PREFACE.
This work on the Renaissance in Italy, of which I now give the last two volumes to the public, was designed and executed on the plan of an essay or analytical inquiry, rather than on that which is appropriate to a continuous history. Each of its four parts—the [Age of the Despots], the Revival of Learning, the [Fine Arts], and Italian Literature—stood in my mind for a section; each chapter for a paragraph; each paragraph for a sentence. At the same time, it was intended to make the first three parts subsidiary and introductory to the fourth, for which accordingly a wider space and a more minute method of treatment were reserved. The first volume was meant to explain the social and political conditions of Italy; the second to relate the exploration of the classical past which those conditions necessitated, and which determined the intellectual activity of the Italians; the third to exhibit the bias of this people toward figurative art, and briefly to touch upon its various manifestations; in order that, finally, a correct point of view might be obtained for judging of their national literature in its strength and limitations. Literature must always prove the surest guide to the investigator of a people's character at some decisive epoch. To literature, therefore, I felt that the plan of my book allowed me to devote two volumes.
The subject of my inquiry rendered the method I have described, not only natural but necessary. Yet there are special disadvantages, to which progressive history is not liable, in publishing a book of this sort by installments. Readers of the earlier parts cannot form a just conception of the scope and object of the whole. They cannot perceive the relation of its several sections to each other, or give the author credit for his exercise of judgment in the marshaling and development of topics. They criticise each portion independently, and desire a comprehensiveness in parts which would have been injurious to the total scheme. Furthermore, this kind of book sorely needs an Index, and its plan renders a general Index, such as will be found at the end of the last volume, more valuable than one made separately for each part.
Of these disadvantages I have been rendered sensible during the progress of publication through the last six years. Yet I have gained some compensation in the fact that the demand for a second edition of the first volume has enabled me to make that portion of the work more adequate.
With regard to authorities consulted in these two concluding volumes, I have special pleasure in recording none—with only insignificant exceptions—but Italian names. The Italians have lately made vigorous strides in the direction of sound historical research and scientific literary criticism. It is not too much to say that the labors of this generation are rapidly creating a radical change in the views hitherto accepted concerning the origins and the development of Italian literature. Theories based on rational investigation and philosophical study are displacing the academical opinions of the last century. The Italians are forming for themselves a just conception of their past, at the same time that they are consolidating their newly-gained political unity.
To dwell upon the works of Francesco de Sanctis and Pasquale Villari is hardly necessary here. The former is perhaps less illustrious by official dignity than by his eloquent Storia della Letteratura Italiana. The latter has gained European reputation as the biographer of Savonarola and Machiavelli, the historian of Florence at their epoch. But English readers are probably not so familiar with acute and accurate criticism of Giosuè Carducci; with the erudition of Alessandro d'Ancona, and the voluminous history of the veteran Cesare Cantù; with the intelligence and facile pen of Adolfo Bartoli; with the philological researches of Napoleone Caix, and Francesco Fiorentino's philosophical studies; with Rajna's patient labors in one branch of literary history, and Monaci's discoveries in another; with the miscellaneous contributions to scholarship and learning made by men like Comparetti, Guasti, D'Ovidio, Rubieri, Milanesi, Campori, Passano, Biagi, Pitré, Tigri, Vigo, Giudici, Fracassetti, Fanfani, Bonghi, Grion, Mussafia, Morsolin, Del Lungo, Virgili. While alluding thus briefly to students and writers, I should be sorry to omit the names of those publishers—the Florentine Lemonnier, Barbèra, Sansoni; the Neapolitan Morano; the Palermitan Lauriel; the Pisan Vico and Nistri; the Bolognese Romagnoli and Zanichelli—through whose spirited energy so many works of erudition have seen the light.
I have mentioned names almost at random, passing over (not through forgetfulness, but because space compels me) many writers to whom I owe weighty obligations. The notes and references in these volumes will, I trust, contain acknowledgment sufficient to atone for omissions in this place.
Not a few of these distinguished men hold professorial appointments; and it is clear that they are forming students in the great Italian cities, to continue and complete their labors. Very much remains to be explored in the field of Italian literary history. The future promises a harvest of discovery scarcely less rich than that of the last half-century. On many moot points we can at present express but partial or provisional judgments. The historian of the Renaissance must feel that his work, when soundest, may be doomed to be superseded, and when freshest, will ere long seem antiquated. So rapid is the intellectual movement now taking place in Italy.
