Prehistoric villages, castles, and towers of southwestern Colorado

by Jesse Walter Fewkes

INDEX

• Page
• Acmen Ruin, described, [29]
• Antiquities, minor, [66]
• Architecture, culture areas determined by, [69]
• Architecture, Pueblo—
• elements of, [73]
• of local origin, [70]
• Aztec architecture, unlike that of Pueblos, [69]
• Aztec Spring, ruins at, [23]
• described by Holmes, [24]
• described by Jackson, [24]
• ground plan of, [26]
• Beams, wooden, method of shaping, [67]
• Blanchard Ruin, [23]
• Bone, objects made of, [67]
• Bowlder Castle, description of, [57]
• Bowls, mortuary, [66]
• Bug Mesa Ruin, description of, [19]
• Bug Point Ruin, excavation of, showing unit type, [29]
• Burial customs, [66], [67]
• Burial places—
• mentioned by Morgan, [21]
• near Holmes Tower, [59]
• on Grass Mesa, [64]
• on the Dolores, [11]
• Burkhardt Ruin. See Mud Spring Ruin.
• Butte Ruin, description of, [32]
• Cannonball Ruin—
• description of, [30]
• structural features of, [42]
• Castles, structural features of, [40]
• Caves—
• apparently used for storage, [60]
• walled-up, [59]
• Cemeteries. See Burial places.
• Ceremonial rooms, Hopi and Zuñi, not true kivas, [71]
• Chaco Canyon Ruins, comparative age of, [72]
• Circular Ruins—
• distribution of, [31]
• structural features of, [31]
• Cliff-dwellers—
• culture of, [9]
• region occupied by, [9]
• Cliff-dwellings—
• architectural features of, [37]
• classification of, [15]
• double, [38]
• in Lost Canyon, [40]
• small, in the McElmo region, [37]
• Communal dwellings, [71]
• preceded by “small house”, [70]
• social conditions indicated by, [69]
• Consolidation of units, process of, [74]
• Corn, charred, found embedded in slag, [60]
• Davis Tower—
• ground plan, [55]
• location of, [55]
• Depressions indicating kivas, [42]
• Dove Creek Ruins, [28]
• Eight Mile Ruin, masonry in, [41]
• Emerson, J. W., description of ruin by, [34]
• Emerson Ruin, description of, [33]
• Entrances—
• to kivas, [42]
• to towers, [42]
• walled-up, [57]
• Eroded Bowlder House, description of, [49]
• Escalante and Dominguez, manuscript diary of, [36]
• Escalante Ruin, description of, [36]
• Far View House, a pueblo of pure type, [15], [16]
• Gibraltar House. See Stronghold House.
• Gila Valley compounds, [71]
• allied to Mexican buildings, [67]
• Goodman Point Ruin, description of, [17]
• Grass Mesa, cemetery on, [64]
• Great houses—
• date of construction undetermined, [43]
• possible use of, [42], [76]
• structural features of, [40]
• Hackberry Canyon cliff-house, a “unit type”, [40]
• Hackberry Castle, description of, [52]
• Hackberry group, elements composing, [74]
• Hill Canyon Ruins, [42]
• masonry of, [42]
• Holly Canyon—
• ground plan, [52]
• ruins of, [52]
• Holly Canyon group, elements composing, [74]
• Holly House Ruins, description of, [53]
• Holmes, W. H.—
• on probable use of towers, [42]
• on tower at Mud Spring, [20]
• report of, as reference work, [11]
• report on ruins by, [10], [11]
• slab inclosures described by, [62]
• Holmes Tower, description of, [58]
• Hopi ceremonial rooms, not true kivas, [71]
• Horseshoe House—
• compared with Sun Temple, [54]
