CHAPTER XVII
THE CABINET AND THE EXECUTIVE DEPARTMENTS
The Cabinet.—The heads of the ten executive departments collectively constitute the President's cabinet. They are, in the order of rank, the secretary of state (first styled the secretary of foreign affairs), the secretary of the treasury, the secretary of war, the attorney-general, the postmaster-general, the secretary of the navy, the secretary of the interior, the secretary of agriculture, the secretary of commerce, and the secretary of labor. They are appointed by the President with the consent of the senate, which in practice is never refused; and they may be dismissed by him at any time. The salary of cabinet members is $12,000 a year.
Origin and Nature of the Cabinet.—There was no thought in the beginning that the heads of departments should constitute a cabinet or advisory council to the President, and during the first administration they were never, as a matter of fact, convened by him for collective consultation. When their opinions or advice were desired they were requested by written communication. During his second term, however, President Washington adopted the practice of assembling the heads of departments occasionally for consultation not only on matters pertaining to their particular departments but in regard to questions of general executive policy. Thus the cabinet meeting became a regular feature of executive procedure, and the cabinet a permanent institution. It is well to remember, however, that the cabinet as such is not mentioned in the Constitution, and the name "cabinet" never appeared in any law until the year 1907. No record is kept of its proceedings.
Cabinet Responsibility.—Unlike a European cabinet, the members of the President's cabinet are not, and cannot be, members of either house of Congress; they have no seats in Congress; they are not responsible to Congress for their policies, and they never think of resigning when Congress refuses to carry out their recommendations or to approve their official acts. They are responsible solely to the President for their official conduct, and are subject to his direction, except in so far as their duties are prescribed by law. They are, in short, the ministers of the President, not of Congress; administrative chiefs, not parliamentary leaders. It may happen, therefore, that members of the cabinet, like the President, may belong to the party which is in the minority in Congress.[86]
The Department of State.—At the head of the department of state is the secretary of state, who is the ranking member of the cabinet and the first in line for the presidency in case of the death or removal of both President and Vice President. He sits at the right hand of the President at cabinet meetings and is given precedence over his colleagues on occasions of ceremony. There are also three assistant secretaries in the department, and a counselor, who advises the President and Secretary of State in regard to questions of international law.
The duties of the secretary of state fall into three groups: first, he is the custodian of the great seal and of the archives of the United States. In this capacity he receives the acts and resolutions of Congress, publishes them in certain papers, and preserves the originals. Under this head also fall the duties of countersigning proclamations and important commissions of the President and of attaching thereto the great seal. In the second place, the secretary of state is the organ of communication between the national government and the state governments. Thus an application from the governor of a state for troops to suppress domestic violence, or a request for the extradition of a criminal who has taken refuge in a foreign country, is made through the secretary of state. In the third place, the secretary of state is the organ of communication between the United States and foreign powers, that is, he is the minister of foreign affairs. He carries on all correspondence with foreign governments, negotiates treaties, countersigns warrants for the extradition of fugitives from the justice of foreign countries, issues passports to American citizens wishing to travel abroad, and grants exequaturs to foreign consuls in the United States.
The Diplomatic Service.—For purposes of administration the department of state is organized into a number of bureaus and divisions. The Diplomatic Bureau prepares diplomatic correspondence with foreign governments, and has charge of the engrossing of treaties and other formal papers, the preparation of the credentials of diplomatic representatives, and of ceremonious letters. The United States government is now represented at the governments of nearly fifty different foreign countries by diplomatic representatives, and most of these governments maintain diplomatic representatives at Washington. Our representatives to Great Britain, France, Germany, Russia, Austria-Hungary, Italy, Japan, Mexico, Brazil, Turkey, Spain, Argentina, and Chile bear the rank of ambassador. The government is represented at most of the other countries by envoys extraordinary and ministers plenipotentiary; but to one country (Liberia) it sends a minister resident. The principal difference between the different classes of ministers is one of rank and precedence. At the more important foreign posts the ambassador or minister is provided with from one to three secretaries. There are also interpreters at the legations in Oriental countries, and at all the important foreign capitals military and naval attachés are attached to the legation.
Elimination of the Spoils System.—The efficiency of the diplomatic service has been much impaired by the existence of the spoils system, as a result of which diplomatic appointments are determined largely by political considerations, and changes are made by each new administration. In the administrations of Presidents Roosevelt and Taft, however, a beginning was made toward the introduction of the merit system into the diplomatic service.
