PRINCIPLES OF COLOURING IN PAINTING.

Colours are distinguished by artists as pure, broken, reduced, grey, dull, &c.

The pure colours consist of those which are called simple, or primary; these are red, yellow, and blue; and those which are formed from their mixture in pairs (binary compounds) are termed secondaries: such are orange, violet, green, &c.

Broken colours are formed by the mixture of black with the pure colours, from the highest to the deepest tone.

A normal colour is a colour in its integrity, unmixed with black, white, or any other colour.

The mixture of equal parts of red and yellow produces orange; mix equal portions of yellow and blue and we have green; equal parts of red and blue produce violet. These are called secondary colours.

Three parts of red mixed with 1 part of blue produce violet-red; 3 parts of red and 1 of yellow produce a red-orange; 1 part of red to 3 of yellow produces orange-yellow; 3 parts of yellow to 1 of blue produce a light yellow-green; 1 part of yellow to 3 of blue produces a blue-green; 1 part of red to 3 of blue produces a light violet colour. All these are called secondary hues.

Normal grey is black mixed with white in various proportions, producing numerous tones of pure grey.

Lamp and gas-lights throw out yellowish-coloured rays, causing a great many light colours to appear different in tone from what they really are. Certain shades of green and blue are not easily distinguished by gaslight. A blue fabric will appear to be green, or of a greenish tone, caused by the yellow rays falling on it. Green being formed by the mixture of blue and yellow, whatever contributes yellow to blue, as in the case cited, or by mixture of pigments, the hue will be green.

When coloured rays fall on a coloured surface, which is lighted by diffused daylight, the coloured surface is changed, the effect being the same as that produced by adding to it a pigment of the same colour as the coloured light. When red rays fall upon a black stuff they make it appear of a purple black; on white stuff they make it appear red; yellow stuff they make appear orange; and light blue stuff they make appear violet.

Complementary Colours.

“The colour required with another colour to form white light is called the complementary of that colour. Thus green is the complementary of red, and vice versâ; blue is the complementary of orange, and vice versâ; yellow is the complementary of violet, and vice versâ, because blue and orange, red and green, yellow and violet, each make up the full complement of rays necessary to form white light.”

These remarks are deduced from experiments with a prism of glass, giving the spectrum or analysis of the coloured rays forming white light. When a ray of sunlight is passed through a triangular prism of flint glass, and the image received on white paper, it will be noticed that the spectrum (as the image is termed) consists of several colours—seven in all. Red, yellow, and blue are the most prominent. The red rays are modified by the pure yellow, and we have orange; the yellow rays becoming mixed with the blue become green; the blue and red give violet.

Look intently for a few moments at a bright red object, then suddenly transfer the gaze to a sheet of white paper; the paper will appear of a greenish tint. Reverse the process; look intently at green, then on white paper, and red will be the tone of the paper. Blue will excite the eye to see orange, and orange will excite the eye to see blue. This is called successive contrast. In placing colours near each other it is of the greatest importance that the painter should bear in mind the foregoing laws. From these laws the coach-painter may derive some useful hints. In ornamenting and striping bear in mind that colours that are complementary purify each other.

The effect of placing white near a coloured body is to heighten that colour. Black placed near a colour tends to lower the tone of it. Grey increases the brilliancy and purity of the primary colours, and forms harmonies with red, orange, yellow, and light green.

Chiaro-oscuro and Flat Tints.

“There are two systems of painting; one in chiaro-oscuro and the other in flat tints. The first consists in representing as accurately as possible upon the flat surface of canvas, wood, stone, metal, &c., an object in relief in such manner that the image makes an impression on the eye of the spectator, similar to that produced by the object itself. Therefore every part of the image which receives in the model direct light, and which reflects it to the eye of a spectator viewing the object from the same point in which the painter himself viewed it, must be painted with white and bright colours; while the other parts of the image which do not reflect to the spectator as much light as the first must appear in colours more or less dimmed with black, or what is the same thing, by shade.

“Painting in flat tints is a method of imitating coloured objects, much simpler by its simplicity of execution than the preceding, which consists in tracing the outline of the different parts of the model, and in colouring them uniformly with their peculiar colours.”

