articles of convenience they are imperfect, inasmuch as the harmony of form arises from the due proportion of parts to each other, and that very proportion produces a greater amount of convenience. The size and weight of a carriage ought to be proportioned to that of the horse or horses intended to draw it, as well as the locality in which it is to be used and the persons who are likely to use it; and the proportion of parts having once been accurately settled, the same rule of proportion must be observed, whether on an increasing or diminishing scale.

“After settling on the preliminary of form, the next consideration is that of colour. Taste in the latter can do much towards amending defects in the former, or at least can divert the attention of ordinary observers from dwelling upon them. Certain colours produce their effect by contrast, as green and red, purple and yellow, orange and blue, &c.; others produce their effect by harmony, as green and drab, or brown and amber; others again by gradation, as the differing shades of green and brown in almost endless variety. Colours are divided into two chief classes, the warm and the cold. Red and yellow and their varying gradations are warm colours. Green and blue and their varying gradations are cold colours. The intermingling of opposite colours produces neutrals. In choosing the colour for a carriage, it should be considered whether durability or appearance is the first consideration. For this country the warm colours are the most appropriate, as we hardly have enough of summer weather to render the adoption of cold colours general, except to such people as can afford carriages for each different season. The richest looking colours are not those which wear the best as a rule; but as an exception to this the yellows, which are both rich and showy, are amongst the most durable colours. For bright sunny days the straw, or sulphur yellow, is very brilliant and beautiful. Dark greens have a very rich appearance, but they do not wear well, the slightest specks being magnified by the dark surface. The olive greens are preferable, more especially for the summer, as they show the dust less, and are very good wearing colours. The shades of brown are even more numerous than those of the greens, and equally durable, though some of the lighter shades have a rather unpleasing effect, far too homely for varnish. Some of the darker browns become exceedingly rich with the admixture of a reddish tint, from the first faint tint up to the deep beautiful chocolate colour, the intermediate shades between which and a decided lake afford perhaps the very richest ground colours used in carriage-painting. Blues were formerly a great deal used to contrast with a red carriage part and framework. Very dark blues are now often used, but they soon become worn and faded, the least speck of dust disfiguring them. Drabs are scarcely ever used for body painting, though for some peculiar purposes they might be advantageously applied.

“In addition to the ground colour other colours are used to relieve it, the framework of the body being generally painted black; and in the case of a very dark colour being used for the ground, it becomes necessary to run a fine line of a lighter shade in order to mark the inner edges of the framework. The same process is applied to the carriage parts and under framework for the purpose of making it look lighter to the eye. Were the perch, beds, and wheels painted of one colour they would look exceedingly heavy and clumsy; but the skilful management of the fine lines, or ‘picking out,’ as it is technically called, produces a pleasing optical illusion. The same effect is sought also in the carved work, which would look very bare were it not heightened and brought into relief by the judicious application of black and coloured lines. Heraldic bearings used to be painted very large on the panels; in fact they formed the principal ornament, as they were painted in their proper heraldic colours. With bright grounds, such as yellow, the effect is often very good, but with most other colours it destroys the general harmony, and on this account it has been the custom of late years to paint them very small, and very often of the same colour as the ground, only lightened up to give relief. This is of course the other extreme.

“Proportion in carriages applies to both form and colour; as regards form, it regulates the sizes of the various parts so that the whole may harmonise, and dictates the adoption of contrivances for lessening the apparent size of those parts which would otherwise be unseemly. Thus, the total height which is necessary in the body for the comfort of the passengers is too great for the length which it is convenient to give it; therefore the total height is reduced, and to give sufficient leg room a false bottom is affixed by means of convex rockers, and which, being thrown back and painted black, cease to form a portion of the elevation; they are, like a foundation, out of sight, and thus the proportion of the front view (the side is called the front in coach-builder’s parlance) is preserved. In painting the body of a coach or chariot, it is customary to confine the ground colour to the lower panels and to paint the upper ones black, all except some stripes on the upper part of the doors. Now, inasmuch as colour in this case constitutes form by means of outline, and as that outline gives an irregular figure, it is a decidedly defective arrangement, making the upper part of the structure look heavier than the base. But the fact is, this defect has not been caused by intentional bad taste; it is a mere result of imitation, of following up old practices when the motive for them has ceased. It was formerly the custom to cover the roofs and upper panels with greasy leather in order to make them water-tight, the edges of the leather being fastened down with rows of brass nails. This leather was black, and thus the eye became gradually reconciled to an unsightly object from a consideration of utility. After it was discovered that undressed leather could be strained on and painted, it was still considered necessary to paint it black, as the surface was not smooth enough to show well with bright colours; and now that wooden panels are used to the upper as well as the lower part, long custom has made the black colour of the upper part appear indispensable.