In conclusion, it remains for me to add that certain passages in [Chapter II.] have been reproduced from an article by me in the Quarterly Review, while some translations from Poliziano and Boiardo, together with portions of the critical remarks upon those poets, were first published, a few years since, in the Fortnightly Review. From the Fortnightly Review, again, I have extracted the translation of ten sonnets by Folgore da San Gemignano.
In quoting from Italian writers, in the course of this literary history, I have found it best to follow no uniform plan; but, as each occasion demanded, I have given the Italian text, or else an English version, or in some cases both the original and a translation. To explain the motives for my decision in every particular, would involve too much expenditure of space. I may, however, add that the verse-translations in these volumes are all from my pen, and have been made at various times for the special purpose of this work.
Davos: March, 1881.
CONTENTS
OF
THE FIRST PART.
| PAGE | |
| [CHAPTER I.] THE ORIGINS. | |
| The period from 1300 to 1530—Its Division into Three Sub-Periods—TardyDevelopment of the Italian Language—Latin and Roman Memories—PoliticalStruggles and Legal Studies—Conditions of Latin Culture in Italy duringthe Middle Ages—Want of National Legends—The Literatures of Langued'Oc and Langue d'Oïl cultivated by Italians—Franco-ItalianHybrid—Provençal Lyrics—French Chansons de Geste—Carolingian andArthurian Romances—Formation of Italian Dialects—Sicilian School ofCourt Poets—Frederick II.—Problem of the Lingua Aulica—Forms ofPoetry and Meters fixed—General Character of the Sicilian Style—RusticLatin and Modern Italian—Superiority of Tuscan—The DeEloquio—Plebeian Literature—Moral Works in Rhyme—Emergence of Prosein the Thirteenth Century—Political Songs—Popular Lyrics—ReligiousHymns—Process of Tuscanization—Transference of the Literary Centerfrom Sicily to Tuscany—Guittone of Arezzo—Bolognese School—GuidoGuinicelli—King Enzio's Envoy to Tuscany—Florentine Companies ofPleasure—Folgore de San Gemignano—The Guelf City | [1] |
| [CHAPTER II.] THE TRIUMVIRATE. | |
| Chivalrous Poetry—Ideal of Chivalrous Love—Bolognese Erudition—NewMeaning given to the Ideal—Metaphysics of the Florentine School ofLyrists—Guido Cavalcanti—Philosophical Poems—Popular Songs—Cino ofPistoja—Dante's Vita Nuova—Beatrice in the Convito and theParadiso—The Preparation for the Divine Comedy inLiterature—Allegory—The Divine Comedy—Petrarch's Position inLife—His Conception of Humanism—Conception of Italy—His Treatment ofChivalrous Love—Beatrice and Laura—The Canzoniere—Boccaccio, theFlorentine Bourgeois—His Point of View—His Abandonment of theChivalrous Standpoint—His Devotion to Art—Anticipates theRenaissance—The Decameron—Commedia Umana—Precursors ofBoccaccio—Novels—Carmina Vagorum—Plan of the Book—Its MoralCharacter—The Visione Amorosa—Boccaccio's Descriptions—TheTeseide—The Rime—The Filocopo—The Filostrato—The Ameto,Fiammetta, Ninfale, Corbaccio—Prose before Boccaccio—Fiorettidi San Francesco and Decameron compared—Influence of Boccaccio overthe Prose Style of the Renaissance—His Death—Close of the FourteenthCentury—Sacchetti's Lament | [59] |
| [CHAPTER III.] THE TRANSITION. | |