Duties of Diplomatic Representatives.—The principal duties of diplomatic representatives are to watch over the interests of their country and its citizens in the country to which they are accredited and to see that they receive proper protection, to present and cause to be settled all claims against the foreign country in which they reside, to negotiate treaties, to settle disputes and adjust difficulties, to promote friendly relations, and, in general, to represent their government in its relations with the government to which they are accredited. It is also the duty of a diplomatic representative to keep his government fully informed on all matters in which it is likely to be interested. He is expected to transmit reports relating to political conditions, finance, commerce, agriculture, arts and science, systems of taxation, population, judicial statistics, new inventions, and other matters of possible interest to his government.
The procedure by which treaties are negotiated may take either of two courses: the secretary of state may conduct the negotiations with a foreign minister at Washington, or he may direct the American minister in the foreign country with which it is desired to treat to negotiate with the minister of foreign affairs of that government.[87]
The Consular Service.—The Consular Bureau in the department of state has charge of the correspondence with our consular officers in foreign countries. A consul differs from a diplomatic representative in being a commercial rather than a political representative. Consuls are stationed at all important commercial centers in foreign countries, to look after the commercial interests of their country, promote foreign trade, watch over shipping and navigation, administer the estates of American citizens dying abroad, assist in the administration of our customs, health, navigation, immigration, and naturalization laws, and to collect such information concerning the trade, industries, and markets of foreign countries as may be of value to the commercial interests of the United States.[88]
Recent Reforms.—In obedience to the widespread demands of the commercial interests of the country, notable improvements have recently been made in our consular service. Formerly political considerations largely determined appointments to the service, and at the beginning of each new administration a wholesale removal was made in order to find places for party workers. By acts of Congress passed in 1906 and 1909, however, the service was reorganized and attempts made to place it on a merit basis. The fee system was abolished, consuls were prohibited from practicing law or engaging in other businesses, provision was made for periodic inspection of consulates, and a system of examinations was inaugurated for determining the qualifications of appointees to the service. The adoption of these reforms has brought about a marked increase in the efficiency of the service and has tended to give to it the character of a permanent professional career such as it enjoys in Europe.
Other Bureaus of the State Department.—The Bureau of Indexes and Archives is charged with keeping the records and indexing the correspondence of the department of state. It also prepares the annual volumes of the foreign relations, containing portions of the diplomatic correspondence.
The Division of Passport Control is charged with the issue of passports to persons who desire to travel abroad. A passport is a paper signed by the secretary of state certifying that the bearer is a citizen of the United States or has declared his intention of becoming a citizen, and is entitled to the protection of the government when traveling abroad. They are granted not only to citizens but, by a recent law, to loyal residents of the insular possessions and to aliens who have declared their intention of becoming citizens and have resided in the United States for three years. A fee of one dollar is charged for each passport.
The other bureaus and divisions in the department of state are: accounts, rolls and library, appointments, information, Far Eastern affairs, Near Eastern affairs, Western European affairs, and Latin-American affairs.
The Department of the Treasury.—For the most part the department of the treasury is concerned with the management of the national finances, including (1) the administration of the revenue laws, (2) the custody of the national funds, (3) the preparation of the budget, (4) the administration of the currency and national banking laws, (5) miscellaneous functions such as those relating to the life-saving service, the public health and marine hospital service, engraving and printing, construction of public buildings, etc.
The custody of the government funds devolves upon the Treasurer, who is charged with receiving and disbursing upon proper warrant all public moneys that may be deposited in the treasury at Washington or in the subtreasuries at New York, Philadelphia, Baltimore, Cincinnati, Chicago, St. Louis, New Orleans, and San Francisco, as well as in national banks and federal reserve banks. He is also the custodian of miscellaneous trust funds, is the agent of the government for paying interest on the public debt and for issuing and redeeming government paper currency and national bank notes, and is the custodian of the bonds deposited to secure national bank circulation.
The Register of the Treasury issues and signs all bonds of the United States, registers bond transfers and redemption of bonds, and signs transfers of public funds from the treasury to the subtreasuries or depositories.
The Commissioner of Internal Revenue supervises the collection of the federal income tax and of the taxes on the manufacture of tobacco, etc., and supervises the enforcement of the prohibition law.