“As by the present mode of constructing bodies various joints are left exposed to view, where leather unites with wood or two varieties of wood join in the same surface, it becomes necessary to resort to some means of covering them, and this is usually done by beading, as previously described. This is not altogether satisfactory as usually done, as it gives the side lines a broken and unfinished appearance. Where the beading is blacked it does not show much and scarcely matters, but the polished beading should go over the whole of the outline, as is done in some of the best carriages, or else it should not show at all. The elegance of a carriage depends on the perfection of the outlines, and anything which tends to disturb those outlines should be avoided.

“The handles of the doors are always made conspicuous, being of brass or plated metal. Necessity dictates this, as the constant action of the hand in opening or shutting the doors prohibits the use of paint on account of its rapid wear. The side of the carriage would look better without this prominent projection if it could be avoided, but as that is impracticable it is generally placed at the intersection of the central vertical and the central horizontal lines, where it interferes less with the outlines than it would in any other position.

“In the lining and trimming of a carriage, form, colour, and proportion are all requisites. All dress carriages have hammercloths or coloured drapery surrounding the driver’s seat. This forms a most prominent object, and if it does not harmonise with the rest of the vehicle the proportion of parts will be destroyed. The general form of the outline must be regulated by the lines of the ironwork or framework on which it is supported. There is great room for the display of taste in arranging that the colour of the hammercloth and lace, &c., shall harmonise or effectively contrast with the colour of the body. Yellow carriages are sometimes fitted with blue hammercloths and sometimes with drab ones, and the effect is equally good in both cases when well managed.”

Careful attention to the above points will enable the practical coach-builder to produce a vehicle as near artistic perfection as the present shapes will allow.

CHAPTER XV.
INVENTION.

English carriage constructors are certainly not an inventive race, if we allow that the names by which carriages are known are indicative of their origin. Coach is derived from the Hungarian kotsee, chariot is French, chaise is French, landau is German, cabriolet is French, and so on with many other names.

But mere invention—mere original conception—does not constitute excellence; and if foreigners may fairly lay claim to the greatest originality, English artists have the merit, perhaps still more important, of gradually improving the original designs, and so contriving all the details that, in their state of comparative excellence, the carriages can be scarcely recognised as constructions of the same principle as their models.

That English artists are not remarkable for the invention of new carriages is no proof of their want of talent; they have invention in abundance if there were sufficient motives to call it forth, and as a matter of fact invention is but poorly paid for. England possesses abundance of mind and matter, and there is no country in which a union of the two is just now more indispensable, and yet there is no country which throws greater obstacles in the way of the development of its minds. On an English patent lasting fourteen years the stamp duties amount to £175, whilst on an American patent lasting seventeen years the duty is only £7, or ¹⁄₂₅th of the English stamp duty. Under such a system no one will be surprised to find that on December 31st, 1879, there were only 15,755 patents in force in England, as against more than 200,000 in the United States. (These figures, of course, refer to patents of all kinds.) It has been calculated that about 10 per cent. of patentees manage to survive the seventh year of their patents, at which time the £100 duty is payable; that is to say, as far as their patents are concerned.

English artists and artisans are little more than merchants in their trades and methods of doing business; they cannot afford to lose time, and their principal object is to make as large an annual return as possible, and as large a profit as possible on that return. Continental men are more enthusiastic lovers of their arts and sciences. They aim at improvement from mere liking for it, and when they fail it is mostly from want of efficient workmen to further their designs. The demand with them is not sufficient to make every branch of their art a manufacture. In England, on the contrary, the manufacture of carriages is a work of many trades, and greater skill is produced in manipulation by the division of labour. If chance brings in a new fashion, competition is aroused, which does not subside until some degree of improvement or excellence be obtained.

