SECOND WAR WITH GREAT BRITAIN, 1812-14.

SURRENDER OF DETROIT (August 16).—As in the previous wars, it was determined to invade Canada. General William Hull accordingly crossed over from Detroit and encamped on Canadian soil. While preparing to attack Fort Malden (mahl-den), he learned that the enemy were gathering in great force, and had already captured Fort Mackinaw. He, therefore, retreated to Detroit. The British under General Brock and the Indians under Tecumseh followed thither, and landing, advanced at once to assault the fort at that place. The garrison was in line, and the gunners were standing with lighted matches awaiting the order to fire, when Hull, apparently unnerved by the fear of bloodshed, ordered the white flag—a table-cloth—to be raised. Amid the tears of his men, it is said, and without even stipulating for the honors of war, he surrendered not only Detroit, with its garrison and stores, but the whole of Michigan.

[Illustration]

BATTLE OF QUEENSTOWN HEIGHTS (October 13).—Late in summer, another attempt was made to invade Canada. General Van Rensselaer (ren'-se-ler) finding that his men were eager for a fight, sent a small body across the Niagara River to attack the British at Queenstown Heights. The English were driven from their position, and General Brock was killed. General Van Rensselaer now returned to the American shore to bring over the rest of the army; but the militia denying the constitutional right of their commander to take them out of the State, refused to embark. Meantime their comrades on the Canadian shore, thus basely abandoned, after a desperate struggle, were compelled to surrender.

NAVAL VICTORIES.—These signal disgraces by land were in striking contrast to the successes on the sea.

Constitution and Guerriere (August 19).—The fight off the coast of Massachusetts, between the American frigate Constitution (popularly called Old Ironsides) and the Guerriere (gayre-e-ayre) is memorable. The latter vessel opened fire first. Captain Isaac Hull refused to answer until he had brought his ship into the exact position he desired, when he poured broadside after broadside into his antagonist, sweeping her deck, shattering her hull, and cutting her masts and rigging to pieces. The Guerriere soon became unmanageable, and was forced to surrender. She was so badly injured that she could not be brought into port; while the Old Ironsides, in a few hours, was ready for another fight.

[Footnote: "Captain Hull sent an officer to take possession of the Guerriere. When he arrived alongside, he demanded of the commander of the English frigate if he had struck. Dacres was extremely reluctant to make this concession in plain terms, but, with a shrewdness which would have done honor to a Yankee, endeavored to evade the question. 'I do not know that it would be prudent to continue the engagement any longer,' said he. 'Do I understand you to say that you have struck?' inquired the American lieutenant. 'Not precisely,' returned Dacres; 'but I don't know that it will be worth while to fight any longer.' 'If you cannot decide, I will return aboard,' replied the Yankee, 'and we will resume the engagement.' 'Why, I am pretty much hors de combat already,' said Dacres; 'I have hardly men enough left to work a gun, and my ship is in a sinking condition.' 'I wish to know, sir,' peremptorily demanded the American officer, 'whether I am to consider you as a prisoner of war or an enemy. I have no time for further parley.' 'I believe there is now no alternative. If I could fight longer, I would with pleasure; but I—must surrender—myself—a prisoner of war!'">[

[Footnote: Nephew of General Hull. His bravery retrieved the name from its disgrace.]

Frolic and Wasp (October 13).—The next noted achievement was the defeat of the English brig Frolic by the sloop-of-war Wasp, off the coast of North Carolina. When the former was boarded by her captors, her colors were still flying, there being no one to haul them down. The man at the helm was the only sailor left on deck unharmed.

Other victories followed. Privateers scoured every sea, inflicting untold injury on the British commerce. During the year over three hundred prizes were captured.

[Illustration: Capture of the Frolic.]

The Effect of these Naval Victories was to arouse enthusiasm and inspire confidence. Volunteer corps were rapidly formed. Madison was re-elected, thus stamping his war policy with the popular approval.

1813.

PLAN OF THE CAMPAIGN.—Three armies were raised: (I) the Army of the Centre, under General Dearborn, on the Niagara River; (2) the Army of the North, under General Hampton, along Lake Champlain; and (3) the Army of the West, under General Harrison, of Tippecanoe fame. All three were ultimately to invade Canada. Proctor was the British general, and Tecumseh had command of his Indian allies.

[Footnote: When the British heard that Dearborn had sailed away from Sackett's Harbor with the fleet, they immediately made an attack on that place. They were bravely repulsed by General Brown and a few regulars.]