The Director of the Budget, provided for by the new budget act of 1921, prepares for the President the annual budget and all other estimates of revenues and expenditures, and with that end in view, has power to assemble, correlate, revise, reduce, or increase the estimates of the several departments or establishments. The President is, however, directly responsible for the budget, and transmits it to Congress. By the same act, the office of Comptroller of the Treasury was abolished, and the auditing and accounting functions were removed from the Treasury Department to an independent General Accounting Office, with the Comptroller-General of the United States at its head.
The principal officers who have to do with currency administration are the director of the mint and the comptroller of the currency. The Director of the Mint has general supervision of the administration of the coinage laws and the management of the coinage and assay offices.[89] The Comptroller of the Currency exercises supervision over the national banks. It is his duty to see that national banks are properly organized, that the capital stock is fully subscribed and paid in, that the necessary amount of United States bonds have been duly deposited with the government to secure the circulation of their notes, and that all national banks are properly examined from time to time. He also has important duties in connection with the management of the federal reserve banks. He has charge of the issue of national bank notes and (under the supervision the Federal Reserve Board) of Federal reserve notes.
Among the bureaus of the treasury department which have no direct relation to the public finances the most important is the Public Health Service, which is under the direction of a surgeon general who is charged with the supervision of the national quarantine stations and of hospitals for the relief of sick and disabled seamen, and discharged soldiers, sailors, and marines. He calls conferences of all state health boards. He is authorized to adopt regulations to prevent the introduction and spread of contagious diseases, and it is his duty to supervise the medical examination of immigrants seeking admission to the United States.
The Coast Guard, as organized in 1915, is charged with the duties of the former life-saving service and the revenue cutter service. It renders assistance to persons and vessels in distress, patrols the coast for the purpose of preventing violations of the customs laws, and enforces the laws relating to quarantine, navigation, protection of the game, fishery, and seal industries, etc. It constitutes a part of the military forces and is under the treasury department in time of peace and under the navy department in time of war.
The Supervising Architect is charged with the selection and purchase of sites for government buildings, such as federal courthouses, post-office buildings, customhouses, mints, etc.; with the preparation of plans and specifications and the awarding of contracts for such buildings.
The Bureau of Engraving and Printing is charged with the duty of engraving and printing all government securities, including United States notes, bonds, certificates, national bank notes, federal reserve notes, internal revenue, customs, and postage stamps, treasury drafts, etc.
The Secret Service Division is a body of detective agents employed to detect frauds and crimes against the government, such as counterfeiting or espionage. Some of the force are also employed in guarding the President.
The Bureau of War Risk Insurance (created in 1914) is charged with carrying out the laws relating to government insurance of American ships, soldiers, and sailors.
The Federal Reserve Board and the Federal Farm Loan Board (see p. 234) are also under the Treasury Department.
The War Department.—The secretary of war has charge of all matters relating to national defense and seacoast fortifications, river and harbor improvements, the prevention of obstructions to navigation, and the establishment of harbor lines; and all plans and locations, of bridges authorized by Congress to be constructed over navigable rivers require his approval.
The army is under the direction of the General Staff described on p. 263. Within the war department there are also a number of departments and bureaus, each under the direction of an army officer.
The Adjutant General has charge of the records and correspondence of the army and militia; of the recruiting service, including enlistments, appointments, promotions, resignations, etc. He communicates to subordinate officers the orders of the President and the secretary of war, and preserves reports of military movements and operations.
The Inspector General, with his assistants, visits and inspects military posts, depots, fortifications, armories and arsenals, and public works in charge of army officers, and makes reports on the conduct, efficiency, and discipline of officers and men, including their arms and equipment.
The Quartermaster General has supervision over the quartermaster corps which is the main supply service of the army (except for technical articles), and furnishes food, clothing, equipment, animals, and forage. It also has charge of building construction and transportation for the army.
The Chief of Finance has control over the finances of the army.
The Surgeon General has supervision over the medical service of the army; looks after the sick and wounded; provides medical and hospital supplies, and inquires into the sanitary conditions of the army. In addition to field hospitals permanent depots and hospitals are maintained at various points.
The Judge-Advocate General is the chief law officer of the army; he reviews records of the proceedings of courts-martial, courts of inquiry, and military commissions, and acts as legal adviser to the war department.
The Chief Signal Officer is charged with the supervision of military signal duties, the construction, repair, and operation of military telegraph lines and cables.
The Chief of the Air Service has supervision over aircraft production and the aviation service.
The Chief of Ordnance supervises the purchase, manufacture, and distribution of artillery, small arms, and ammunition for the army and the militia. For the manufacture of arms and ammunition there are arsenals at Springfield, Mass., Rock Island, Ill., Watervliet, N. Y., and elsewhere.