• description of, [53]
• ground plan, [54]
• structural features of, [40]
• Hovenweep Castle—
• description of, [47]
• ground plan of, [47]
• Hovenweep district—
• a proposed National Monument, [44]
• canyons of, containing ruins, [44]
• ruins of, [44]
• Hovenweep House, description of, [46]
• Implements, stone, [67]
• Ingersoll, Ernest, newspaper article by, [11]
• Jackson, Wm. H.—
• report of, as work of reference, [11]
• report of, on ruins, [10], [11]
• slab inclosures described by, [62]
• Johnson Ruin, description of, [18]
• Keeley Towers, location of, [45]
• Kidder, A. V. See Morley and Kidder.
• Kiva of Unit type House, architectural features of, [51]
• Kivas—
• double-walled, [39]
• entrances to, [42]
• indicated by depressions, [42]
• indicative of social units, [70]
• structural features of, [37]
• Lion Tower—
• description of, [55]
• ground plan of, [55]
• Littrell Tower. See Lion Tower.
• Lost Canyon cliff-houses, [40]
• “Lower House,” of Aztec Spring Ruin, [25], [27]
• McElmo Bluff, ruins at, [60]
• McElmo district—
• distinctive feature of ruins of, [15]
• investigations in, of 19[17], [10]
• McElmo Ruins, latest work on, [14]
• McLean Basin—
• ground plan of ruins of, [56]
• pottery found in, [56]
• ruins of, described, [55]
• towers of, [56]
• Mancos region, towers of, [58]
• Masonry—
• of Hill Canyon Ruins, [42]
• skill shown in construction, [40]
• varieties of, [41]
• Megalithic ruins, [60]
• Megaliths, circular structures of, [60]
• Mesa Verde—
• cliff-dwellings and villages of, [9]
• culture of inhabitants of, [9]
• Mesa Verde Ruins, comparative age of, [72]
• Metates—
• found at Surouaro, [17]
• with skeletal remains, [67]
• Mexican tribes and the Pueblos, relation between, [69]
• Mitchell, H. L., notes contributed by, [11]
• Mitchell Spring Ruin, description of, [19]
• Mitchell Spring village, origin of the name, [12]
• Monoliths in walls, [30]
• Montezuma Valley, distinctive feature of ruins in, [15]
• Moorehead, Warren K., ruins described by, [12]
• Morgan, L. H.—
• investigation of ruins by, [10], [11]
• notes of, on ruins of Mesa Verde, [11]
• on Mitchell Spring Ruin, [19]
• on Mud Creek village, [21]
• Morley, S. G.—
• excavations conducted by, [30]
• work of, [13]
• Morley, S. G., and Kidder, A. V., ruins described by, [14]
• Mounds—
• near Mummy Lake, [15]
• of Mud Spring Ruin, [21]
• Mud Spring Ruin, description of, [20]
• Mummy Lake mounds, [15]
• Nelson, N. C., on Pueblo ruins, [17]
• Newberry, J. S., on Surouaro, [17]
• Nordenskiöld, Baron G., work of, [13]
• Oak Spring House, description of, [29]
• Old Spanish Trail, route of, [36], [68]
• Open-air ruins of Dove Creek, [28]
• Parker, Gordon, assistance of, [40]
• Pictographs—
• colored, [65]
• covered with plaster, [65]
• incised on stone, [65]
• near Ruin 5, [49]
• near slab inclosures, [63]
• Pierson Lake Ruin. See Squaw Point Ruin.
• Pilasters lacking in towers, [42]
• Plastering, interiors covered with, [41]
• Pottery—
• culture areas determined by, [69]
• description of, [66]
• Prudden, T. Mitchell—
• articles by, on ruins of San Juan watershed, [12]
• excavations conducted by, [19]
• on towers as part of composite ruins, [44]