THE ARMIES OF THE CENTRE AND NORTH did but little. General Dearborn attacked York, General Pike gallantly leading the assault. Unfortunately, in the moment of success the magazine blew up, killing Pike and making sad havoc among his men. Dearborn did nothing, and soon after resigned. General Wilkinson, his successor, was directed to descend the St. Lawrence in boats, and join General Hampton in an attack on Montreal. At Chrysler's Field he repulsed the British, but owing to a disagreement with General Hampton he returned. (Map opp. p. 160.) General Hampton went north as far as St. John's, where he was defeated by the British. He then made the best of his way back to Plattsburg, where, in the winter, he was joined by General Winchester's men. Thus ingloriously ended the campaign of these two armies.

ARMY OF THE WEST.—A detachment of General Harrison's men was captured at Frenchtown, on the River Raisin, by Proctor, who then besieged Harrison himself at Fort Meigs (megz). Repulsed here, Proctor stormed Fort Stephenson, garrisoned by only one hundred and fifty men under Major Croghan, a young man of twenty-one. Beaten again, he returned to Malden. As yet, however, the British held Michigan and threatened Ohio, and the Americans had been as unsuccessful this year as they were the preceding, when a glorious triumph on Lake Erie gave a new aspect to the campaign.

[Footnote: This party was stationed on the Maumee, under General Winchester. Having learned that the people of Frenchtown feared an attack from the Indians, he allowed his military judgment to yield to his humanity, and marched to their relief. He defeated the enemy, but was soon attacked by a body of fifteen hundred British and Indians under Proctor. Winchester, being captured in the course of the battle, agreed to the surrender of his men under the solemn promise that their lives and property should be safe. Proctor, however, immediately returned to Maiden with the British, leaving no guard over the American wounded. Thereupon the Indians, maddened by liquor and the desire for revenge, mercilessly tomahawked many, set fire to the houses in which others lay, and carried the survivors to Detroit, where they were dragged through the streets and offered for sale at the doors of the inhabitants. Many of the women of that place gave for their ransom every article of value which they possessed. The troops were Kentuckians, and the war-cry of their sons was henceforth "Remember the Raisin."—The great object of the Indians in battle was to get scalps, Proctor paying a regular bounty for every one. They were therefore loth to take prisoners. Proctor, brutal and haughty, was a fit leader under a government that would employ savages in a civilized warfare.]

PERRY'S VICTORY (September 10).—When Captain Perry, then only twenty-seven years old, was assigned the command of the flotilla on Lake Erie, the British were undisputed masters of the lake, while his fleet was to be, in part, made out of the trees in the forest. By indefatigable exertion he got nine vessels, carrying fifty-four guns, ready for action, when the British fleet of six vessels and sixty-three guns bore down upon his little squadron.

[Footnote: Perry had never seen a naval battle, while Captain Barclay, the British commander, was one of Nelson's veterans, and had lost an arm in the service.]

Perry's flag-ship, the Lawrence, engaged two of the heaviest vessels of the enemy, and fought them till but eight of his men were left. He helped these to fire the last gun, and then leaping into a boat bore his flag to the Niagara. He had to pass within pistol-shot of the British, who turned their guns directly upon him; and though he was a fair mark for every shot, he escaped without injury. Breaking through the enemy's line, and firing right and left, within fifteen minutes after he mounted the deck of the Niagara the victory was won. Perry at once wrote to General Harrison, "We have met the enemy, and they are ours." This laconic despatch produced intense excitement throughout the country. Upon the result of this battle depended, as we shall see, important issues.

[Footnote: From its mast-head floated a blue pennant, bearing the words of the dying Lawrence, "Don't give up the ship." (See p. 166)]

BATTLE OF THE THAMES.—Proctor and Tecumseh were at Maiden with their motley array of British and Indians, two thousand strong, waiting to lay waste the frontier. Harrison, at Sandusky Bay, was nearly ready to invade Canada, and at the news of this victory pushed across the lake. Landing at Maiden, which he found deserted, Harrison hotly pursued the flying enemy and overtook them on the River Thames (temz). Having drawn up his troops, he ordered Colonel Johnson, with his Kentucky horsemen, to charge the English in front. Dashing through the forest, they broke the enemy's line, and forming in their rear, prepared to pour in a deadly fire. The British surrendered, but Proctor escaped by the swiftness of his horse. Johnson then pushed forward to attack the Indians. In the heat of the action, a bullet, said to have been fired by Johnson himself, struck Tecumseh. With his death the savages lost all hope, and fled in confusion.