Paint Shop.

The paint shop should be a roomy apartment, well lighted and ventilated. If possible, bodies and carriage parts should have separate shops to be painted in; the rough work on bodies, too, ought to have a separate room for its execution.

There should be a good assortment of brushes suitable for every variety of work, plenty of paint pots, at least two paint mills, marble slab for mixing colours on, and a stone to be used exclusively for making putty on; water buckets, sponges, chamois, palette knives, and putty knives. Light trestles set on casters for light bodies, and heavy trestles, with two wheels and a pole, for heavy bodies.

Screens, covered with heavy paper or enamelled cloth, to protect varnished work from floating particles of dust, and also from the unsightly marks left by flies, will be found very useful.

Also the necessary colours; white-lead, whiting, ground and lump pumice-stone, &c.

The brushes used are of various sizes and have various names. The largest are used for covering large surfaces with paint. A smaller kind are called tools, or sash tools, the name tool being applied more especially to the smaller varieties. Those brushes used for striping and ornamenting, being very small, are called pencils. All these are made round and oval, and filled with various kinds of bristles.

There are also flat bristle brushes of various sizes, which are useful for body painting. A small variety of these is also used for painting the carriage parts.

For varnishing, the black sable and badger brushes (both flat) are handy, though in applying rubbing varnish, the hair of these is sometimes too soft to lay it on without its being thinned with turpentine. But they are capable of producing very finely finished work.

For painting carriage parts, the medium-sized brushes should be used. For lead and rough coatings on bodies a larger brush is required than for carriage parts. Body brushes should be kept separate from those used for carriage parts, as the latter wear the brush hollow in the centre, which unfits them for laying a level coat on the body.

The pencils made of sable, camel, and cow-hair. Sable-hair is of two colours, red and black, either of which is superior to any hair now used. The red sable-hair is rather finer than the black, and is rather better adapted for ornamenting, while for striping and lining the black sable is very suitable. Camel-hair pencils work very well for broad lines. Those made from cow-hair are not much used.

Ornamenting pencils are either made in quills, or tin-bound with handles. They are of various sizes, suited for the most delicate touchings or broad handlings. They should be kept clean, as the smallest quantity of dry paint in them prevents them working well. When not in use, they should be greased and put away in such manner that the points may not be bent.

Lettering pencils, of sable and camel-hair, are commonly used; they should be from ½ inch to 1 inch long, the shorter ones being used for filling in after the outlines are traced.

There are three or four kinds of paint mills manufactured. They vary in size and price, and are suited to the wants of large or small factories. Where several painters are employed there should be two paint mills, one kept exclusively for grinding colours, and the other for lead, filling, pumice-stone, &c. By this means the colours are not so likely to be soiled by mixture with lead colours or other rough heavy paints, which clog the mill up so rapidly.

Paint mills have not penetrated into every workshop yet. In some is still used the old-fashioned slab and muller; this is a more tedious operation, and is not so successfully accomplished as by the mill.

Colours.

The colours generally used in the carriage paint shop are the following:—White-lead, whiting. Yellow ochre and red-lead, used for rough work. Ground colours, which the painter uses in combination with other pigments, as chrome yellow, Indian red, raw umber, Prussian blue, &c. Panel colours, as carmine, lake of various hues, ultramarine blue, verdigris, &c.

White-lead is very largely used, not only as a foundation, but enters into the composition of various colours, as stone, drab, straw, &c. In the mixture of rough stuff or filling, white-lead gives elasticity and life to the ochre, and when properly used forms the tenacious part of the under-coatings. But oil white-lead should not be used where there is not sufficient time for it to thoroughly dry.

After a good foundation has been secured, and smooth coatings of lead are desired, which will sand-paper smoothly and leave a pleasant surface to colour over, the dry or tub white-lead should be used. Whiting and white-lead make a good putty, though it is not so much used as it ought to be.

Chrome Yellow is seldom used clear, except for line-striping. There are different shades of it as well as qualities, the best being the cheapest in the end, as it has more body. Lemon and orange chrome are all the carriage painter requires; with these he can mix up any hues needed by the addition of reds.

