The geography and geology of south-eastern Egypt

by John Ball

Variation of the Compass.

Careful observations were made of the variation of the compass at three stations, viz., Berenice Temple, Abu Saafa Springs, and near Halaib Fort,[80] these three points being selected as being well-known places and at the same time likely to be free from local magnetic disturbance. Berenice is on the coast-plain where only coral and sand occur; Abu Saafa is in a sandstone district about 100 kilometres south-west of Berenice, and Halaib is on the calcareous and gypseous rocks of the coast about 220 kilometres south-east of Abu Saafa.

The instrument used was a five-inch theodolite fitted with a good trough compass. A lens was used to bring the needle accurately to zero, and the sun or a star was employed to find the true meridian. In each case several observations, each with an independent setting of the needle, were made, and the mean taken. The values obtained were:—

Place.	Date and Time.	Compass-Variation West.
Berenice Temple	January 6, 1907, 5·30 p.m.	2° 44′
Abu Saafa Springs	October 25, 1907, 4 p.m.	2° 37′
Near Halaib Fort	May 7, 1908, 10 a.m.	2° 18′

In order to find to what degree of accuracy the results of these determinations might be relied on, the instrument used was tested against the Kew magnetometer at the Khedivial Observatory, Helwân, after the completion of the work. Three observations for the declination at Helwân gave the westerly variation as

	2° 41′·2
	2° 58′·8
	2° 55′·0
Mean	2° 55′·0

while the true declination as given by the Kew magnetometer at the same time was 2° 52′ 5″. Thus it appears reasonable to believe the observed values to be within about 5′ of the truth.

It is rather curious to note that the declination observed at Abu Saafa is less than that at Berenice, which lies further east, even if allowance is made for the secular change in the interval. The difference from what one would expect is, however, possibly owing to errors of observation of the magnitude above-mentioned, or it may be due to a slight local influence of magnetic rocks underground at Abu Saafa, where the ground is near to the base of the Nubian sandstone beds, which rest presumably on eruptive and metamorphic rocks.

It is interesting to compare the observations of declination at Berenice and Halaib with those recorded by Rossler[81] at the same places in 1895. Thus we have:—

Berenice.		Mersa Halaib.
Rossler, Nov. 27, 1895	3° 54′	Rossler, Nov. 18, 1895	3° 36′
Ball, Jan. 6, 1907	2° 44′	Ball, May 7, 1908	2° 18′
Diff. in 11·1 years	1° 10′	Diff. in 12·5 years	1° 18′
Yearly decrease	6′·3	Yearly decrease	6′·3

We thus arrive at a yearly secular diminution of declination of 6′ 3″, confirming the value arrived at by Mr. Keeling[82] for the rate of secular change in the Red Sea area from a comparison of other observations. It may be therefore concluded that the rate of 3′ per annum given in the “Admiralty Pilot”[83] is only about half the true value.

Travellers in the Eastern Desert should exercise care in the reliance they place on compass bearings. Bearings taken with a compass are generally normal in granite and sandstone country; but wherever dark igneous and metamorphic rocks abound, disturbances are likely to occur. Local deviations of 5° to 10° are quite common, and in some serpentine areas even 40° of disturbance may be observed. In some places, one can deflect the needle through a large angle by means of a fragment of the rock no larger than a nut, so rich are some of the basic rocks in magnetic minerals. Some lumps of rock even show strong polarity, attracting or repelling the north pole of the needle according as one part or another of the lump is presented to it.

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[62]This measurement was made in conjunction with Messrs. Villiers Stuart, Charteris Stewart, and Clarke.

[63]The logarithms A′, B, and C are taken from Merriman’s Precise Surveying and Geodesy, 1899, 255. p.

[64]Chauvenet (Spherical and Practical Astronomy, Vol. I, p. 283) shows that when both latitude and time are required, the three stars should differ in azimuth by 120° to give the most accurate results. But when only the latitude is required the stars are best selected near to the meridian north and south of the zenith. This is evident by considering that if two stars could be observed to culminate at the same altitude on opposite sides of the zenith, the latitude would be precisely determined independently of any reference to time.

[65]I am indebted to Mr. B. H. Wade, of the Survey Department, for drawing my attention to this method.

[66]The signs of the coefficients follow from those of the trigonometrical functions; but it is useful to remember that the coefficient of dφ is + or − according as the star is north or south, while that of dT is + or − according as the star is east or west of the meridian.

[67]Chauvenet, Astronomy, Vol. I, p. 283.

[68]In this connexion it is interesting to note that as the general level of the country to the south of Gebel Um Heshenib is some 250 metres higher than that to the north of it, the plumb-line will be deflected to the south by local attraction, thus explaining why the observed latitude at that station exceeds by so much the value calculated from the triangulation. Berenice temple, on the other hand, is on a coast-plain remote from mountains, and the observed latitude agrees closely with the calculated one.