Effect.—This victory, with Perry's, relieved Michigan, gave control of Lake Erie, and virtually decided the war. General Harrison returned amid the plaudits of the nation.

NAVAL BATTLES.—The American navy achieved some brilliant successes during the year, but was not uniformly victorious.

Chesapeake and Shannon.—Captain Lawrence, of the Hornet, having captured the British brig Peacock, on his return was placed in command of the Chesapeake, the ill-starred frigate which struck her flag to the Leopard off the coast of Virginia. While refitting his vessel at Boston, a challenge was sent him to fight the Shannon, then lying off the harbor. Lawrence, although part of his crew were discharged, and the unpaid remainder were almost mutinous, consulted only his own heroic spirit, and at once put to sea. The action was brief. A hand-grenade bursting in the Chesapeake's arm-chest, the enemy took advantage of the confusion, and boarded the vessel. A scene of carnage ensued. Lawrence, mortally wounded, was carried below. As he left the deck he exclaimed, "Don't give up the ship." But the feeble crew were soon overpowered, and the colors hauled down.

WAR WITH THE CREEKS.—Tecumseh had been (1811) among the Alabama Indians, and had aroused them to take up arms against the Americans. They accordingly formed a league (1813), and fell upon Fort Mimms, massacring the garrison and the defenceless women and children. (Map opp. p. 160.) Volunteers flocked in from all sides to avenge this horrid deed. Under General Jackson they drove the Indians from one place to another, until they took refuge on the Horseshoe Bend, where they fortified themselves for the last battle (March 27, 1814). The soldiers, with fixed bayonets, scaled their breastwork. The Creeks fought with the energy of despair, but six hundred of their number were killed, and those who escaped were glad to make peace on any terms.

[Footnote: An event occurred on Jackson's march which illustrates his iron will. For a long time his soldiers suffered extremely from famine, and at last they mutinied. General Jackson rode before the ranks. His left arm, shattered by a ball, was disabled, but in his right he held a musket. Sternly ordering the men back to their places, he declared he would shoot the first who advanced. No one stirred, and soon all returned to their duty.]

RAVAGES ON THE ATLANTIC COAST.—Early in the spring the British commenced devastating the southern coast. Admiral Cockburn, especially, disgraced the British navy by conduct worse than that of Cornwallis in the Revolution. Along the Virginia and Carolina coast he burned bridges, farm-houses, and villages; robbed the inhabitants of their crops, stock, and slaves; plundered churches of their communion services, and murdered the sick in their beds.

[Footnote: New England was spared because of a belief that the northern States were unfriendly to the war and would yet return to their allegiance to Great Britain.]

[Illustration: MILLER AT LUNDY'S LANE]

1814.

Battle of Lundy's Lane (July 25).—The American army, under General Brown, crossed the Niagara River once more, and for the last time invaded Canada. Fort Erie having been taken, General Winfield Scott, leading the advance, attacked the British at Chippewa (July 5), and gained a brilliant victory. A second engagement was fought at Lundy's Lane, opposite Niagara Falls. (Map opp. p. 160.) Here, within sound of that mighty cataract, occurred one of the bloodiest battles of the war. General Scott had only one thousand men, but he maintained the unequal contest until dark. A battery, located on a height, was the key to the British position. Calling Colonel Miller to his side, General Brown asked him if he could take it. "I'll try, sir," was the fearless reply. Heading his regiment, he steadily marched up the height and secured the coveted position. Three times the British rallied for its re-capture, but as many times were hurled back. At midnight they retired from the field. This victory, though glorious to the American army, was barren of direct results.

BATTLE OF LAKE CHAMPLAIN (September ll).—All but fifteen hundred of the troops at Plattsburg had gone to reinforce General Brown. Prevost, the commander of the British army in Canada, learning this fact, took twelve thousand veteran soldiers, who had served under Wellington, and marched against that place. As he advanced to the attack, the British fleet on Lake Champlain assailed the American squadron under Commodore McDonough.

[Footnote: One of his vessels he had built in twenty days, from trees growing on the bank of the lake.]

The attacking squadron was nearly annihilated. The little army in Plattsburg, by their vigorous defence, prevented Prevost from crossing the Saranac River. When he found that his ships were lost, he fled precipitately, leaving his sick and wounded, and large quantities of military stores.