The Chief of Engineers is at the head of the engineering corps, a branch of the army which is charged with the construction of public works such as military roads, bridges, fortifications, river and harbor improvements, geographical explorations, and surveys. The construction of the Panama Canal is the most notable of the recent undertakings of the war department in this field.
The Chief of the Chemical Warfare Service has supervision over the production of chemical warfare materials as well as defensive appliances for protection against such warfare. He also supervises the training of the army in the use of both.
The Militia Bureau, created in 1916, has charge of all matters relating to the National Guard.
In addition to the purely military functions and construction of public works, the war department has certain duties in connection with the government of the insular possessions and the Panama Canal Zone. So far as these duties relate to Porto Rico and the Philippine Islands they are under the direction of the Bureau of Insular Affairs, at the head of which is an army officer with the title of chief of the bureau. This bureau also has charge of the collection of the revenues of Haiti and the Dominican Republic in accordance with treaties which practically establish an American receivership over those republics.
Finally, the war department has charge of the United States Military Academy at West Point, the various post-graduate schools of instruction for army officers located at different army posts, the national military parks at Chickamauga, Gettysburg, Shiloh, and Vicksburg, and the national cemeteries in various parts of the country. The military academy at West Point was founded in 1802. A certain number of cadets (the number—for a long time one only—has varied at different periods) are appointed from each congressional district and territory, upon the nomination of the representative in Congress from the district; also certain numbers from each state at large, from the District of Columbia, and from the United States at large. All candidates are required to pass a physical and intellectual examination; the course of instruction lasts four years; and each cadet receives pay sufficient for his maintenance. Graduates receive appointments as second lieutenants in the army, those standing highest usually being appointed to the engineering corps if they prefer assignment to that branch of the service. The secretary of war exercises general supervision over the academy, and it is inspected at regular intervals by a board of visitors of whom seven are appointed by the President, two by the Vice President, and three by the speaker of the house of representatives.
West Point Cadets
Lock in the Panama Canal
The Department of the Navy was created in 1798. At its head is a secretary, who, like the head of the war department, is usually taken from civil life. Like the war department, the navy department is organized into the Office of Naval Operations and a number of bureaus.
The Bureau of Navigation has charge of the recruiting service, the training of officers and men, the naval academy; schools for the technical education of enlisted men, apprentice schools, the naval home at Philadelphia, transportation of enlisted men, records of squadrons, ships, officers and men; the preparation of the naval register, preparation of drill regulations, signal codes, and cipher codes. Under this bureau falls the publication of the Nautical Almanac, charts and sailing directions, the naval observatory, and the hydrographic office.
The Bureau of Yards and Docks has general control of the navy yards and docks belonging to the government, including their construction and repair, and also of the construction of battleships whenever such construction is authorized by Congress. The navy yards are located at Washington, Brooklyn, Mare Island (California), Philadelphia (League Island), Norfolk, Pensacola, Cavite (in the Philippines), and various other places.
The Bureau of Ordnance has charge of the supply of armament and ammunition for the ships. It supervises the manufacture of guns and torpedoes, installs armament on the vessels, and has charge of the naval proving ground and magazines, the naval gun factory, and the torpedo station.
The Bureau of Construction and Repair has charge of the planning, building, and repairing of vessels, and of their equipment, excepting their armament and engines.
Other Bureaus of the Navy Department, whose general duties are indicated sufficiently by their titles, are: the bureau of engineering, the bureau of medicine and surgery, and the bureau of supplies and accounts.
The Judge-Advocate General is the law officer of the navy department and performs duties similar to those of the judge-advocate general of the war department.
The Major General Commandant of the Marine Corps issues orders for the movement of troops under the direction of the secretary of the navy.
The department of the navy also has general charge of the United States Naval Academy at Annapolis. The academy was founded in 1846, by George Bancroft, then secretary of the navy. A specified number of midshipmen are allowed for each member of Congress and each territorial delegate, and certain numbers from the District of Columbia, from Porto Rico, and from the United States at large.[90] Appointments are made by the President after a physical and intellectual examination by a board, and an allowance is made for maintaining each midshipman while in residence at the academy. The course lasts four years and includes instruction in gunnery, naval construction, steam engineering, navigation, mathematics, international law, modern languages, etc. After the completion of the course, midshipmen spend two years at sea, after which they receive subordinate appointments in the navy or marine corps.