[69]The method of observation and reduction was that usually described in text books of field astronomy. See, for instance, Michie and Harlow’s Practical Astronomy, 1902, pp. 161-168, and the tables on pp. 198-201 of the same work.

[70]The Sudan Survey’s positions are all south-east of those which I obtained for the same points.

[71]For calculations of this type and for tacheometric and other reductions in the field, the Nessler “Universal” slide rule, which is specially designed for surveyors, was found to be a most valuable time-saver. See my paper in the Cairo Scientific Journal, “On the Use of the Slide-rule in Surveying,” Dec. 1907.

[72]A careful discussion which I have recently undertaken of the entire series of reciprocal observations made during the three seasons’ work shows that k varies according to the altitude of the lines and according as the lines pass over land or sea. I hope later to publish a separate account of this discussion, which has an important bearing on the vertical distribution of temperature in the air. But I may here state that for overland lines the formula k = 0·1503 + 0·0000164 (h − 830), where h is the mean altitude of the line in metres, gives a good agreement with the observations; while on oversea lines at altitudes above 100 metres k is always very near to 0·135. The errors in the resulting altitudes of intersected points due to the uniform employment of k = 0·13, are very trifling, and will seldom exceed one or two metres; for example, at a distance of thirty kilometres the substitution of k = 0·16 for k = 0·13 will only change the altitude by two metres.

[73]This number 1210 represents the significant figures of √106·84, 6·84 metres being the correction given by 1 − k2rd² for a distance of ten kilometres.

[74]Berichte der Commission für Oceanographische Forschungen, Sechste Reihe, Wien, 1898, pp. 13, 14.

[75]In particular, the adoption of the above three longitudes as of equal accuracy with Suez will lead to a better longitude for Jidda. The longitude of Jidda is at present fixed only by chronometer transport from Suez, a distance of some 650 miles; but by regarding Halaib as a fixed point the distance of comparison can be reduced to 150 miles. The data for this revision of the longitude of Jidda already exist in the Reports of the “Pola” expedition, and the discussion is certainly worth undertaking before any future surveys are conducted in the central portion of the Red Sea.

[76]The disturbance of the needle was of course most frequent in the areas where dark igneous and metamorphic rocks prevailed; in these regions disturbances of 10° were very frequent, and in some cases, as for example on the serpentine deposits of Sikait, as much as 40° was noticed. In the sandstone areas no disturbances were marked.

[77]I have given a somewhat fuller account of this process in a little paper on “Long-distance Tacheometry.” Cairo Scientific Journal, Vol. IV, February 1910.

[78]Jordan, Handbuch der Vermessungskunde. Stuttgart, 1897. Bd. II, p. 522.

[79]A New Method of Coast Surveying, Survey Department Paper, No. 21. Cairo, 1911.

[80]The observations at Halaib were made at a point far enough from the fort to avoid any chance of disturbance by the iron rails which form part of the building.

[81]Berichte der Commission für Oceanographische Forschungen, Sechste Reihe. Wien, 1898. pp. 221, 223.

[82]Magnetic Observations in Egypt, 1895-1905, Survey Dept. Paper, No. 6. Cairo, 1907. p. 18.

[83]Red Sea and Gulf of Aden Pilot. 5th edition. 1900. p. 7.

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CHAPTER IV.

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THE WADIS DRAINING WESTWARDS TO THE NILE.

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It has been already mentioned ([p. 21]) that all the drainage westward from the main watershed ultimately reaches the Nile by the three great trunk Wadis Shait, Kharit, and Alaqi. In the present chapter a detailed description will be given of those parts of these wadis and their tributaries which are known within the area under discussion. The following scheme shows the relations of the principal tributaries, important feeders of the tributaries themselves being indicated in (brackets):—