RAVAGES ON THE ATLANTIC COAST.—The British blockade extended this year to the north. Commerce was so completely destroyed that the lamps in the light-houses were extinguished as being of use only to the English. Several towns in Maine were captured. Stonington, Conn., was bombarded. Cockburn continued his depredations along the Chesapeake. General Ross marched to Washington (Aug. 24) and burned the capitol, the Congressional library, and other public buildings and records, with private dwellings and storehouses. He then sailed around by sea to attack Baltimore. The army having disembarked below the city (Sept. 12), moved against it by land, while the fleet bombarded Fort McHenry from the river. The troops, however, met with a determined resistance, and, as the fleet had made no impression on the fort, soon retired to their ships.

[Footnote: While the British troops were marching toward Baltimore, General Ross rode forward with a part of his staff, to reconnoitre. Two mechanics, who were in a tree watching their advance, fired upon them, and Ross fell mortally wounded. The two patriots were instantly shot.]

[Footnote: During the bombardment of Fort McHenry, Francis S. Key. an American detained on board of an English vessel, wrote the national song, "The Star Spangled Banner.">[

The greatest excitement was produced by these events. Every seaport was fortified; the militia were organized, and citizens of all ranks labored with their own hands in throwing up defences. Bitter reproaches were cast upon the administration because of its mode of conducting the war. Delegates from New England States met at Hartford (December 15) to discuss this subject. The meeting was branded with odium by the friends of the administration, and to be called a "Hartford Convention Federalist" was long a term of reproach.

PEACE, as afterward appeared, was made even before the convention adjourned. The treaty was signed at Ghent, December 24. Before, however, the news had reached this country, a terrible, and, as it proved, unnecessary battle had been fought in the South.

BATTLE OF NEW ORLEANS (January 8, 1815).—A powerful fleet and a force of twelve thousand men, under General Pakenham, undertook the capture of New Orleans. General Jackson, anticipating this attempt, had thrown up intrenchments several miles below the city. The British advanced steadily, in solid columns, heedless of the artillery fire which swept their ranks, until they came within range of the Kentucky and Tennessee riflemen, when they wavered. Their officers rallied them again and again. General Pakenham fell in the arms of the same officer who had caught General Ross as he fell at Baltimore.

[Footnote: Jackson at first made his intrenchments in part of cotton-bales, but a red-hot cannon-ball having fired the cotton and scattered the burning fragments among the barrels of gunpowder, it was found necessary to remove the cotton entirely. The only defence of the Americans in this battle was a bank of earth, five feet high, and a ditch in front.]

[Footnote: The British were tried and disciplined troops, while very few of the Americans had ever seen fighting. Besides, the British were nearly double their number. But our men were accustomed to the use of the rifle, and were the best marksmen in the world.]

Neither discipline nor bravery could prevail. General Lambert, who succeeded to the command, drew off his men in the night, hopelessly defeated, after a loss of over two thousand; while the American loss was but seven killed and six wounded.

[ILLUSTRATION: BATTLE OF NEW ORLEANS.]

RESULTS OF THE WAR.—The treaty left the question of impressment unsettled, yet it was tacitly understood, and was never revived. The national debt was $127,000,000, but within twenty years it was paid from the ordinary revenue. The United States had secured the respect of European nations, since our navy had dared to meet, and often successfully, the greatest maritime power in the world. The impossibility of any foreign ruler gaining a permanent foothold on our territory was shown. The fruitless invasion of Canada by the militia, compared with the brave defence of their own territory by the same men, proved that the strength of the United States consisted in defensive warfare. Extensive manufactories were established to supply the place of the English goods cut off by the blockade. This branch of industry continued to thrive after peace, though for a time depressed by the quantity of English goods thrown on the market. The immediate evils of the war were apparent: trade ruined, commerce gone, no specie to be seen, and a general depression. Yet the wonderful resources of the country were shown by the rapidity with which it entered upon a new career of prosperity.

[Footnote: The Algerines had taken advantage of the war with England to renew their depredations on American commerce. Decatur, in May, 1815, was sent with a squadron to right matters in that quarter. Proceeding to Algiers, Tunis, and Tripoli, he obtained the liberation of American prisoners, and full indemnity for all losses, with pledges for the future. The United States was the first nation effectually to resist the demands of the Barbary pirates for tribute.]

POLITICAL PARTIES.—When Madison's term of office expired, the federalist party had been broken up by its opposition to the war. James Monroe, the Presidential candidate of the republican party, was almost unanimously elected. He was generally beloved, and all parties united in his support.