The Department of Justice.—The office of attorney-general was created in 1789, and from the first the attorney-general was a member of the cabinet; but for a long time the duties of the office were not extensive, and it was not until 1870 that the office was made an executive department with its present title and organization.
The Attorney-General is the chief law officer of the national government and is the legal adviser of the President and the heads of departments. He represents the United States before the Supreme Court in cases in which it is a party, exercises a sort of administrative supervision over the United States district attorneys and marshals and over the federal penitentiaries, examines applications for pardons, and advises the President in the exercise of his pardoning power. The opinions which he renders on constitutional and legal questions referred to him are published by the government in a series of volumes, and altogether they constitute an important body of constitutional and administrative law. Under the direction of the President he institutes proceedings and prosecutes cases against corporations and persons for violations of the laws of the United States, or directs the district attorneys to do so.
The Post Office Department.—At the head of the post office department is the postmaster-general. He establishes and discontinues post offices, appoints all postmasters whose compensation does not exceed $1,000 a year, issues postal regulations, makes postal treaties with foreign governments, with the approval of the President, awards mail contracts, and has general supervision of the domestic and foreign postal service. There is an assistant attorney-general for the post office department, who advises the postmaster-general on questions of law, has charge of prosecutions arising under the postal laws, hears cases relating to the misuse of the mails, and drafts postal contracts. There are also four assistant postmasters-general, each of whom has supervision over a group of services within the department. The postal service has already been described in chapter xiv.
The Department of the Interior.—The interior department, established in 1849, is one of the largest and most important of the ten executive departments. Next to the post office department, the services which it performs reach more people than those performed by any other department. Its staff of employees at Washington ranks second in numbers only to that of the treasury department. It has charge of the public lands, Indian affairs, pensions, patents, the geological survey, and, to some extent, the government of the territories.
The Public Lands.—Perhaps the most important bureau in the interior department is the General Land Office, which has charge of the public lands, and the care and control of the forest reserves. Before the public lands are sold or otherwise disposed of they must be surveyed. For this purpose there are seventeen surveying districts, in each of which there is a surveyor general.
Disposal of the Public Lands.—The public lands have been disposed of with a somewhat lavish hand. In the early days liberal grants were made to the soldiers of the Revolutionary War. Immense quantities have also been sold at low rates—much of it at $1.25 per acre—in order to encourage settlers to establish homes thereon. Considerable quantities have also been granted to the states for educational purposes and the construction of internal improvements. Beginning with Ohio in 1802, each new state admitted to the Union was given one section in each township for the support of elementary schools, and those admitted after 1850 were given two sections in each township. Under the Morrill act of 1862, 10,000,000 acres were given to the states for the establishment of colleges of agriculture and the mechanic arts. Some of the more recently admitted states were given from one to four townships each for the establishment of universities.[91]
Before the Civil War, large quantities were given to the states for the construction of canals and railroads. Large tracts of the public lands have also been granted to private corporations as subsidies for the building of transcontinental railways. Finally, by an act of 1902, the proceeds from the sale of all public lands in seventeen Western states are set aside for constructing irrigation works in those states.
By the preëmption act of 1841, it was provided that 160 acres of land should be given to any family living thereon for a period of six months and paying $200 therefor. This act was repealed in 1891, but millions of acres were disposed of during the fifty years it was in force.
By the homestead act of 1863, still in force, any head of a family may acquire 160 acres by living on it for three years (it was five years before 1912), cultivating a certain part of it, and paying a small fee.
The Public Lands now Remaining aggregate about 665,000,000 acres, including those in Alaska. Of these lands a large part have been set aside for Indian reservations, national parks, military reservations, and national forests,[92] and is therefore not open to purchase or entry under the homestead act. Arid lands are sold in tracts not exceeding 640 acres at $1.25 per acre; mineral lands are sold at from $2.50 to $5 per acre; timber and stone lands at a minimum of $2.50 per acre; town site lands at a minimum of $10 per acre; and agricultural lands at $1.25 per acre.
Land Offices are established in all the states where there is any considerable amount of public land left. At each office there is a register and a receiver who examines applications for entries and issues certificates upon which patents or deeds are finally granted.
Indian Affairs.—Another important branch of the government service falling within the department of the interior is the management of Indian affairs. For a long time each tribe was treated to some extent as though it were an independent community, and was dealt with somewhat as foreign nations are dealt with. In 1871, however, it was enacted that henceforth no Indian tribe should be acknowledged or treated as an independent nation or power with which the United States may contract by treaty—an act which marks the beginning of the end of Indian tribal authority.
