A Brief History of the United States

by Joel Dorman Steele

(EIGHTEENTH PRESIDENT—TWO TERMS: 1869-1877.)

DOMESTIC AFFAIRS.—Pacific Railroad.—The year 1869 was made memorable by the opening of this road, which completed the union between the Atlantic and the Pacific. The traveler can now pass from New York to San Francisco, a distance of about 3,400 miles, in less than a week. This great highway has linked the West to the East by iron bands, has carried thousands of pioneers into the hitherto wild country along its route, developed fresh sources of industry and mines of wealth, and opened the United States to the silks, teas, and spices of Asia. American ingenuity has solved the problem which foiled Columbus and the olden navigators. It has made for itself a route to India.

[Footnote: Already other roads across the continent are constructing. The Northern Pacific has its eastern terminus on Lake Superior, and its western will be on Puget Sound. Though far to the north, yet in Oregon there is no winter weather, but only a rainy season, as in California. In portions of Dakota, Idaho, and Montana, cattle range the natural-grass pastures during the whole winter; while, in Washington Territory, roses blossom the year around. For the construction of this road public lands have been given by Congress, to the amount of over 80,000,000 acres, which is considerably in excess of the total area of the six New England States. The length of this road will be 1,800 miles, with a branch of 200 miles to Portland, Oregon. The Southern Pacific is to extend from Shreveport, La., to San Diego, Cal., a distance of 1,514 miles. This will run through a country so mild as to avoid the necessity of the "snow-sheds" which form so singular a feature of the Central Pacific.]

[Illustration: ULYSSES S GRANT]

The Fifteenth Amendment, which guarantees to all the right of suffrage, irrespective of "race, color, or previous condition of servitude," having been ratified by the requisite number of States, was formally announced as a part of the Constitution, by Hamilton Fish, Secretary of State, March 30, 1870.

Prosperity of the Country.—The nation rapidly recovered from the effects of war. The price of gold fell to 110, and the national debt was reduced $204,000,000 during the first two years of this administration. A general amnesty to all connected with the Civil War was proclaimed, and the bitter feelings engendered by fraternal strife fast melted away. The South, devastated and scourged by the march of contending armies, accustomed herself to the novel conditions of free labor, rebuilt her railroads, cultivated her fields, and repaired the ravages of war. The census of 1870 showed that the population of the United States was over thirty-eight millions, an increase of about seven millions, while the manufacturing establishments of the country had nearly, if not quite, doubled in number and value during the preceding decade.

Fires.—l. A great fire broke out in Chicago, Sunday night, October 8, 1871. For two days it raged with tremendous violence, devastating 3,000 acres. 25,000 buildings were burned, $200,000,000 worth of property was destroyed, and 100,000 persons were rendered homeless. Contributions for the sufferers were taken in nearly all parts of the world, and over $7,500,000 were raised. 2. During the same fall, wide-spread conflagrations raged in the forests of Wisconsin, Minnesota, and Michigan. Entire villages were consumed. 1,500 people perished in Wisconsin alone. 3. An extensive fire occurred in Boston November 9, 1872. It swept over sixty acres in the center of the wholesale trade of that city, and destroyed $70, 000,000 worth of property.

FOREIGN AFFAIRS.—Treaty of Washington.—The refusal of the English government to pay the damages to American commerce caused by the Alabama and other Confederate cruisers (p. 268) produced bitter feeling, and even threatened war. A high commission, composed of distinguished statesmen and jurists from both countries, accordingly met in Washington, and arranged the basis of a treaty between the United States and Great Britain, settling this and other causes of dispute. According to its provisions, the claim for losses was submitted to a board of arbitrators, who, having convened at Geneva, Switzerland, awarded the United States $15,500, 000 in gold.

[Illustration: HON. HAMILTON FISH, JUSTICE NELSON,
EARL GREY, PROF. BERNARD, GEN. SCHENCK,
ATTY.-GEN. WILLIAMS, LORD TENTERDEN, SIR JOHN MACDONALD.
THE HIGH JOINT COMMISSION IN SESSION.]

The difficulty with regard to the Northwestern boundary between the United States and British America was submitted to the Emperor of Germany, and was decided in favor of the United States. Thus happily all danger of war was averted, and the great principle of the settlement of disputes by peaceful arbitration rather than by the sword was finally established.

Proposed Annexation of Santo Domingo.