The ordinary measure of talent is held to be success, i.e. the acquisition of property; though it is quite clear the qualities which insure success are not those which tend to produce excellence or improvement in carriages more than in any other arts. The inventor may produce, but it is for the most part the mere merchant or tradesman who profits by the inventions. Carriages are made to sell as plays are written to fill theatres, and the English carriage-builder takes a French or German carriage to improve upon because it saves his time and trouble, just as the English play-writer freely uses a French play to save the labour of his brains. Improvements are rarely the voluntary productions of English carriage-builders; they are forced on them by the purchasers—first individuals and then the mass—who desire some mere novelty, others greater ease, and others a more rapid rate of motion. Almost all the changes and improvements in carriages may be traced in their origin to the carriage users and not the carriage-builders. The carriage-builders do not lead, but they have always the means of pressing talent enough into their service whenever a sufficient demand offers them a remunerating return. Coaches were first invented on the Continent, but it was in England that they were improved into public stages, capable of being run 10 miles and upwards per hour for days and weeks together.

This was not done at once, or by any one man: it was the combined result of numberless small improvements, forced on by the necessity of overcoming practical difficulties. Coach-builders have not been remarkable as a scientific body. They have been, strictly speaking, “practical men;” and as the knowledge they have gained by experience has not been carefully hoarded in books, carriage construction has remained a sort of occult matter, without any specific theory attached to it. Each one, as he is freshly initiated, gains his knowledge as best he can—from verbal instruction or from a new series of experiments—and thus a considerable portion of his time must elapse ere he can have verified his judgment. Enough of this knowledge exists in various brains which might suffice for the construction of a sound theory, but it would be a difficult operation to gather it together, for many petty feelings would be at work.

Many experimentalists understand the word theory as synonymous with falsehood or absurdity, as the very opposite of practice. It is clear that practice must be the ultimate verification of theory; but every true practice must have a true theory belonging to it. The theory of a subject is the science or philosophy of that subject; practice is the positive knowledge or proof of the soundness of the theory. But as theories are more plentiful than practices, and as many of them are not verified, there are of course many false ones. On this ground unscientific experimentalists have acquired the habit of regarding all theory as false, which is about as reasonable as it would be to assert that because falsehood exists in the world, all truth must therefore be extinct. This peculiarity is not confined to carriage-building; engineering and architecture abound with it; and law and medicine are not wanting in it. The truth is, that human knowledge is only got together by small portions at a time in the school of experiment, and when that knowledge is considerable in any one branch, a true and verified theory may be constructed from it. And when a great number of subjects have thus been analysed and theorised, it is comparatively easy to construct theories by analogy on new subjects by sound principles. Newton’s theory of the universe was just as true when he first developed it in thought as after he had verified it by calculation.

It is a common notion that a mechanical inventor must necessarily be a man of genius; but, if the matter be analysed, it will be found that though inventors are occasionally men of genius it is not by any means a general rule. Invention, in its ordinary sense, as the word implies, is the art of finding out. By genius is meant a species of creative power, like that of the poet, for example, in his highest state of excellence. Invention is of two kinds—one resulting from a quick habit of observation, which detects the applicability of various forms of matter to similar objects. Of this an example may be given in the case of Dr. Wollaston, who, in a hurried experiment needing some lime which was not at hand, suddenly cast his eye on his ivory paper-cutter, and with some scrapings from its surface accomplished his object. This quick habit of observation, when it goes to the production of beautiful forms, is akin to fancy. The other and higher kind of invention is that which results from bringing a theory into practice—from first imagining a desirable result, and then bringing it to bear by the exercise of the judgment and constant persevering efforts steadily directed through a long period of time. The names of Brindley and Watt are examples of this quality. When Brindley set to work upon canals he did not create, he merely formed the plan of levelling the surfaces of natural streams by drawing off the water into new channels of sufficient depth, and thus preventing the water from being wasted. The process of forming locks was a continued series of mechanical contrivances with purpose aforethought. When Watt first imagined the steam engine he did not invent the power of steam; that was known long before, and had existed from the time that fire and water had existed. But he formed to himself the plan by which he hoped to realise the result of making steam an efficient human servant through the agency of a perfect machine. The general idea of this machine existed in his mind a long time before he brought it into practice; and the slow process by which this was accomplished is evidenced by the fact that the term of his patent right was extended by Act of Parliament, on the ground that he had not had sufficient time to reap benefit from it. An anecdote of Watt serves not only to prove this, but also his high-minded philosophy, which was far beyond the miserable vanity of ordinary inventors, who aim at astonishing their fellows rather than instructing or benefiting them. After success had elevated Watt to the public eminence he so deserved, a nobleman who dined in his company expressed himself in terms of wonder on what Mr. Watt had accomplished. Watt coolly remarked, “The public look only on my success, and not on the intermediate failures and uncouth constructions which have served as steps to climb to the top of the ladder.”