Indian Red is a strong colour and of great service to the painter, especially in forming the groundwork for transparent colours, such as lakes of a reddish or purple cast, and carmine. Mixed with lampblack, it forms the most durable under coatings that can be obtained where a brown is needed.

Raw Umber is largely used. With blue and yellow it forms a pleasant range of quiet greens.

Combined with white and yellow it gives drab tints or stone colour, which may be toned down by adding black, or lightened up by vermilion or lake. In mixing a light striping colour which may have too much of a raw yellow tone, if a little umber be added the defect is corrected.

Carmine is a very brilliant colour, surpassing vermilion in richness of tone, and yet similar to it for height of colour. It is often adulterated with vermilion, which of course injures its purity. Pure carmine will dissolve in ammonia water without leaving any sediment.

Mixed with drabs, delicate greens, asphaltum, &c., carmine imparts warmth without injuring the colours.

There are several tints and qualities of Lake. Those commonly used are English purple, Munich and Florence lakes. English purple lake will bear some raw oil in mixing it; the others are best without it.

Ultramarine Blue, when pure, is a very durable colour. It is prepared from the mineral Lapis lazuli. Mixed with the lakes, it tones them down without seriously injuring the purity of the colour. For clear ultramarine a dark lead-coloured ground will answer, or make a ground colour of Prussian blue and white to nearly match the tint of the ultramarine.

This is rather a difficult colour to handle, but the secret of laying it on successfully is to have sufficient varnish or boiled oil in the colour to prevent it “flying off” or drying too dead.

Verdigris is an acetate of copper, of bluish colour, and requires a groundwork. It is not used to any great extent as a panel colour.

The following is a list of compound colours and their application:—

The above list will enable the painter to mix about all the colours required in coach-painting. A great many shades may be made of each of those given by varying the proportions of the component colours.

A good quality of raw linseed oil should be used, as it works well and dries dead when not used in excess, and it is free from the gumminess found in boiled oil. Raw oil simmered over a gentle fire for two or three hours has its drying qualities improved, more especially if a little sugar of lead be added to it.

Japanners’ gold size is made as follows:—Asphaltum, litharge, or red-lead, each 1 oz.; stir them with a pint of linseed oil, and simmer the mixture over a gentle fire till it is dissolved and the scum ceases to rise, and the fluid thickens on cooling.

The quality of the varnish used is very important. Rubbing varnishes are required to dry firmly in from two to five days, consequently they have not much oil in their composition. A good wearing rubbing varnish should not be rubbed until the fourth or fifth day after being laid on; when rubbed it should not sweat (become glossy) soon after, even in hot weather. Slow-drying rubbing varnish, when allowed to stand a day or so after having been rubbed down, will sweat out in hot weather, and should again be run over with the “rub rag” and fine pumice before another coat is applied.

Rubbing varnish that sweats at all times, soon after being rubbed, is liable to crack and should not be used.

By the use of hard drying varnish the painter is enabled to level his work down, and prepare for the last coat or finishing varnish. This last coating must be of an opposite nature to that on which it is laid if great brilliancy is sought after; and, as its surface must ever be opposed to the action of heat and cold, sunshine and shower, it must possess an elasticity or oily nature that will resist these changes for a great length of time.

Painting the Coach.

The body generally receives a coat of priming on the bottom, top, and inside in the wood shop. This is called “slushing,” so that when the body arrives in the proof shop these parts are one coat in advance of the other portions.

The top and the panels require a considerable amount of attention. If the top is constructed of green timber it will cause the covering to rise up in ridges or blisters, and when the canvas is put on, if it is not well stretched when it is nailed on, the air gets under it and causes a deal of trouble. The inside of the top should have a good heavy coating of slush or oil lead to preserve the wood from dampness, and the outside of the top should be properly primed with clean smooth lead colour. When this is dry the nail holes should be puttied in, and sunken places brought forward with firm drying putty, which will bear blocking down with sand-paper, leaving the top as level as possible. When this is dusted off clean, apply a heavy coat of lead in oil, with sufficient varnish in it to hold the lead together.