The policy of extending the jurisdiction of the government over the Indians was begun by an act of 1885 which gave the United States courts jurisdiction over seven leading crimes when committed by Indians on their reservations. Previous to that time, crimes committed by Indians against Indians within a reservation were left to be dealt with by the tribal authorities themselves.
The Allotment Act.—By the Dawes act of 1887 the new Indian policy begun in 1871 was still further extended. This act provided for the allotment of Indian lands to individual members of the tribe, and declared that Indians who accepted such allotments or who should leave their tribe and adopt the habits of civilized life, should be considered as citizens of the United States and entitled to all the rights and privileges of citizens. Previous to this time the lands occupied by the Indians were owned by the tribe as a whole and not by the individuals who occupied them. Under this act, individual allotments aggregating more than 30,000,000 acres have been made to 180,000 Indians. There remain about 120,000 Indians, to whom allotments are still to be made. The result of this policy will ultimately be to extinguish the Indian tribes and incorporate them into the American body politic.
Indian Agents.—The control of the national government over the Indian reservations is exercised largely through Indian agents appointed by the President. They are charged with the regulation of trade with the Indians, and have control of the distribution of rations. At each agency one or more schools are maintained, and in addition to the reservation schools there are schools for the higher education of Indians in various parts of the country, the most important being at Lawrence, Kansas, and Carlisle, Pennsylvania. The aggregate annual expenditures on account of the service are now about $15,000,000, more than half of which consists of payments due the Indians under treaty stipulations or of interest on trust funds held by the government for them. The total amount of these trust funds is about $50,000,000.[93]
The Pension Bureau has charge of the administration of the pension laws. The payments on account of pensions now constitute the largest item of expenditure by the national government. Before the outbreak of the Civil War, pension expenditures rarely exceeded two million dollars a year, and the total outlay for this purpose during the entire period of our national history aggregated less than half the amount now appropriated for a single year. According to the report of the commissioner of pensions for 1919 there were 624,427 names on the pension rolls, and the amount expended for pensions that year was over $220,000,000. More than $5,000,000,000 has been expended for pensions since the Civil War, a larger amount than the national debt incurred on account of the war itself.
The Patent Office includes a large number of officers, examiners, and employees, who are under the direction of the commissioner of patents. Their work is described on p. 260.
Minor Divisions of the Interior Department.—The Bureau of Education was established in 1867. At its head is a commissioner whose duty it is to collect and publish statistics and other information concerning the methods, conditions, and progress of education in the United States. Each year he publishes an elaborate report summarizing the educational progress of the country, together with monographs by experts on special topics of educational interest. The commissioner is also charged with the administration of the funds appropriated for the support of the colleges of agriculture and mechanic arts and with the supervision of education in Alaska and the reindeer industry in that country.
The Geological Survey was established as a bureau in the department of the interior in 1879. It is under the control of a director who is charged with the classification of the public lands and the examination of the geological structure, mineral resources, and mineral products of the public lands and the survey of the forest reserves. The bureau has undertaken the preparation of topographical and geological maps of the United States, a considerable portion of which has been completed, the collection of statistics of the mineral products, the investigation of mine accidents, the testing of mineral fuels and structural materials, and the investigation of surface and underground waters.
The Bureau of Mines, created in 1911, is charged with conducting investigations looking toward the prevention of mine accidents, the introduction of improvements in the general health and safety conditions, the conservation of mineral resources, etc. The bureau reported in 1913 that it had brought about a reduction in the number of fatalities due to explosions, from 30 to 13 per cent.
The Department of Agriculture.—A so-called "department" of agriculture was established in 1862, though its rank was only that of a bureau and its head bore the title of commissioner. From time to time, the scope and functions of the "department" were extended until 1889, when it was raised to the rank of a cabinet department with a secretary at its head. Like the other departments, it is organized into bureaus, offices, and divisions.
The Weather Bureau has charge of the preparation of weather forecasts and the display of storm, cold wave, frost, and flood warnings for the benefit of agriculture, commerce, and navigation.
The Bureau of Animal Industry conducts the inspection of animals, meats, and meat food products under the act of Congress of June 30, 1906, and has charge of the inspection of import and export animals, the inspection of vessels for the transportation of export animals, and the quarantine stations for imported live stock; supervises the interstate transportation of animals, and reports on the condition and means of improving the animal industries of the country.