The power of mechanical conception is very widely extended; it is a modification of the same power which composes romances. The magic horse in the fairy tale, which turned and was guided by means of a pin in the neck, was a mechanical conception. If the same person who conceived that had worked it out into practice it would have been an evidence of genius, viz. imagination discovering truth by analogical inference. Invention, then, of the highest kind must be composed of four qualities—imagination, to conceive a new and complicated machine; knowledge, to gather materials; judgment, to select and combine them; and perseverance without wearying till the truth be obtained. Those things which commonly go by the name of new inventions are very often mere modifications of what has been done before. “Improvements” is the technical term applied to them.

The task a man has to go through in conceiving, designing, perfecting, and patenting a complicated mechanical invention is by no means inviting. Even when he possesses the hand to execute what the head has contrived, only a portion of his difficulties are overcome. A first idea is fascinating, and apparently easy of execution. It is thought over again and again; all difficulties are apparently surmounted and all obstacles removed; it is, in the imagination of the inventor, perfect. He may, perchance, know how to draw; but if not, he must employ some one to make his drawings for him. In this case, to avoid piracy, he must take out a provisional patent. For this he has to pay some considerable sum, and for a purpose whose success is uncertain.

Having secured his patent, our inventor sets his draughtsman to work and the drawings are made. Then follows the model, and ere that is completed it is discovered that there occur unexpected difficulties in the material construction which did not present themselves on paper. New contrivances must be resorted to, and the model is made and re-made many times over. It is at last completed, perhaps within a very few days of the time allowed for depositing the specifications, and fresh expenses are incurred by the necessity of paying highly those whose business it is to work against time. When all is ready the specification is deposited, and the inventor, perhaps, discovers that the title he has first taken will not cover his invention on account of its being different from his first contemplation. The title must, therefore, be altered, and the fees paid over again. He now sets to work to construct a full-sized sample of his invention, and all his patience is needed. At length the invention is in a state for practical trial. Up to this point all seems well; but practice soon discovers a defect, not in principle, perhaps, but in detail. A second experiment is made without success; and many more follow ere the invention is completed alike in principle and execution. Then begins the task of getting it before the public. Perhaps the inventor has been sanguine, and has attempted to introduce it to the public in an imperfect state, and the consequent failures have excited a prejudice unfavourable to his object. This prejudice has to be overcome by repeated and unceasing exertions, and at length, perhaps when half the period of the patent right has expired, the inventor begins to reap the fruits of his skill and industry. Public rumour is ever fond of exaggeration, and he is soon supposed to be realising a large fortune, though most likely he is only beginning to pay his expenses. Competition is then at work, and rivals who have been at no expense or trouble imitate his invention, or make just so much alteration in it as they think necessary to evade his patent right. He goes to law with the pirates, and then, perhaps, makes the discovery that his title or specification is imperfect, and that he has been labouring for years to bring to perfection an invention from which he can reap no more pecuniary advantage than if he had confined himself to an ordinary trade in which imitation alone was necessary.

It is evident, therefore, that a man who possesses a good trade as a coachmaker has little inducement to embark in the perilous field of invention. His time is mostly taken up with his ordinary business, and unless under very peculiar circumstances he has little or no time to study improvements. Those who have too little business to fill up their time are interested in producing new things in order to attract public attention. First ideas very often originate with mechanics and artisans, who have not the means of putting them into practice, unless in comparatively trifling improvements. Established tradesmen generally consider it their interest to discourage such things, as interfering with their plans and giving them more trouble without extra profit. Thus, when under-springs were first adapted to carriages, it was prophesied that they would be the ruin of the coach-making trade, by making carriages too durable. When the streets were Macadamised, wheelwrights and coachmakers alike complained that it was destruction to their trade. It is the same in other things. The Manchester cotton-spinner, who has a mill and machinery already erected, does not feel very benevolently disposed towards an inventor who contrives new machinery of a better class, by which he can underwork him and take away his trade. It may be taken as a general rule that new inventions are viewed with jealousy by all established tradesmen, on the ground that they are an individual advantage, and not in the outset advantageous to the trade in general. Therefore, they keep them down all in their power, and when they succeed it is by the circumstance that they are valuable in themselves, and that the customers of the tradesmen insist on having them.