The inside of the body should be well coated, as it is a great protection to the panels. The priming coat should be composed of the best pure keg lead and oil, with only a small quantity of drier, and allowed at least a week in which to dry. This coat should be well worked in to the nail holes and the grain of the wood. A well-worn springy brush is the best. When this coating is dry sand-paper it carefully, and apply a second coat of lead colour, using less oil. The third day after this, putty the nail holes half full; two after this, apply the third coat, mixing it so that it will dry firmly, no oil being used except that which is present in the lead. When dry, finish puttying the nail holes; also putty up any of the grain that may appear too open, or else rub into the grain some lead mixed up very heavy.

The body, after having received three coats of lead, and been puttied up, may now stand for two or three days. When it is again taken in hand, sand-paper off any putty that may be above the level of the surface; dust off, and brush on a level coat of lead, which must dry hard and firm. Every coat of lead should be laid on as level as possible, and made to fill up the grain of the wood as much as possible. These coats are called “rough stuff.” The body may now stand for three or four days, when it will be ready for the filling up.

There are two very important things to be studied in coach-painting. First, to form a surface hard enough to hold out the varnish and disguise the grain of the wood; and second, to have the first and intermediate coats of paint sufficiently elastic to adhere and yield to the natural action of the wood without cracking or flaking off. In effecting one of these results we are apt to affect the other; and nothing but the utmost care, on the part both of the manufacturer of the essential ingredients and of the person who prepares them for use, can insure durability.

The leather-covered portions are usually primed with two coats of black Japan, reduced with a little turpentine.

A good stopping material for nail holes, &c., is made of dry lead and Japan gold size. It is called “hard stopper.”

The rough coatings should dry firmly, possessing only sufficient elasticity to bind them to the surface. The first coat will bear a trifle more oil than the remaining ones, and should stand about four days before the others are put on, which can be done every other day.

Five coats of filling up are next added, composed as follows:—

2 parts filling up stuff.
1 part tub lead.
2 parts turpentine.
1 part Japan gold size.
½ „ bottoms of wearing varnish.

The first coat should cover every portion of the lead surface, be well brushed in, but not allowed to lie heavy at the corners. The remaining coats may be applied reasonably heavy, but kept from lapping over the edges or rounding the sharp corners, and thus destroying the clean sharp lines of the body-maker.

Any defects noticed while filling in should be puttied or stopped, ever bearing in mind that the perfection in finish aimed at is only secured by care at every step taken.

The leather-covered parts generally have three additional coats of filling in.

The time allowed for each coat to dry may be extended as far as convenient, but there is nothing to be gained by allowing weeks to intervene between the coatings. When a coat is hard it is ready for another; and it is far better to have the body filled and set aside than to divide the time between the coatings, and probably be compelled to rub out the body before the last coat is firm. Of course, the time occupied by the coats of filling in to dry varies according to its composition. If much oil be used, it will take a longer time for each coat to dry; but the above composition may be applied one coat every other day.

The first coat may be applied rather thinner than the others, and is improved by being mixed with a little more white-lead. It should also be made more elastic than the succeeding ones, as it will then take a firmer hold on the “dead” lead coat over which it is placed, contributing a portion of its elasticity to that coat, and also cling more firmly to the hard drying coats which follow.

The body having been filled in may be set aside to harden, or if the smith is ready for it this is the best time for him to take it in hand, as any dents or burns that he may cause can now easily be remedied without spoiling the appearance of the vehicle. Later on, this is a matter of great difficulty, if not impossibility. Any bruises should be puttied; any parts which may happen to be burned must have the paint scraped off bare to the wood. Prime the bare spots, and putty and fill them to bring them forward the same as the general surface.

A material has recently been brought into the English market called “permanent wood filling,” which is confidently recommended as effecting a saving in time, expense, and labour, and at the same time more effectually closing the pores of the wood than the ordinary filling now in use. This invention is due to a Polish exile named Piotrowski, who took refuge in America, and there introduced it about 1867, since which date it has found its way into the chief carriage factories in the United States. It is applied to the bare wood, one coat being given to bodies and two coats to carriage parts. This closes the pores, holds the grain immovably in its place, and is so permanent in its effect that neither exposure to dampness, nor atmospheric changes, nor the vibrations to which a carriage is so subject can affect the grain. The satisfaction which this material appears to give to the Americans, who pride themselves on the superiority of their carriage-painting, ought to induce our English coach-builders to inquire after it; for if all that we hear of it be correct, it must assuredly be a valuable acquisition to the paint shop.