			Wadi Dweig.
[WadiShait]			Wadi Muelih (Wadi Gerf, Rod elLigah, Wadi Sibrit).
			Wadi Hamish.
			Wadi Hilgit (Wadi Um Hasidok, Wadi Um elTiur).
			Wadi Egat.
			Wadi el Anbat.
			Wadi Abarun.
			Wadi Um Daba.
			Wadi Abu Argub.
			Wadi Safihat.
			Wadi Um Sellim.
			Wadi Medsus.
[WadiKharit]			Wadi Abu Gurdi.
			Wadi Elemikan (Rod el Geneina).
			Wadi Abu Hashim.
			Wadi Helie.
			Wadi Abu Hamamid (Wadi Marasani, Wadi elSheikh).
			Rod el Kharuf (Wadi Abu Had).
			Wadi Khashab (Wadi Metawit, Wadi Antar).
			Wadi Garara (Wadi el Kreim, Wadi Timsah, WadiGhadrib, Wadi Abu Hashim, Wadi Abu Homur).
			Wadi Natash.
			Wadi Himeitra.
			Miti Kwan (Wadi Duag, Wadi Kirir, Wadi Merau,Wadi Miaus).
			Wadi Dageina.
			Wadi Alfawi.
			Wadi Egat (Wadi Hiteib).
			Wadi Hateib (Wadi Suhin).
[WadiAlaqi]			Wadi Guqub.
			Wadi Um Teneideb.
			Wadi Defeit (Wadi Sarid, Wadi Dauriai, WadiHamida, Wadi Bint el Feqoh, Wadi Anweiyib, Wadi Meladoyeb, RodHawanin, Wadi Bagharid).
			Wadi Eleifat.
			Wadi Seiga (Wadi Um Derera, Wadi Abu Had,Wadi Um Gholqa).

Most of the drainage-lines mentioned in the description will be found marked on the orographical map which forms [Plate I;] but the scale of that map is too small for all the minor feeders to be indicated with clearness.

Wadi Shait, an important main trunk wadi draining westwards to the Nile, originates at the west foot of Gebel Ras Shait, in lat. 24° 50′, long. 34° 31′, and joins the Nile Valley a little to the north of Kom Ombo. It has a total length of very nearly 200 kilometres, and an average fall of three metres per kilometre. The fall is much more rapid in the upper reaches than lower down; in the first fifty-five kilometres of its length, from the foot of Gebel Ras Shait to Bir Um Gubur, the fall is 340 metres, or an average gradient of six metres per kilometre, while from Bir Um Gubur, for the remaining 140 kilometres of its course, its fall is only 250 metres, or an average gradient of less than two metres per kilometre.

The head of Wadi Shait is formed by the union of a number of drainage channels from a kind of cul-de-sac formed by Gebels Migif, Ras Shait, and Mudergeg, where it is separated from the heads of Wadi Gerf and Wadi Hafafit by flat sandy divides. Passing in a south-westerly direction to the west of Gebel Migif and Gebel Dweig, it receives as a tributary Wadi Dweig (in which are the ruins of an ancient station) on the left. Taking thence a more westerly course it traverses more open country, and then narrows among hills north-west of the remarkable peak of Gebel Abu Khrug. At a bend further on is Bir Murra, a shallow well sunk in the alluvium of the wadi floor at the foot of a serpentine scarp; the water here (as the name of the well indicates) is very bitter, and is generally drunk only by camels. After passing Bir Murra, the wadi turns south-west, then curves again near Bir Um Gubur, about three kilometres south-east of Gebel Sufra, and about twelve kilometres below Bir Murra. Bir Um Gubur is a shaft about two and a half metres diameter, sunk about eight metres deep in the alluvium of the wadi; it was yielding good supplies of excellent water in 1906. About ten kilometres below Bir Um Gubur, Wadi Hamish joins Wadi Shait from the north-east. In the remainder of the course of Wadi Shait to the Nile, the principal water source is Bir Heliwat,[84] about ten kilometres below the point of influx of Wadi Hamish, and the chief tributary wadis are Muelih, Beza, and Midrik, all of which join it from the north-east.

The upper portions of Wadi Shait contain a fair abundance of trees and scrub, but the lower parts are sandy arid wastes.

Wadi Muelih originates in the mountain called Gebel Iteima, in lat. 25° 8′. For about sixteen kilometres its course lies ill-defined over a sandy plain with scattered low hills, to Erf el Fahid, a remarkable east and west quartz ridge nearly two kilometres long rising among crushed diorites and schists to a height of 579 metres above sea, or ninety-five metres above the wadi, in lat. 25° 0′. After passing Erf el Fahid, the course of the wadi changes to south-west, and gradually becomes more enclosed by low hills. The first hills passed on the right are high ridges formed by great quartz veins striking south-west, at the foot of which the wadi forms a plain nearly a kilometre broad, with low hills and mounds of dark gneisses and schists on the left. At ten kilometres below Erf el Fahid, on the left of the wadi, is a horse-shoe shaped hill of aplite called Marwot Rod el Ligaia, to the north and south of which are other hills penetrated by networks of quartz veins. Two kilometres further on, a band of diorite gneiss cuts across the wadi, which then commences to narrow in among hills of crushed diorites, grey gneisses, and schists, with many dykes of porphyrite and felsite. These hills become progressively higher as one descends, and near the meridian of 34° the wadi curves round the foot of Gebel Muelih, a great bare white granite boss rising through darker rocks to a height of 330 metres above the wadi, or 707 metres above sea. Just after passing Gebel Muelih the wadi, which has here a width of only some 200 metres, turns south-west again. At this turn, nearly in the centre of the wadi floor, is Bir Muelih, an excavation about six metres deep in the alluvium, yielding very salt water drinkable only by camels. North-east of the well a track strikes over the hills towards Dungash mine. From Bir Muelih the wadi continues in a roughly south-west direction past Bir Samut (well about one kilometre north of Wadi Muelih) and then takes a more southerly course draining into Wadi Shait in longitude 33° 46′.