• Pueblo architecture—
• elements of complex, [73]
• of local origin, [70]
• Pueblo culture, direction of its migration, [72]
• Pueblo tribes, origin of, [69]
• “Pure type” defined, [16]
• Reservoir Group, named by J. Ward Emerson, [34]
• Reservoirs, Indian—
• crossed by Old Bluff Road, [45]
• natural and artificial, [64]
• Road Canyon, formerly called the Wickyup, [57]
• Rooms, with megalithic walls, [15]
• Ruin 3, description of, [48]
• Ruin 4, description of, [49]
• Ruin 5, description of, [49]
• Ruin 6, description of, [49]
• Ruin 7. See Eroded Bowlder House.
• Ruin 8. See Twin Towers.
• Ruin 9, description of, [50]
• Ruin [10]. See Unit type House.
• Ruin [11]. See Stronghold House.
• Ruin Canyon—
• duplication of name misleading, [45]
• ruin in, [30]
• unit type houses of, [40]
• Ruins—
• classification of, [14]
• evidences of age of, [73]
• Sand Canyon—
• cliff-dwellings in, [38]
• scaffold in, [38]
• tower in, [57]
• Scaffold for lookout, [38]
• Semicircular ruins, description of, [22]
• Slab inclosures—
• described by Jackson, [62]
• described by Holmes, [62]
• Slab structures—
• box-like, [60]
• circular, [60]
• pottery found near, [61]
• theories concerning, [61]
• “Small house” type of architecture, [70]
• Social organization, relation between architecture and, [75]
• “Spanish Trail.” See Old Spanish Trail.
• Square Tower Canyon—
• classification of ruins in, [46]
• directions for reaching, [45]
• map of, [45]
• new name for Ruin Canyon, [45]
• Squaw Point Ruin, described, [28]
• Stone Arch House, location of, [38]
• Stronghold House, description of, [52]
• Sun Dial Palace, named by J. Ward Emerson, [34]
• Sun Temple—
• discovery of, [10]
• evidence of age of, [73]
• possible use of, [76]
• unique ground plan of, [42]
• Surouaro—
• description of, [16]
• named by Newberry, [12]
• signification of name, [17]
• Towers—
• D-shaped, [44]
• date of construction undetermined, [43]
• entrance to, [42]
• entrance walled up, [57]
• forms of, [43]
• of Holly Canyon, [52]
• of McLean Basin, [56]
• of Mancos region, [58]
• of Sand Canyon, [57]
• of Wickyup Canyon, [57]
• possible use of, [42]
• structural features of, [40]
• windows absent in, [42]
• Towers and great houses—
• form and construction of, [15]
• situation of, [15]
• “Triple-walled tower”—
• at Mud Spring Ruin, [20]
• condition of, in 1881, [21]
• visited by Holmes, [11]
• Twin Towers—
• description of, [50]
• ground plan of, [50]
• Unit type—
• defined, [16], [39]
• described by Prudden, [12]
• origin of, [72]
• unlike small house of Little Colorado, [70]
• Unit type House—
• description of, [50]
• ground plan of, [51]
• Unit type houses—
• in cave, [39]
• in Hackberry Canyon, [40]
• “Upper House” of Aztec Spring Ruin, [25], [26], [27]
• Villages—
• defined, [16]
• essential features of, [14], [16]
• Weapons, iron, [68]
• Wickyup Canyon—
• description of, [57]
• towers in, [57]
• Wolley Ranch Ruin, description of, [22]
• Wood Canyon Ruins, description of, [32]
• Yellow Jacket Canyon—
• formerly known as Hovenweep, [57]
• investigations in, [10]
• towers of, [54]
• Zuñi ceremonial rooms not true kivas, [71]