[Footnote: The island of Santo Domingo is the "New World's classic land." Here Columbus founded the first white colony on this side of the Atlantic, and transporting hither animals, trees, shrubs, vines, and grains, so to speak, grafted the old world upon the new. Hither, also, flocked the bold, adventurous, ambitious Spanish multitude (see p. 26). Great cities sprung up, rivaling the majestic proportions of Moorish capitals. Magnificent enterprises were set on foot and prospered. Here Ponce de Leon renewed his ambition, and set forth afresh on an expedition to Porto Rico, and thence to Florida, in search of the Fountain of Youth (see p. 26). "A century before Henry Hudson sailed up the noble river that perpetuates his name—more than a century before the Puritans landed at Plymouth Rock—the city of Santo Domingo was a rich and populous center of industry and trade. Some of its palaces and churches still remain, massive and splendid; among them, the great cathedral begun in 1514 and finished in 1540." But the Spanish policy of greed and oppression gradually undermined itself. In 1795, when Santo Domingo was ceded to France, it was "abandoned to such a degree that it was a mere wilderness, devoted to the grazing of cattle." Yet, in spite of past tyranny, of neglect, and the knowledge that they had been "sold like a herd of cattle" to a foreign master, the Dominicans were loyal to Spain, and when Napoleon I. took possession of Madrid in 1808, they indignantly rose in arms, overpowered the French garrisons, and made themselves masters of their own country. They then rehoisted the Spanish flag, and in 1814, by the treaty of Paris, Santo Domingo was formally restored to that country. Meanwhile, the few years of interval had taught them some of the pleasures of liberty, and the seed then implanted grew rapidly. In 1821, they severed their connection with the mother country, but only to be absorbed by the more thriving and populous Hayti. In 1844, the Dominican Republic declared itself free and independent. Great Britain, France, Spain, Denmark, Holland, and Sardinia formally recognized it, and sent representatives to its capital. After seventeen years of struggle against European intrigue and Haytien aggression, it again lapsed into a Spanish dependency. Its story for the next four years is successively one of oppression, of revolt, of bloody wars, and of ultimate success. The Spanish fleet took final leave in 1865, and left the brave Dominicans to their well-earned freedom.]

This republic, comprising a large part of the island of Hayti, applied for admission to the United States. A commission of eminent men, appointed by the President to visit the island and examine its condition, reported favorably. The measure, however, was rejected by Congress.

"The Virginius." —In 1868, Cuba attempted to throw off the Spanish yoke. Great sympathy was felt in the United States for the patriots, and repeated efforts were made to send them aid. In spite of the vigilance of the authorities, the Virginius, loaded with men and supplies, escaped from port in the fall of this year. While still on the high seas, and flying the American flag, she was captured by the Spanish war steamer Tornado and carried into Santiago. Many of her crew and passengers were summarily shot. The United States consul at that port protested in vain. President Grant interfered with a strong hand. The Virginius was thereupon released, and suitable apologies were made for the insult offered to the United States flag.

POLITICAL PARTIES.—The liberal republican party, consisting of republicans opposed to the administration, nominated Horace Greeley of New York for the presidential term commencing 1873 The democratic party endorsed this nomination. The republicans renomimated President Grant, who was elected

[Footnote: Horace Greeley was born at Amherst, N. H., February 3, 1811. At two years of age, he began to study the newspapers given him for amusement; and at four, could read anything placed before him, At six, he was able to spell any word in the English language was somewhat versed in geography and arithmetic and had read the entire Bible. His passion for books increased with his years, and at an early age he determined to be a printer. At fifteen he entered the office of the Northern Spectator at East Poultney, Vt. His wages were forty dollars a year, the greater part of which was saved and sent to his father, then struggling in poverty upon a farm in Pennsylvania. The Spectator having failed in 1831 Greeley went to New York. He landed with ten dollars and a scanty outfit tied in a handkerchief. Franklin like, he traversed the streets in search of work—a long stooping, stockingless figure in linen roundabout short trousers and drooping hat, with his out grown cotton wristbands made to meet with twine. Diligence, integrity and ability won him a ready rise when employment was at last secured. Ten years later he founded the New York Tribune. He served in Congress in 1848-49 where he was known for his opposition to the abuses of the mileage system. When civil war seemed imminent, he advocated a peaceable division of the country but after it opened he urged a vigorous prosecution of hostilities. At the close of the war, he pleaded for immediate conciliation and was a signer of the bail bond which restored Jefferson Davis to liberty after two years imprisonment in Fortress Monroe.

Horace Greeley was pure, simple and conscientious in character He had a peculiar disregard for dress and neglected many of the courtesies of society, but he was a true gentleman at heart and possessed rare gifts in conversation. He was fond of agriculture and spent his leisure days on his farm at Chappaqua. Just before the close of the presidential canvass his wife died and this together with the desertion of friends and the excitement of the contest unsettled his mimd. He was carried to a private asylum where he died November 39,1872.]

[Illustration: HORACE GREELEY FOUNDER OF THE TRIBUNE]

GRANT'S SECOND TERM—DOMESTIC AFFAIRS.—The Modoc Indians having refused to stay upon their reservation in Oregon, troops were sent against them The savages thereupon retreated to their fastnesses in the Lava Beds. The peace commissioners, hoping to arrange the difficulty, held a conference with the chiefs. In the midst of the council, the Indians treacherously slew General Canby and Rev. Dr. Thomas and wounded Mr. Meachem. The Modocs were then bombarded in their stronghold, and finally forced to surrender. Captain Jack and several of the leaders of the band were executed at Fort Klamath, October 3, 1873.

The Credit Mobilier was a company organized for the purpose of building the Pacific Railroad. The undertaking proved a profitable one, and enormous dividends were paid. An investigation developed the startling fact that various high officers of the government had accepted presents of stock, the value of which necessarily depended largely upon their official action.