The Bureau of Plant Industry studies plant life in its relations to agriculture. It investigates the diseases of plants and carries on field tests in the prevention of diseases. It studies the improvement of crops by breeding and selection, maintains demonstration farms, and carries on investigations with a view to introducing better methods of farm practice. It conducts agricultural explorations in foreign countries for the purpose of securing new plants and seeds for introduction into the United States. It studies fruits, their adaptability to various climates, and the methods of harvesting, handling, storing, and marketing them.
The Forest Service is charged with the administration of the National Forests. It also gives practical advice in the conservation and handling of national, state, and private forest lands, and in methods of utilizing forest products; investigates methods of forest planting, and gives practical advice to tree planters; studies commercially valuable trees to determine their best management and use; gathers statistics on forest products, in coöperation with the bureau of the census, and investigates the control and prevention of forest fires, and other forest problems.
The Bureau of Chemistry conducts investigations into the chemical composition of fertilizers, agricultural products, and food stuffs. In pursuance of the pure food law of 1906, it examines foods and drugs intended to be sent from one state to another, with a view to determining whether they are adulterated or misbranded. It also conducts investigations of food stuffs imported from abroad and denies entry to such as are found unwholesome, adulterated, or falsely labeled. It also inspects food products intended to be exported to foreign countries where standards of purity are required.
Other Bureaus, whose duties are indicated by their titles, are: the bureau of soils, the bureau of crop estimates, the bureau of entomology, the bureau of biological survey, the bureau of markets, and the bureau of public roads.
The Department of Commerce embraces what remains of the department of commerce and labor created in 1903, and divided in 1913 by the creation of the department of labor. It is charged with the promotion of the commerce of the United States and its mining, manufacturing, shipping, fishing, and transportation interests.
The Bureau of the Census is charged with the duty of taking the decennial census of the United States, including the collection of such special statistics as Congress may authorize. The first census, that of 1790, was taken under the direction of the United States marshals in their respective districts; the statistics collected related only to population, and the schedule embraced only six questions. In 1880 the use of the marshals was done away with and a corps of census supervisors provided. Until 1902 the machinery for taking the census was organized anew for each census, but in the latter year provision was made for a permanent census bureau. The schedule of inquiries has increased from decade to decade until it now embraces a wide range of questions relating not only to population, but also to vital statistics, agriculture, manufactures, defective and criminal classes, cotton production, statistics of cities, state and local finances, transportation, mining, and various other matters, the results of which are published in a series of large volumes and in special bulletins. At the head of the bureau is a director, who is aided by an assistant director, a number of statisticians and experts, and a corps of local supervisors and enumerators. The census work was in the charge of the department of state until 1850, when it was transferred to the department of the interior.
The Bureau of Navigation[94] is charged with the general superintendence of the merchant marine of the United States and of the enforcement of the navigation laws. It has charge of the registration of American vessels engaged in the foreign trade, and of the enrollment and licensing of vessels in the coasting trade. It supervises the execution of the tonnage laws and the collection of tonnage duties; prepares an annual list of vessels registered under the American flag; and supervises the work of the United States shipping commissioners, who administer the laws for the protection of seamen.
The Steamboat Inspection Service is charged with the administration of the laws providing for the inspection of steam and sailing vessels registered under the American flag; with the examination and licensing of officers of such vessels, and with the protection of life and property on water. At the head of the service is an inspector general, who is aided by ten supervising inspectors, each of the latter having under his supervision a number of local inspectors stationed at the important commercial ports. All vessels must be inspected once a year as to their safety, construction, and facilities for protection against fire.
The Bureau of Fisheries has control of fish hatcheries in many parts of the country, for the propagation of useful food fishes; studies fish culture and the causes of the decrease of food fishes; collects statistics in regard to the fishery industry; and in general promotes the fishery interests. It supervises the salmon fisheries of Alaska and the fur seal industry on the Pribilof Islands of the Bering Sea.
The Bureau of Lighthouses is charged with the construction and maintenance of lighthouses, light vessels, beacons, fog signals, buoys, and other aids to navigation. The seaboard is divided up into lighthouse districts, in each of which is a naval officer who serves as inspector and has immediate charge of the supply, maintenance, and administration of the lighthouses in his district. At each lighthouse there is a keeper and one or more assistant keepers. The establishment now consists of more than 1,500 lighthouses and beacons, a fleet of light-ships, and more than 6,000 buoys. Since 1910 the service has been under the supervision of a commissioner.