PLATE 1

a, BUTTE RUIN

b, AZTEC SPRING RUIN

c, SUROUARO,
YELLOW JACKET SPRING RUIN

(Photographs by Jacob Wirsula)

PLATE 2

a, BLANCHARD RUIN

b, BLANCHARD RUIN,
MOUND 2

c, SUROUARO,
YELLOW JACKET SPRING RUIN

(Photographs by Jacob Wirsula)

PLATE 3

a, ACMEN RUIN

(Photograph by T. G. Lemmon)

b, MUD SPRING RUIN

(Photograph by Jacob Wirsula)

PLATE 4

a, BUILDING ON ROCK PINNACLE,
NEAR STONE ARCH,
SAND CANYON

b, STONE ARCH,
SAND CANYON

(Photographs by J. Walter Fewkes)

PLATE 5

a, TOWER IN SAND CANYON

b, UNIT TYPE HOUSE
IN SAND CANYON

(Photographs by T. G. Lemmon)

PLATE 6

a, STONE ARCH HOUSE,
SAND CANYON

b, CLIFF-HOUSE,
SHOWING BROKEN CORNER

(Photographs by Jacob Wirsula)

PLATE 7

a, SCAFFOLD IN SAND CANYON

b, STORAGE CIST
IN MANCOS VALLEY

c, PICTOGRAPHS NEAR
UNIT TYPE HOUSE IN CAVE

(Photographs by T. G. Lemmon)

PLATE 8

DOUBLE CLIFF-DWELLING,
SAND CANYON

(Photograph by T. G. Lemmon)

PLATE 9

a, CLIFF-DWELLING
UNDER HORSESHOE RUIN

b, CLIFF-DWELLING,
RUIN CANYON

(Photographs by Jacob Wirsula)

PLATE 10

a, KIVA OF CLIFF RUIN,
LOST CANYON

b, CLIFF RUIN,
LOST CANYON

(Photographs by Gordon Parker)

PLATE 11

a, SQUARE TOWER IN
SQUARE TOWER CANYON

b, TOWER IN McLEAN BASIN

c, RUIN IN HILL CANYON,
UTAH

(Photographs by T. G. Lemmon)

PLATE 12

HEAD OF SOUTH FORK,
SQUARE TOWER CANYON

(Photograph by Geo. L. Beam. Courtesy of the Denver & Rio Grande Railroad)

PLATE 13

NORTH FORK OF SQUARE TOWER CANYON,
LOOKING WEST

a, Hovenweep Castle. b, Hovenweep House.
c, Tower No. 9. d, Tower on point at junction
of North and South Forks.
e, Twin Towers. f, Unit type House

(Photograph by Geo. L. Beam. Courtesy of the Denver & Rio Grande Railroad)

PLATE 14

a, HOVENWEEP HOUSE AND HOVENWEEP CASTLE,
FROM THE SOUTH

b, HOVENWEEP CASTLE,
FROM THE WEST

c, HOVENWEEP CASTLE,
FROM THE SOUTH

(Photographs by Jacob Wirsula)

PLATE 15

a, WEST END OF TWIN TOWER,
SHOWING SMALL CLIFF-HOUSE

(Photograph by J. Walter Fewkes)

b, TWIN TOWERS,
SQUARE TOWER CANYON,
FROM THE SOUTH

(Photograph by Jacob Wirsula)

c, TOWER 4,
JUNCTION OF NORTH AND SOUTH FORKS,
SQUARE TOWER CANYON

(Photograph by Jacob Wirsula)

PLATE 16

a, HOVENWEEP CASTLE, WITH SLEEPING UTE MOUNTAIN,
SOUTH FORK, SQUARE TOWER CANYON

b, ENTRANCE TO SOUTH FORK,
SQUARE TOWER CANYON

(Photographs by Geo. L. Beam. Courtesy of the Denver & Rio Grande Railroad)

PLATE 17

STRONGHOLD HOUSE,
SQUARE TOWER CANYON

(Photograph by Geo. L. Beam. Courtesy of the Denver & Rio Grande Railroad)

PLATE 18

a, HEAD OF HOLLY CANYON

b, SOUTH SIDE OF HOVENWEEP CASTLE,
SQUARE TOWER CANYON

(Photographs by Geo. L. Beam. Courtesy of the Denver & Rio Grande Railroad)

PLATE 19

a, HOLLY CANYON GROUP,
FROM THE EAST

(Photograph by Jacob Wirsula)

b, GREAT HOUSE AT HEAD OF HOLLY CANYON,
FROM THE NORTH

(Photograph by T. G. Lemmon)

c, UNIT TYPE RUIN,
FROM THE EAST

(Photograph by T. G. Lemmon)

PLATE 20

a, GREAT HOUSE AT HEAD OF HOLLY CANYON,
FROM THE SOUTH

b, RUIN B AT HEAD OF HOLLY CANYON,
FROM THE WEST

c, GREAT HOUSE
AT HEAD OF HOLLY CANYON

(Photographs by Jacob Wirsula)

PLATE 21

a, GREAT HOUSE,
HOLLY CANYON

b, STRONGHOLD HOUSE AND TWIN TOWERS,
SQUARE TOWER CANYON

(Photographs by Geo. L. Beam. Courtesy of the Denver & Rio Grande Railroad)

PLATE 22

a, HOVENWEEP CASTLE

b, SOUTHERN PART OF CANNONBALL RUIN,
McELMO CANYON

(Photographs by T. G. Lemmon)