In rubbing down use pumice-stone. It is best to begin on top and follow on down, so that the filling water may not run down on to any part that has been finished. Water should not stand for any length of time on the inside of the body; and when the rubbing is completed wash off clean outside and in, and dry with a chamois kept for the purpose.

The body, when dry, receives a staining coat, and is to be carefully sand-papered over, the corners cleaned out, and put on a coat or two coats of dark lead colour, made of tub lead, lampblack, raw oil, and a small quantity of sugar of lead, and reduced to a proper consistency with Japan gold size and turpentine. When dry scratch over the lead colour with fine sand-paper, which will make it appear of a lighter colour; we shall then be able to detect any low or sunk places by reason of the shadow. Putty up any imperfections with putty made of lead and varnish, and when dry face down with lump pumice and water. Follow with fine sand-paper, when the surface will be in a condition to receive the colour coats. Sometimes, after cleaning off, another coat of dark lead colour is laid on.

Analysing the foregoing, we find we have used—

1 priming coat of lead (or leather parts, 2 coats of
black varnish instead).
2 thin coats lead colour, and stopped up.
5 coats of filling up (8 coats on leather parts).
1 staining coat, rubbed down and cleaned off.
2 coats dark red colour, stopped up, and carefully rubbed down.
1 coat dark lead colour.
—
12 coats, and ready for colour.

So much for the body parts. To the carriage parts two coats of priming are laid on, which are worked in the same way as those applied to the body. All cavities are then stopped with hard stopper, to which a little turpentine is added in order to make it sand-paper easily. Two coats of quick-drying lead colour are then applied to the wood parts. The whole is then well sand-papered down, and the grain should be found well filled and smooth. A thin coat of oil lead colour is then laid on, and when dry sand-papered down; any joints or open places between the tire and felloes of the wheels are carefully puttied up with oil putty. The carriage parts are then ready for colour. This time we have applied—

2 coats of lead priming, stopped up.
2 coats of lead, thoroughly sand-papered.
1 coat (thin) of lead colour, sand-papered and puttied up.
—
5 coats, and ready for colour.

The colours are to be ground very fine, kept clean, and spread on with the proper brushes. If the panels are to be painted different from the other parts, lay on the black first, for if any black falls on the panel colour it will occasion some trouble by destroying the purity of a transparent colour. By repeatedly turning the brush over while using it, there is less liability to accidents of this kind.

The colouring of the body is finished as follows:—For the upper quarters and roof grind ivory black in raw oil to a stiff consistency, add a little sugar of lead finely ground as a drier, and bring to the required consistency with black Japan and turpentine. Lay on two coats of this, and then two coats of black Japan, and rub down. Then face off the moulding, and give a thin coat of dead black, after which apply another coat of black Japan, and flat again. The whole should then be varnished with hard drying varnish, flatted down, and finished with a full coat of wearing body varnish. The varnish should have at least three days to dry; five or six would be better. The first coat of rubbing varnish may be applied thinner than the others, in order to avoid staining the colours.

The pencils used on mouldings should be large enough to take in the whole width at once, and let the colour run evenly along, avoiding laps or stoppages, except at the corners, where it cannot be helped. Avoid the use of turpentine in varnish if possible; but if the varnish be dark and heavy, sufficient turpentine added to make it flow evenly will not hurt it. The half elastic and fine bristle brushes are better for working heavy varnish than the sable or badger.

In varnishing a body begin on the roof, bringing the varnish to within 2 or 3 inches of the outer edges. Next, the inside of doors, &c., then the arch. When these are finished, start on the head rail on one side, lay the varnish on heavy, and follow quickly to the quarter. The edge on the roof, which was skipped before, is to be coated and finished with the outside, thus preventing a heavy edge. Continue round the body, finishing the boot last.