The Bureau of Standards, established in 1901, is charged with the custody of the national standards, the testing of measuring apparatus, and the investigation of problems relating to standards of weighing and measuring.
The Coast and Geodetic Survey is charged with the survey of the coasts and of rivers to the head of tide water, and the publication of charts of the same; the investigation of questions relating to temperature, tides, currents, and the depths of navigable waters; the making of magnetic observations; the determination of geographic positions, and the like. The results are published in annual reports and special publications. It prepares tables, sailing directions, charts of the coasts, harbor charts, notices to mariners, and other publications for the use of mariners.
The Bureau of Foreign and Domestic Commerce is charged with fostering and developing the various manufacturing interests of the United States and extending the markets for manufactured articles abroad, by collecting and publishing all available and useful information concerning such markets and industries. It publishes statistics of commerce, finance, etc., consular and trade reports, and an annual volume known as the "Commercial Relations of the United States."
The Bureau of Corporations, created in 1903, was intended mainly to furnish an agency for the investigation of corporations suspected of violating the anti-"trust" laws of the United States. It was authorized to investigate the organization and methods of any corporation or joint-stock company engaged in foreign or interstate commerce (except common carriers subject to the interstate commerce act) and to report to the President such information as might be of value in enabling him to enforce the anti-"trust" laws. It was abolished in 1914 and its duties were devolved upon the newly created Federal Trade Commission, which has already been described (see p. 245).
The Department of Labor was created in 1913, and is charged with fostering, promoting, and developing the welfare of the wage earners of the United States, especially the improvement of the conditions under which they work and the advancement of their opportunities for profitable employment.
The Bureaus of Immigration and Naturalization, formerly consolidated in the department of commerce and labor, were divided in 1913 and transferred to the new department of labor. They are charged respectively with the administration of the immigration laws and the administration of the naturalization laws of the United States.[95]
The Bureau of Labor Statistics, formerly known as the bureau of labor, was transferred from the former department of commerce and labor in 1913. It is charged with collecting and diffusing among the people of the United States useful information on subjects connected with labor in the most general and comprehensive sense of that word, and especially upon its relations to capital, the hours of labor, the earnings of laboring men and women, and the means of promoting their material, social, intellectual, and moral prosperity.
It is especially charged with investigating the causes of and facts relating to all controversies and disputes between employers and employees. It publishes from time to time the results of elaborate investigations on various subjects relating to labor and industry, and also issues a bimonthly bulletin on special topics within the same field.
The Children's Bureau, established in 1912, is charged with the investigation of problems relating to the welfare of children, such as the conditions of the employment of children, the causes of infant mortality, etc.
In 1920 the Women's Bureau was established to promote the welfare of wage-earning women.
References.—Andrews, Manual of the Constitution, pp. 327-352. Beard, American Government and Politics, ch. xi. Bryce, The American Commonwealth (abridged edition), ch. viii. Fairlie, National Administration of the U. S., ch. iv. Harrison, This Country of Ours, chs. xi-xviii.
Documentary and Illustrative Material.—1. The Congressional Directory. 2. Annual reports of the heads of department and other officials, such as the commissioner of pensions, the commissioner of the general land office, the commissioner general of immigration, the civil service commission, the interstate commerce commission, etc.
Research Questions
1. What is the origin of the term "cabinet"? On what days are cabinet meetings now held?
2. What are the principal differences between the American cabinet and the British cabinet?
3. Do you think the members of the cabinet should be members of Congress? If not, ought they to be allowed seats in Congress without the right to vote?
4. Do you think the President ought ever to disregard the advice of his cabinet?
5. Give the names of five distinguished secretaries of state since 1789.
6. Washington's first cabinet was composed of an equal number of members from both political parties. Would it be wise to follow that practice?
7. Why is the secretary of the treasury required to make his annual reports to Congress while the other heads of departments make theirs to the President?
8. Would it be wise to elect the heads of departments of the federal government by popular vote as those of the state governments usually are?
9. Do you think the secretary of war ought to be an army officer as is the usual practice in Europe?
10. Why is the postmaster-generalship usually given to an active party manager?
11. Why is an importer ineligible under the law to appointment as secretary of the treasury?
12. Why is the department of state really misnamed? Would the title "department of foreign affairs" indicate more precisely the duties of the department?
13. What is your opinion of the movement to establish a department of public health?
14. Do you think the bureau of education should be raised to the rank of a department?
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