PLATE 23

a, SQUARE TOWER WITH ROUNDED CORNERS,
HOLLY CANYON

(Photograph by Jacob Wirsula)

b, HOLLY TOWER
IN HOLLY CANYON

(Photograph by Jacob Wirsula)

c, HORSESHOE HOUSE

(Photograph by T. G. Lemmon)

PLATE 24

a, HORSESHOE RUIN

(Photograph by Jacob Wirsula)

b, BOWLDER CASTLE,
ROAD (WICKYUP) CANYON

(Photograph by T. G. Lemmon)

PLATE 25

a, CLOSED DOORWAY
IN BOWLDER CASTLE,
ROAD (WICKYUP) CANYON

(Photograph by J. Walter Fewkes)

b, BROKEN-DOWN ROUND TOWER,
SQUARE TOWER CANYON

(Photograph by Jacob Wirsula)

PLATE 26

a, NORTH SIDE OF TOWER,
SQUARE TOWER CANYON

(Photograph by Jacob Wirsula)

b, D-SHAPED TOWER NEAR DAVIS RANCH,
YELLOW JACKET CANYON

(Photograph by Jacob Wirsula)

c, MODEL OF TOWERS IN McLEAN BASIN

(Photograph by De Lancey Gill)

PLATE 27

ROUND TOWER AND D-SHAPED TOWER
IN McLEAN BASIN

(Photograph by J. Walter Fewkes)

PLATE 28

a, D-SHAPED TOWER
IN McLEAN BASIN,
SHOWING CROSS SECTION OF WALL

b, ROUND TOWER
IN McLEAN BASIN,
SHOWING STANDING STONE SLAB

(Photographs by J. Walter Fewkes)

PLATE 29

a, HOLMES TOWER,
MANCOS CANYON

b, LION TOWER,
YELLOW JACKET CANYON

(Photographs by T. G. Lemmon)

PLATE 30

a, TOWER ABOVE CAVATE STOREHOUSES,
MANCOS CANYON BELOW BRIDGE

b, TOWER ON MESA BETWEEN ERODED CLIFFS
AND BRIDGE OVER MANCOS CANYON
ON CORTEZ SHIP-ROCK ROAD

(Photographs by T. G. Lemmon)

PLATE 31

a, TOWER ABOVE CAVATE STOREHOUSES,
MANCOS CANYON BELOW BRIDGE

b, ERODED SHALE FORMATION
IN WHICH ARE SMALL WALLED
CAVATE STOREHOUSES

(Photographs by T. G. Lemmon)

PLATE 32

a, RESERVOIR NEAR PICKET CORRAL,
SHOWING RETAINING WALL

b, KIVA, UNIT TYPE HOUSE,
SQUARE TOWER CANYON

(Photographs by T. G. Lemmon)

---

PLATE 33

PICTOGRAPHS,
YELLOW JACKET CANYON

---

Footnotes:

[1] Ancient Ruins in Southwestern Colorado. Rept. U.S. Geol. Surv. Terr. (Hayden Survey) for 1874, Washington, 1876.

[2] The situation of a spring near Hovenweep Castle indicates that the Great House may be the Hovenweep Castle of early writers.

[3] Report on the ancient ruins of Southwestern Colorado. Tenth Ann. Rept. U. S. Geol. Surv. Terr. (Hayden Survey) for 1876, Washington, 1879.

[4] The Prehistoric Ruins of the San Juan Watershed in Utah, Arizona, Colorado, and New Mexico., Amer. Anthrop., n. s. vol. v, no. 2, 1903.

[5] The Circular Kivas of Small Ruins in the San Juan Watershed. Amer. Anthrop., n. s. vol. xvi, no. 1, 1914.

[6] Memoirs Amer. Anthrop. Asso., vol. v, no. 1, 1918.

[7] Amer. Anthrop., n. s. vol. v, no. 2, 1903.

[8] The Excavation of the Cannonball Ruins in Southwestern Colorado. Amer. Anthrop., n. s. vol. x, no. 4, 1908.