| The Church, Chivalry, the Nation—The National Element in ItalianLiterature—Florence—Italy between 1373 and 1490—RenascentNationality—Absorption in Scholarship—Vernacular Literature follows anObscure Course—Final Junction of the Humanistic and PopularCurrents—Renascence of Italian—The Italian Temperament—Importance ofthe Quattrocento—Sacchetti's Novels—Ser Giovanni'sPecorone—Sacchetti's and Ser Giovanni's Poetry—Lyrics of the Villaand the Piazza—Nicolò Soldanieri—Alesso Donati—His RealisticPoems—Followers of Dante and Petrarch—Political Poetry of the Guelfsand Ghibellines—Fazio degli Uberti—Saviozzo da Siena—Elegies onDante—Sacchetti's Guelf Poems—Advent of theBourgeoisie—Discouragement of the Age—Fazio's Dittamondo—Rome andAlvernia—Frezzi's Quadriregio—Dantesque Imitation—Blending ofClassical and Medieval Motives—Matteo Palmieri's Città di Vita—TheFate of Terza Rima—Catherine of Siena—Her Letters—S. Bernardino'sSermons—Salutati's Letters—Alessandra degli Strozzi—Florentine'sAnnalists—Giov. Cavalcanti—Corio's History of Milan—Matarazzo'sChronicle of Perugia—Masuccio and his Novellino—His Style andGenius—Alberti—Born in Exile—His Feeling for Italian—Enthusiasm forthe Roman Past—The Treatise on the Family—Its Plan—Digression on theProblem of its Authorship—Pandolfini or Alberti—TheDeiciarchia—Tranquillità dell'Animo—Teogenio—Alberti'sReligion—Dedication of the Treatise on Painting—Minor Works in Proseon Love—Ecatomfila, Amiria, Deifiria, etc.—Misogynism—Novel ofIppolito and Leonora—Alberti's Poetry—Review of Alberti's Characterand his Relation to the Age—Francesco Colonna—The HypnerotomachiaPoliphili—Its Style—Its Importance as a Work of the Transition—ARomance of Art, Love, Humanism—The Allegory—Polia—Antiquity—Relationof this Book to Boccaccio and Valla—It Foreshadows the Renaissance | [139] |
| [CHAPTER IV.] POPULAR SECULAR POETRY. | |
| Separation between Cultivated Persons and the People—Italian despisedby the Learned—Contempt for Vernacular Literature—The CertamenCoronarium—Literature of Instruction for the Proletariate—Growth ofItalian Prose—Abundance of Popular Poetry—The People in theQuattrocento take the Lead—Qualities of Italian Genius—Arthurian andCarolingian Romances—I Reali di Francia—Andrea of Berberino and hisWorks—Numerous Romances in Prose and Verse—Positive Spirit—VersifiedTales from Boccaccio—Popular Legends—Ginevra degli Almieri—Novel ofIl Grasso—Histories in Verse—Lamenti—The Poets of thePeople—Cantatori in Banca—Antonio Pucci—His Sermintesi—PoliticalSongs—Satires—Burchiello—His Life and Writings—Dance-Songs—Derivedfrom Cultivated Literature, or produced by thePeople—Poliziano—Love-Songs—Rispetti and Stornelli—The SpecialMeaning of Strambotti—Diffusion of this Poetry over Italy—ItsPermanence—Question of its Original Home—Intercommunication andExchange of Dialects—Incatenature and Rappresaglie—Traveling inMedieval Italy—The Subject-Matter of this Poetry—Deficiency in BalladElements—Canti Monferrini—The Ballad of L'Avvelenato and Lord Ronald | [234] |
| [CHAPTER V.] POPULAR RELIGIOUS POETRY. | |
| The Thirteenth Century—Outburst of Flagellant Fanaticism—TheBattuti, Bianchi, Disciplinati—Acquire the name ofLaudesi—Jacopone da Todi—His Life—His Hymns—TheCorrotto—Franciscan Poetry—Tresatti's Collection—Grades ofSpiritual Ecstasy—Lauds of the Confraternities—Benivieni—Feo Belcariand the Florentine Hymn-writers—Relation to SecularDance-songs—Origins of the Theater—Italy had hardly any true MiraclePlays—Umbrian Divozioni—The Laud becomes Dramatic—PassionPlays—Medieval Properties—The Stage in Church or in the Oratory—TheSacra Rappresentazione—A Florentine Species—Fraternities forBoys—Names of the Festa—Theory of its Origin—Shows in MedievalItaly—Pageants of S. John's Day at Florence—TheirMachinery—Florentine Ingegnieri—Forty-three Plays in D'Ancona'sCollection—Their Authors—The Prodigal Son—Elements ofFarce—Interludes and Music—Three Classes of SacreRappresentazioni—Biblical Subjects—Legends of Saints—PopularNovelle—Conversion of the Magdalen—Analysis of Plays | [279] |