Sound mechanical knowledge is less necessary to the fashionable coachmaker than taste. Taste is the one requisite, without which he cannot thrive, and which therefore constitutes his real business qualification. Taste is exhibited in form, colour, and proportion, and having this he can employ other persons to fill up the details. The general mechanism of carriages does not vary, and the mechanism serves as a skeleton framework which may be clothed according to fancy. Therefore, to produce what is commonly called a new carriage is a work of composition, and not invention. It is a combination of already existing parts to form a new arrangement. The tasteful combiner may know nothing of his wheels or axles, or their due proportion of strength, but he has the wheelwright to take the responsibility for him. He may know nothing of the construction of springs, but the spring-maker is at hand ready to calculate the requisite strength according to an estimated weight; and if the weight should prove more than was expected it is easy to apply an extra plate. He gives a general drawing of the framework, and a skilful workman knows how to apportion the scantling, and build it strongly together. A skilful smith makes his ornamental ironwork to a given form, and takes all the responsibility of understanding and duly working the metal. The employer directs the painter what portions to put in colours and what in ground colours; what to make conspicuous and what to hide; what to lighten by lines and what to leave heavy. The preparation of the colours and the laying of them on are the work of the painter alone. The enterprising maker also directs the trimmer as to the general effect of the lining, and arranges the harmony of the colours; but the trimmer has to study the best mode of performing his work. The braces and other leather work are left to the skill of the workman, who is mostly left to select his own materials and apportion their strength; and the ornamental metal-work is the province of the plater, who is responsible for its wear. It is clear, however, that in addition to taste, it is necessary that the carriage constructor should know how to draw, in order to effectually direct those whom he employs, and also to facilitate operations with the purchasers who may employ him to build for them.

To be a complete carriage constructor a man ought to be familiar with all the branches before alluded to. But there are few mechanics of such universal knowledge, and still rarer is it that they combine such knowledge with taste. Even it would be scarcely possible for a single individual to carry on a large business and do everything in his own factory. It would require a very large capital and very large premises, and also an extensive mercantile knowledge and skill—which last is based on qualities the direct opposite of those which nourish the faculty of taste. Mercantile skill depends on calculation; taste is a combination of imagination and observation. There are three modes in which carriage-building on a large scale may be successfully conducted: first, by a single individual whose only business is to combine parts, and who employs tradesmen for every separate branch; secondly, by a single individual, who employs responsible superintendents in every branch at high salaries; and, thirdly, by a combination of partners, one possessing taste, another mechanical knowledge, a third mercantile knowledge, and so on. This last mode would assuredly produce the most certain result, provided the partners possessed the necessary moral qualities to assure the absence of suspicion, jealousy, &c., amongst themselves. If these evil qualities existed they would destroy unanimity, and thus render the business unproductive by preventing efficient arrangements.

It is probable that at a future time the workmen themselves will enter into some such combination, but it must be after the lapse of many years, as the principle of caste must be first eradicated amongst them, which is at present so fruitful a source of jealousy amongst the different branches. Ere that takes place the increasing plenty of capital will probably induce many capitalists to invest money in carriage-building, as they now do in house-building, giving shares and salaries to men of undoubted skill and probity in order to insure efficiency and perseverance.

CHAPTER XVI.
REMARKS ON KEEPING CARRIAGES.

With very few exceptions, it is to be supposed that the greater number of those who can afford to indulge in the luxury of carriages are desirous of enjoying them on the most economical terms consistent with good taste, not merely as an economy of money, but also of time and convenience.

There are three ways of obtaining the use of carriages: 1. By hiring them for a short period, as a few days or weeks. 2. By taking them on lease for a term of years. 3. By purchasing them ready made or to order. The first two ways are now going out of date as a general rule. They are, of course, the most expensive. Any one requiring a conveyance for a few days, or a week or two, had better have a cab; and as for taking them on lease, well, about four years’ hire-money would purchase the vehicle outright. So, all things considered, it would appear the most economical and convenient to purchase the carriage to start with, and when it is no longer of any use there will at least be a second-hand carriage to dispose of.