[9] The Archaeology of McElmo Canyon, Colorado. El Palacio, vol. iv, no. 4, Santa Fe, 1917.

[10] The dimensions of buildings and towers given in this article are welcome additions to our knowledge, but from lack of ground plans one can not fully determine the arrangement of rooms designated in individual ruins.

[11] A Prehistoric Mesa Verde Pueblo and its People. Smithson. Rept. for 1916, pp. 461-488, 1917. Far View House—a Pure Type of Pueblo Ruin. Art and Archaeology, vol. vi, no. 3, 1917.

[12] The situation of the cemetery, one of the characters of Prudden’s “unit type,” appears constant in one kiva buildings, but is variable in the pure type, and, as shown in the author’s application of the unit type to the crowded condition in Spruce-tree House and other cliff-houses, does not occur in the same position as in pueblos of the pure type open to the sky.

[13] In his valuable study, Pueblo Ruins of the Galisteo Basin, New Mexico (Anthrop. Papers of the Amer. Mus. Nat. Hist., vol. Xv, pt. 1, 1914), Mr. Nelson figures (Plan I, B) an embedded circular kiva in what he calls the “historic part” of the Galisteo Ruin, but does not state how he distinguishes the historic from the prehistoric part of this building. The other kivas at Galisteo are few in number and not embedded, but situated outside the house masses as in historic pueblos.

[14] Report of the exploring expedition from Santa Fe, New Mexico, to the Junction of the Grand and Green Rivers of the Great Colorado of the West in 1859, under the command of Capt. J. N. Macomb, p. 88, Washington, 1876.

[15] Memoirs Amer. Anthrop. Asso., vol. V, no. 1, 1918.

[16] Houses and House-life of the American Aborigines. Cont. N. Amer. Ethn., vol. IV, pp. 189-190, 1831.

[17] Prudden excavated a unit type ruin from one of the Mitchell Spring mounds. (Amer. Anthrop., vol. XVI, no. 1, 1914.)

[18] Op. cit., pp. 398-399.

[19] Op. cit., p. 190.

[20] Although the kivas of Mud Spring Ruin have not been excavated there is little doubt from surface indications that they belong to the unit type.

[21] Tenth Ann. Rept. U. S. Geol. Surv. Terr. (Hayden Survey) for 1876, pl. xlviii, fig. 2, 1879.

[22] Rept. U. S. Geol. Survey Terr. (Hayden Survey) for 1874, Washington, 1876.

[23] Op. cit.

[24] Op. cit., pp. 377-378.

[25] Op. cit., p. 400.

[26] Op. cit., pl. xl.

[27] Mr. Van Kleeck, of Denver, has offered this ruin to the Public Parks Service for permanent preservation. It is proposed to rename it the Yucca House National Monument.

[28] Amer. Anthrop., n. s. vol. x, no. 4, pp. 596-610, 1908.

[29] Op. cit., pp. 428-429.

[30] It is premature to declare that the kivas in circular ruins do not belong to the vaulted-roofed type simply from want of observation to that effect. In Penasco Blanco and other ruins of the Chaco Canyon group, as shown in ground plans, they appear to be embedded in secular rooms. Additional studies of the architectural features of circular pueblos are desirable.

[31] The letter referring to the circular ruin near Dolores was prepared by Mr. Emerson, the discoverer of this ruin, and was transmitted to the Smithsonian Institution as part of a phase of cooperative work with the Forest Service, by Mr. Gordon Parker, superintendent of the Montezuma Forest Reserve.

[32] Also see detailed map of construction of Sun Dial Palace ([fig. 4]).

[33] Fewkes, J. W., The First Pueblo Ruin in Colorado Mentioned in Spanish Documents. Science, vol. xlvi, Sept. 14, 1917.

[34] Diario y Dereotero de las nuevas descubrimientos de tierras a los r’bos N. N. OE. OE. del Nuevo Mexico por los R. R. P. P. Fr. Silvester Velez Escalante, Fr. Francisco Atanacio Dominguez, 1776. (Vide Sen. Ex. Doc. 33d Congress, No. 78, pt. 3, pp. 119-127.)

[35] Attention may be called to the fact that often we find very commodious caves without correspondingly large cliff-houses, even in the Mesa Verde.