| [CHAPTER VI.] LORENZO DE’ MEDICI AND POLIZIANO. | |
| Period from 1470 to 1530—Methods of treating it—By Chronology—ByPlaces—By Subjects—Renascence of Italian—At Florence, Ferrara,Naples—The New Italy—Forty Years of Peace—Lorenzo de' Medici—HisAdmiration for and Judgment of Italian Poetry—His Privileges as aPatron—His Rime—The Death of Simonetta—Lucrezia Donati—Lorenzo'sDescriptive Power—The Selve—The Ambra—La Nencia—I Beoni—HisSacred Poems—Carnival and Dance Songs—Carri andTrionfi—Savonarola—The Mask of Penitence—Leo X. in Florence,1513—Pageant of the Golden Age—Angelo Poliziano—His Place in ItalianLiterature—Le Stanze—Treatment of the Octave Stanza—CourtPoetry—Mechanism and Adornment—The Orfeo—Orpheus, the Ideal of theCinque Cento—Its Dramatic Qualities—Chorus of Mænads—Poliziano's LovePoems—Rispetti—Florentine Love—La Bella Simonetta—Study andCountry Life | [359] |
| [CHAPTER VII.] PULCI AND BOIARDO. | |
| The Romantic Epic—Its Plebeian Origin—The Popular Poet'sStandpoint—The Pulci Family—The Carolingian Cycle—Turpin—Chanson deRoland—Historical Basis—Growth of the Myth of Roland—Causes of itsPopularity in Italy—Burlesque Elements—The MorganteMaggiore—Adventures in Paynimry—Roncesvalles—Episodes introduced bythe Poet—Sources in Older Poems—The Treason of Gano—Pulci'sCharacters—His Artistic Purpose—His Levity andHumor—Margutte—Astarotte—Pulci's bourgeois Spirit—Boiardo—HisLife—Feudalism in Italy—Boiardo's Humor—His Enthusiasm forKnighthood—His Relation to Renaissance Art—Plot of the OrlandoInnamorato—Angelica—Mechanism of the Poem—Creation ofCharacters—Orlando and Rinaldo—Ruggiero—Lesser Heroes—TheWomen—Love—Friendship—Courtesy—Orlando and Agricane atAlbracca—Natural Delineation of Passions—Speed of Narration—Style ofVersification—Classical and Medieval Legends—The Punishment ofRinaldo—The Tale of Narcissus—Treatment of Mythology—Treatment ofMagic—Fate of the Orlando Innamorato | [425] |
| [CHAPTER VIII.] ARIOSTO. | |
| Ancestry and Birth of Ariosto—His Education—His Father's Death—Lifeat Reggio—Enters Ippolito d'Este's Service—Character of theCardinal—Court Life—Composition and Publication of theFurioso—Quiet Life at Ferrara—Comedies—Governorship ofGarfagnana—His Son Virginio—Last Eight Years—Death—Character andHabits—The Satires—Latin Elegies and Lyrics—Analysis of theSatires—Ippolito's Service—Choice of a Wife—Life at Court andPlace-hunting—Miseries at Garfagnana—Virginio'sEducation—Autobiographical and Satirical Elements—Ariosto's Philosophyof Life—Minor Poems—Alessandra Benucci—Ovidian Elegies—Madrigals andSonnets—Ariosto's Conception of Love | [493] |
[APPENDICES.]
| [No. I.]—Note on Italian Heroic Verse | [523] |
| [No. II.]—Ten Sonnets translated from Folgore da San Gemignano | [526] |
| [No. III.]—Translations from Alesso Donati | [531] |
| [No. IV.]—Jacopone's "Presepio," "Corrotto," and "Cantico dell'Amore Superardente," translated into English Verse | [532] |
| [No. V.]—Passages translated from the "Morgante Maggiore" of Pulci | [543] |
| [No. VI.]—Translations of Elegiac Verses by Girolamo Benivieni and Michelangelo Buonarroti | [561] |