The frames and other loose pieces about a coach should be brought forward along with the body, and not left as is often done. The frames are most conveniently handled by a device similar to a swinging dressing-glass; a base and two uprights stoutly framed together, allowing space for the frame to swing. It is held in its position by two pointed iron pins, one fixed and the other movable. This is very convenient for varnishing, as the painter can examine his work by tilting it to any angle, and thus detect any pieces of dirt, &c.

If the body is to be lake in colour, the lake should be ground in raw oil, stiff, and reduced with turpentine and hard drying varnish. The same with dross black and Indian red. Over lakes and greens two coats of hard drying varnish should be applied, and one coat of finishing.

If the body is to be blue, mix ultramarine blue with one-half raw oil and turpentine, and bring it to a workable consistency by thinning with hard drying body varnish. Give the body two coats, and after each a slight flatting; then give two more coats of the same with varnish added.

When Prussian blue is used, two coats are applied, and white is added, if necessary, to bring it to the required shade. The blues will dry sufficiently well when merely ground in raw oil, stiff, and reduced with turpentine, and it is better not to add a drier over blues; only one coat of hard drying body varnish should be given, and one finishing coat.

In no case should the painter allow his oil colours to dry with a gloss. He must always flat them and give them the appearance of dead colour. This is particularly important, in case rough stuff or quick-drying colour is to be used over it.

The carriage parts are finished as follows:—Two coats of lead colour are first laid on, composed in the same way as those for the body before the colour is applied. Then stop all parts requiring it with hard stopper, a little reduced with turpentine to sand-paper easily. To the wood parts apply two coats of quick lead, composed of dry lead and lampblack ground in gold size and thinned with turpentine. Sand-paper down thoroughly, and the grain will be found smooth and well filled up. A thin coat of oil lead colour is then applied, and sand-papered down when dry; and at this stage any open parts between the tire and felloe of the wheels, &c., should be again stopped up with oil putty. A coat of colour varnish follows, then a second, with more varnish added. The parts are then flatted and striped; another light coat of clear varnish is given, and after being flatted down the fine lines are added, and the whole is finished with a good coat of wearing varnish.

The carriage parts are generally painted one or two tones lighter than the colour of the panels of the body, except where the panel colour is of a hue that will not admit of it. Certain shades of green, blue, and red may be used on panels, but would not, when made a tint or two lighter, be suitable for a carriage part. Dark brown, claret, and purple lake would not be open to this objection, because, to the majority of persons, they are colours which are pleasing to the eye, both in their deep and medium tones.

When the panels are to be painted green, blue, or red, and the painter wishes to carry these colours on to the carriage part, it is better to use them for striping only, and let the ground colour be black.

A carriage part painted black may be made to harmonise with any colour used on the body, as the striping colours can be selected so as to produce any desired effect. Brilliant striping can be brought out on dark colours only, while, if the ground colour be light, recourse must be had to dark striping colours to form a contrast. The carriage part should not detract from the appearance of the body; that is, there should be sufficient contrast between the two to bring out the beauties of the body. A plainly finished body will appear to better advantage on a showy carriage, and a richly painted body on one that is not very ornate.

In striping the carriage parts, the bright colours should be used sparingly. A fine line placed on the face of the spokes and naves, and distributed over the inside carriage, would look far better than when each side of the spokes, the faces, the naves, and felloes, &c., are striped on both sides.

The coatings of varnish contribute largely to the durability as well as beauty of a carriage part. The ground and striping colours are shown in their purity only after they are varnished and have a good surface, and the test of wearing depends on the quantity and quality of varnish applied.

Every carriage part should have at least two coats of clear varnish. The first coat of varnish to be applied over the colour and varnish; the second, a good finishing coat, possessing body, and good wearing qualities. Ground pumice and water must be used to cut down the varnish, otherwise the finishing coat will be robbed of its beauty.

In laying on the finishing coat, avoid the extremes of putting it on too thick or too thin. Lay on a medium coat. A thin one will appear gritty and rough; and one too heavy will sink in and grow dim.