[36] Sun Temple, however, is a seeming exception and follows the McElmo rule of proximity; several large cliff-dwellings occur under the cliff on which this mysterious building stands.

[37] Taken from a point across the canyon, the only one from which both houses can be included in the same photograph.

[38] For a good example of cliff-houses at different levels, see Cliff-Dwellings in Fewkes Canyon, Mesa Verde National Park, Holmes Anniversary Volume.

[39] Antiquities of the Mesa Verde National Park: Spruce-tree House. Bull. 41, Bur. Amer. Ethn., 1909.

[40] The name Ruin Canyon, often applied also to Square Tower Canyon, is retained for this canyon.

[41] Smithson. Misc. Colls., vol. 68, no. 1, 1917.

[42] Our knowledge of the entrances into kivas of the vaulted-roofed type is not all that could be desired. Kiva D of Spruce-tree House has a passageway opening through the floor of an adjacent room, and Kiva A of Cliff Palace has the same feature. Doctor Prudden has found lateral entrances from kivas into adjoining rooms in his unit type pueblo. The majority of cliff-dwellers’ kivas show no evidence of lateral entrances.

[43] Mr. Jackson, op. cit., p. 415, regarded it likely that the towers were “lookouts or places of refuge for the sheep herders who brought their sheep or goats up here to graze, just as the Navajos used to and as the Utes do at the present time.” This explanation is impossible, for there is no evidence that the builders of the towers had either sheep or goats, the Navajos and the Utes obtaining both from the Spaniards.

[44] The tower figured by Prudden (Amer. Anthrop., n. s. vol. v, no. 2, pl. xviii, fig. 2) as a “round tower” is really semicircular, as shown in the ground plan ([fig. 14]) here published.

[45] Ibid., pp. 241, 263, 273.

[46] Among the older photographs seen by the author are those of W. H. Jackson, prints of which are on exhibition in the State Historical Museum at Denver, Colo.

[47] The “unit type” was first recognized by Doctor Prudden in his illuminating studies of the pueblos of the San Juan Basin. The author was the first to point out its existence in cliff-houses of the same area.

[48] Circular Kivas in San Juan Watershed. Amer. Anthrop., n. s. vol. 16, no. 1, 1914.

[49] Excavation of the Cannonball Ruins in southwestern Colorado. Amer. Anthrop., n. s. vol. x, no. 4, 1908.

[50] Explorations in southeastern Utah. Amer. Journ. Archæol., 2d ser., vol. xiv, no. 3, 1910.

[51] This tower is reputed to be the home of a mountain lion, hence the name Lion House.

[52] A good figure of these cavate rooms is given by Holmes, op. cit. Comparing the photograph with his figure it appears that their surrounding shale has worn away somewhat in the last four decades.

[53] Tenth Ann. Rept. U. S. Geol. Surv. (Hayden Survey) for 1876, p. 414, 1879.

[54] The use of these objects as heirlooms in the Antelope altar of the Hopi supports the tradition of the Snake people that their ancestors brought them from the San Juan.

[55] Temples of Quetzalcoatl, the Plumed Serpent Sun God, are circular buildings like towers.

[56] The likeness of the Mesa Verde cliff-houses to the pueblos of Chaco Canyon was long ago suggested by Nordenskiöld. The excavation of Far View House proved that suggestion to be true.

[57] This subject is treated at length in my report on Casa Grande in the Twenty-eighth Annual Report of the Bureau of American Ethnology.

[58] These acculturation modifications due to Hispanic influences in modern pueblos are too well marked to need more than a mention.

[59] The author uses the words “pure type” instead of “unit type” as a general term to denote “one-unit types,” “two-unit types,” “three-unit types,” etc.

[60] Amer. Anthrop., n. s. vol. viii, no. 1, 1906.

[61] Fourteenth Ann. Rept. Bur. Amer. Ethn., pt. 1, p. 523. This village is spoken of as “lately destroyed;” in other words it was a ruin in 1540.

Transcriber’s Notes:

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The illustrations have been moved so that they do not break up paragraphs and so that they are next to the text they illustrate.

Typographical and punctuation errors have been silently corrected.