As a rule, carriages are not built to order. The customer either chooses one from the stock, or selects one very nearly completed and has it finished to suit his own taste. This, of course, requires a very large capital to be invested in the business of a coach-builder, and, as competition has of late years greatly reduced the price of vehicles without a corresponding reduction in the cost of their production, the manufacturer naturally desires that his business should be as nearly as possible a ready-money one, otherwise he will have to do as many small, and even makers with a fair business, had to do on the introduction of this system, viz. shut up shop and take to something else to earn his living by.

People often marvel at the great cost of carriages, but when they have read of the numberless processes each vehicle has to go through there will be no longer food for surprise, but wonder that they do not cost more.

After a carriage is purchased a knowledge of how to preserve it from the various atmospheric and other influences, and how best to keep it in good order, is very necessary; for if great care is not exercised in the housing and cleaning of a vehicle its beauty will be utterly destroyed. In order to attain this knowledge it is requisite to remember of what the vehicle is composed—as wood, metal, leather, hair, cotton, silk, linen, paint, varnish, &c.

The ordinary atmospheric influences of our climate, sun, frost, dust, rain, and mud, all exercise a deteriorating influence on the vehicle. The general temperature most congenial to the durability of the carriage is that of the workshop in which it is constructed. In atmospheric air containing a certain amount of moisture, wood possesses a certain standard of bulk. If it be subjected to the influence of an atmosphere containing a greater amount of moisture it increases in bulk, or, as it is popularly termed, it swells; in a drier atmosphere it shrinks and is apt to crack. To resist these evil influences all the wood used in carriages is well covered with paint, the surface of which will resist moisture. If this operation is well and carefully done it is very successful, but woe betide slop-work, though in no trade is there so little room for a scamping workman to flourish. The result of bad painting is that moisture sooner or later finds its way into the wood and spoils the glossy appearance, and if it be placed in a very dry situation the panels will split, just as ships’ decks would leak if not wetted several times a day during the heat of the sun. This might be applied in a modified degree to carriages, more especially to the wheels.

If due allowance be made for expansion and contraction, the metal-work of carriages, as springs, suffers very little from heat or cold, but moisture is apt to work a very destructive influence upon it, especially where the paint is worn away by friction. There the rust seizes hold of it and gradually insinuates itself beneath the whole covering of the paint, which strips off in flakes. Beneath the surfaces of the spring-plates also rust is continually working damage, and disfiguring the appearance with dirty brown lines of oxide of iron on the exterior. Brass and plated work also are considerably affected by damp.

Leather suffers greatly from heat and damp; but, like timber, more especially when subjected to alternations of heat and moisture. Toughness and tenacity are the chief qualities required for leather for carriages, and these qualities depend chiefly on the presence of a certain quantity of oil or fatty matter which the leather imbibes like a sponge. On this matter the oxygen of the air acts strongly, and at length consumes it; and if it be not renewed the leather cracks. If the leather be exposed to wet and damp this process is more rapid, but when the leather is frequently oiled it is apt to look dull and occasion much trouble to the coachman, who most likely will prefer blacking it, but the materials of which blacking is composed tend to the decomposition and destruction of the leather. Leather which is painted or japanned possesses little or no tenacity, and is never oiled. The patent grained elastic leather, which is so very much in use for hoods and knee-flaps, is a very beautiful substance to the eye, and is quite waterproof so long as it is free from cracks; but dryness and heat are liable to cause it to crack. Also, if one portion of the surface be kept in contact with another portion during warm weather, it is liable to stick and strip away when pulled apart. When it cracks and water gets in, it decays rapidly. Generally speaking, it is preferable to use oiled leather for heads, if ordinary care and attention be bestowed upon it; for though its durability is not so great, there is a saving of labour in keeping it tidy, and it has a very good appearance.

The cloth, silk, and lace composing the lining, &c., and used in combination with wool, hair, cotton, and linen, suffer from the rays of the sun by losing their rich colours, and from the damp by becoming mildewed and rotten. Cloth, hair, and wool also suffer from another cause, viz. moths. In open carriages this is a very serious evil. Hammercloths are protected by a patent india-rubber cloth being put over them; cedar shavings also exercise a destructive influence on moths. The india-rubber cloth is as good as anything where the smell is not objected to, but this in warm weather is very strong and unpleasant. However, it would be a very good thing to introduce some cedar shavings in the stuffing of linings, and this might to some extent get rid of the troublesome pest.