Railroad Panic.—In the autumn of 1873, Jay Cooke & Co., bankers of Philadelphia, having engaged too extensively in railroad schemes, failed. A financial crisis ensued, and hundreds of prominent firms all over the Union were involved in ruin. A settled stringency of the money market and a stagnation of business followed.

Centennial Anniversaries.—The year 1875, being the hundredth anniversary of the first year of the Revolutionary War, was marked by various centennial observances. April 19, the battles of Lexington and Concord were celebrated with patriotic pride. May 20, the citizens of Mecklenburg County, North Carolina, honored the memory of those who, at Charlotte, signed a Declaration of Independence only ten days after the capture of Ticonderoga. June 17 witnessed, at Bunker Hill, an unprecedented gathering from all parts of the country, Northern and Southern soldiers vying in devotion to the flag of the Union.

The Centennial Exhibition.—To commemorate the signing of the Declaration of Independence, an exhibition of the arts and industries of all nations was held at Philadelphia, during the summer of 1876. The beautiful grounds of Fairmount Park were the scene of this imposing display. The principal edifices were the Main Exhibition Building, the Memorial Hall, the Machinery Hall, the Horticultural and Agricultural Buildings, and the Woman's Pavilion. The first named covered an area of over twenty-six acres In addition to these structures, there were more than two hundred smaller buildings scattered over the extensive grounds. The exhibition opened May 10, and lasted six months. The average daily attendance was about 61,000 persons.

[Illustration: THE UNITED STATES GOVERNMENT BUILDING
AT THE CENTENNIAL EXHIBITION]

[Footnote: See Barnes's Hundred Years of American Independence, a supplement to which is entirely devoted to the Centennial Exhibition.]

War with the Sioux (1877)

[Footnote: The Black Hills which are in Dakota and Wyoming belonged to the Sioux Reservation But gold having been found there bands of miners began to prospect on the Indian domain, a bill was introduced into Congress to extinguish the Indian title to a portion of the Black Hill region and finally a new treaty as negotiated But the unwillingness of the Indians to leave the encroachments of the whites and the advent of surveyors and troops all combined to provoke hostilities]

The Sioux Indians having refused to go upon the reservation assigned them by treaty and committed many atrocities, a force of regular troops was sent against them. General Custer led the advance with the Seventh Cavalry, while General Terry moved up the Big Horn to attack them in the rear. On the 25th of June, General Custer suddenly came upon the enemy. Without waiting for support, he detached Colonel Reno with four companies to fall upon the back of the Indian village, while he immediately charged the savages in front with the remainder of his command. A desperate conflict ensued. General Custer, his two brothers, his nephew, and every one of his men were killed. Colonel Keno was surrounded, but held his ground on the bluffs until reinforcements arrived. The Indians were soon beaten on every hand, and by the following spring were so scattered as to be comparatively harmless.

[Illustration: GROUP OF SIOUX INDIANS.]

POLITICAL PARTIES.—The republican party nominated General Rutherford B. Hayes, of Ohio, for President, and Wm. A. Wheeler, of New York, for Vice-President. The democratic party chose Samuel J. Tilden, of New York, and Thomas A. Hendricks, of Indiana. The independent greenback party selected Peter Cooper, of New York, and Samuel F. Cary, of Ohio. This presidential campaign was so hotly contested between the republicans and the democrats, and such irregularities were charged against the elections in Oregon, South Carolina, Florida, and Louisiana, that both these parties claimed the victory. In order to settle the dispute, Congress agreed to refer the contested election returns to a Joint Electoral Commission, composed of five senators, five representatives, and five judges of the Supreme Court.

[Illustration: RUTHERFORD B. HAYES.]

[Footnote: The Senators chosen were Messrs. Bayard, Edmunds,
Frelinghuysen, Morton, and Thurman. The Representatives were
Messrs. Abbott, Garfield, Hoar, Hunton, and Payne. The Associate
Justices of the Supreme Court selected were Messrs. Bradley,
Clifford, Field, Miller, and Strong.]

This body decided that 185 electoral votes had been cast for Hayes and Wheeler, and 184 for Tilden and Hendricks. The republican candidates were therefore declared to be elected.

[Footnote: The principal political questions which agitated the country during this campaign were, (1) the Southern policy of the government, and (2) the civil service reform. It was held on one side that negroes and republicans at the South were intimidated by force and prevented from voting, and that the presence of the United States troops was necessary to the preservation of the rights of the citizens, free discussion, a free ballot, and an enforcement of the laws. It was asserted, on the other side, that the use of the troops for such purposes was unconstitutional; that the intimidation was only imaginary, or could be readily controlled by the local authorities; and that the presence of the military provoked violence and was a constant insult and menace to the States. President Jackson, as we have seen (p. 175), introduced into our politics the principle of "rotation in office." This policy steadily gained favor until Marcy's maxim, "To the victors belong the spoils," became the commonly-accepted view; and after every important election, the successful party was accustomed to fill even the menial offices of government with its favorites. Under such a system, the qualification of the applicant was of much less importance than the service he had done the party. Hayes promised to make "no dismissal except for cause, and no promotion except for merit.">[