From the above description, it will be seen that painting a coach is a tedious operation, and one which consumes a great deal of time in its execution; but, if well done, the result will certainly be very satisfactory. In no case should the painting be hurried, for by allowing each coat of paint or varnish sufficient time to dry its durability is insured.

A considerable amount of time is generally spent by the painter in work which does not really belong to him—that of mixing and grinding his colours. Where the muller and slab are used, they occasion a great deal of labour, and the tones of the colours are liable to be injured by the heat generated in the process; and even where the hand mills are used, the process is by no means so cleanly as it ought to be. And under the heading of waste, this must always be a source of loss to the manufacturer, for the painter, for fear of not mixing up sufficient colour for his use, generally prepares too great a quantity, and as a rule, the surplus is waste, for it is no use to employ stale colours in painting vehicles, however well it may do in house painting.

What we want is to have the colours ready ground for the painter’s hand, and against this has been urged the objection, that the delicate colours would lose their purity, and all colours be more or less affected by it. That this is utterly fallacious is seen by the fact that paints and colours ready ground and prepared are the rule in America. The invention of the machinery, &c., for this purpose, is due to Mr. J. W. Masury, of New York, and he grinds pigments of the hardest description to the most impalpable fineness without injuring the tones of the most delicate; and by a process of his own preserves them, so that the painter has nothing to do but to reduce them to the consistency he may require for the work in hand. He says they effect a saving of from 20 to 50 per cent. both of labour and material. It is difficult to understand why so valuable an invention is not more general in this country.

Irregularities in Varnish.

Varnish is subject to various changes after having been applied to a body or carriage part. It crawls, runs, enamels, pits, blotches, smokes or clouds over, and in the carriage parts gathers up and hangs in heavy beads along the centre of the spokes, &c.

These irregularities will happen at times with the very best varnish and the most skilled workmanship, and surrounded with everything necessary to insure a perfect job.

The only reason that can be assigned for it is atmospheric influence. These peculiarities have occupied a large portion of the time of the trade, and no other solution has been arrived at than the above.

The defects of varnishes should be divided into two classes: those which take place while in the workshop and those which show themselves after the vehicle has left the hands of the maker. The defects which show themselves in the varnish room are those of “spotting,” “blooming,” “pin-holing,” “going off silky,” “going in dead.” Those which take place afterwards are “cracking,” “blooming,” “mud-spotting,” and loss of surface, sometimes amounting to its almost total destruction.

The two classes should be considered separately; and assuming that the workmanship is of the best quality, the latter class of defects, with the exception of blooming, are in no way attributable to the varnish; and blooming is caused by the atmosphere being overcharged with moisture, as would be the case before a storm, and it is soon remedied. Cracking will arise from too great an exposure to the sun, just as any other material will be damaged by unfair treatment. Mud-spotting will arise from using the carriage in muddy or slushy roads before the varnish is properly dry. The loss of surface will depend largely on the coachman, who, from ignorance or negligence, may rub down the panels of a carriage until its glossy surface entirely disappears; and if the stable is contiguous to the coach-house this destruction will be assisted by the ammoniacal vapours arising from the manure, &c.

The other defects belong to the inherent nature of the varnish as at present manufactured, and admitting the secondary cause to be atmospheric influence, it is necessary to inquire why it is that varnish should be subject to such influence. According to the usual way of making varnishes, we know that various metallic salts and chemical compounds are used to increase their drying properties. All these will contain a certain definite amount of water, termed “water of crystallization.” If deprived of this water they lose their crystalline form, but they acquire a tendency of again assuming it by attracting to themselves a proportionate amount of water when it is brought within their power. Now the heat employed in making varnishes is sufficient to expel this water; but the presence of the salts is sooner or later detected, for when the varnish is applied to the work these salts absorb moisture from the atmosphere, and by becoming partially crystallized cause what is known as “blooming,” “spotting,” and “pin-holing.” The tendency to bloom will always remain, even after the varnish has hardened. But if any of these effects take place in the varnishing room, while the varnish is drying, it will be fatal to the appearance of the carriage.

To insure as near perfection as possible we want a substitute for these objectionable driers, which will not be subject to atmospheric influence.

CHAPTER XII.
ORNAMENTAL PAINTING.