Simple damp does not cause much damage to paint and varnish unless it contains saline matter, then it is very destructive; but heat, especially the strong rays of the sun, is very destructive. The colours change, and the lustre of the varnish disappears, and a multitude of intersecting cracks make their appearance; and to restore the original beauty there is no remedy but repainting. Another mischievous influence, acting on the paint and varnish, is the various gaseous vapours to which they are exposed. It is customary, for the sake of convenience, to stand carriages close to the horses’ stables, generally in a mews, where large muck heaps are piled up in all stages of fermentation. During this process various gases are evolved, which act on the varnish just in the same manner that strong acids act on metals—by corroding or eating it away. The most destructive of these is the ammoniacal gas evolved from the urine.

It is evident that the ordinary coach-house is not the best that could be used for the purpose. The materials of a carriage are as delicate, and require as much care, as the furniture of a drawing-room, and therefore they should be as carefully preserved from stable contact as the satin couches of the drawing-room. After the carriage has been out, whether in the sun or rain, it should be carefully washed, and, above all, dried, taking care to wet the leather as little as possible during the operation. It is a common practice to wash the carriage and then leave the water to drip away. After drying, the leather should be carefully rubbed with an oiled rag, to restore the oily matter consumed by the vehicle being used. The carriage should then be placed to stand in a dry, well ventilated apartment with a boarded floor, leaving a clear passage for the air beneath it, and if by any means convenient, let a current of warm air be passed through to insure its dryness. Above all it should be away from all stables, dung heaps, cesspools, or open drains. A gentleman should avoid placing his carriage in any situation where he would not wish to put his wardrobe; and with regard to the interior lining he should treat it in the same manner. If the carriage be laid by for a time it should occasionally be brushed out, and have a current of warm air passed through it. Cedar shavings should also be placed in it. If an open carriage it will require more care than a close one. The hammercloth (if there be one) should be covered with a waterproof india-rubber material, and cedar shavings interposed between the two. The blacking should also be rubbed off the leather-work, and a composition of oil and tallow rubbed in to preserve it. The ironwork should be painted where any bare portions show themselves, caused by the rubbing of some other part against them.

Directions for keeping Carriages clean, &c.

Washing.—When a carriage is much used in the summer season use water freely, so as to remove dust or mud before using the sponge or chamois skin. The varnish of a carriage is often ruined through a want of attention to this matter, for the sharp particles of dust, which are chiefly silica, when by means of the leather forced over the surface of the varnish, act like diamonds on glass and score it in all directions. Mud should not be allowed to dry on the varnish if it can be avoided. The English varnishes take a long time to dry, and if mud gets on it before it is perfectly dry a permanent stain is left, which cannot be removed except by re-varnishing.

In winter time it is not a good thing to wash off the mud when it is so cold that the water freezes during the operation. Warm water should never be used in winter time, as it is apt to cause the varnish to crack and peel off.

Greasing.—For axles and wheel-plates the best lubricating material is castor oil. It is not necessary to apply a great deal at a time—little and often should be the rule; for when there is an excess of oil it oozes out and finds its way on to the stock, and from thence is thrown over the wheels while the vehicle is in motion. The grease is then liable to be taken up on to the sponge when washing, and also on to the leather, which will cause a great deal of trouble and vexation. The wheel-plate should be particularly looked after, and not allowed to become dry.

The Leather.—Enamelled leather should be kept soft and pliable with sweet oil or sperm oil. It will only be necessary, while the leather is new, to cleanse the top and curtains from dirt and rub them with a greased rag. When the leather shows signs of drawing up and becoming hard and lifeless, wash it with warm water and Castile soap, and with a stiff brush force the oil into the leather until all the pores are filled.

Sponges and Chamois.—Two of each of these should always be kept on hand, one of each for the body and the same for the under-carriage. The reason for this is, that after a carriage has been used there is a liability to get grease on the sponge and chamois after cleaning the wheels and wheel-plate mechanism. Another reason of some importance is that the sponges are soon destroyed by being used for cleaning the under-carriage, which renders them unfit for use for large panels.

The Cover.—When a vehicle has been washed and housed, it should be covered with an enamelled cloth cover, fitted to it so as to keep it free from dust inside and out. To preserve the wood and save expense it should be re-painted or varnished once a year. There is no economy in saving a few shillings this year if such saving will necessitate an expenditure of three times the amount next year.