The wadi floor falls from a level of 484 metres near Erf el Fahid to 375 metres at Bir Muelih, the length of the wadi between the two places being about twenty-seven kilometres; this gives an average fall of about four metres per kilometre; the actual gradient varies from about two metres per kilometre in the broader portions to over six metres per kilometre in the more enclosed parts of the wadi.

The upper parts of Wadi Muelih are barren and sandy, but the lower portions contain a fair amount of vegetation. The principal feeders of Wadi Muelih are Wadi Gerf, which enters by several openings on the left above Gebel Muelih, Wadi Samut, entering on the right in long. 33° 54′, and Wadi Sibrit, entering on the left in long. 33° 50′.

Wadi Gerf is the collective name given to a number of rather complicated drainage channels forming tributaries to Wadi Muelih. The principal heads are to the east and west of Gebel Nugrus. The eastern head is called Wadi Hangalia; it commences at about an altitude of 811 metres due east of the highest point of Gebel Nugrus, at a difficult pass leading over the main watershed to Wadi el Nom, and curves round the north spurs of Gebel Nugrus to join the western head. In the Wadi Hangalia are some old ruins of a mining camp, and also some recent prospecting workings and a well giving a poor supply of water. The Western head of Wadi Gerf commences in nearly level ground on the main divide west of Gebel Nugrus, at an altitude of 691 metres. These two main heads unite close to the east of Gebel Ras Shait, whence Wadi Gerf courses about north-west through low hills. A third head is in lat. 24° 52′, at a pass leading into Wadi Um Khariga. A fourth, called Rod el Atut, takes the drainage from all sides of the conspicuous black cone of Gebel Atut. A fifth, called Rod Um el Farag, drains from the mass of moderately high hills further west called Um el Huetat; these hills contain some old mines, chiefly in talc schists. The drainages from these various heads all eventually take a west-south-west course among low hills and over a sandy plain and enter Wadi Muelih by several openings near longitude 34°. Minor tributaries are Wadi Abu Seyal and Wadi Um Seyal, south-east of Gebel Atut, Rod el Ligaia, in longitude 34° 10′; and Rod el Ligah, in latitude 24° 50′.

The principal hills of the plain over which Wadi Gerf and its tributaries run their course are some very remarkable small black peaks collectively called Khusa el Faraon, a light coloured hill called Marwot Rod el Ligah, and a ridge called Erf el Sagur; these two last rise to 514 and 523 metres above sea-level respectively.

Wadi Gerf possesses a fair amount of vegetation, except where it meanders over the sandy plains; in the tributaries Wadi Um Seyal and Wadi Abu Seyal acacia trees are specially numerous.

Wadi Sibrit is a long narrow wadi following a course somewhat south of west, originating to the west of Gebel Mudergeg and joining Wadi Muelih in longitude 33° 50′. It possesses many trees and a good well, Bir Sibrit. This latter is an excavation in the wadi floor, in longitude 33° 58′; it is said to yield a constant supply. In the spring of 1906 I found the water was at a depth of eight metres below the surface, and of good quality.

Wadi Kharit, one of the greatest trunk wadis of Egypt, has its principal head at Gebel Ras el Kharit, on the main watershed in latitude 14° 10′ and longitude 35°. Pursuing a course the prevailing direction of which is a little north of west, and collecting the drainage from numerous great wadis on its way, it debouches on the Kom Ombo plain and reaches the Nile at the same point as another great wadi, Shait, in latitude 24° 35′. The length of the main channel is over 260 kilometres, and of its tributaries probably more than twenty times as great. It drains an area of more than 23,000 square kilometres. Its average fall is about two metres per kilometre, but in its lower reaches its gradient is less than half this amount.

The principal tributaries of Wadi Kharit, which will be separately described, are the Wadis Natash, Antar, Khashab, Abu Hamamid, Elemikan, and Garara (this last with Wadis Timsah and Ghadrib as great feeders). I now propose to trace out the course of the main wadi in some detail, leaving its greater tributaries for separate description, but including its minor feeders.

The main head of Wadi Kharit is on the Nile-Red Sea divide, between Gebel Ras el Kharit and Gebel Mikbi, at an altitude of considerably more than 600 metres above the sea. The wadi at first courses a little south of west, over a gently falling sandy plain with hills of bouldery granite, and curves round the south spurs of Gebel el Anbat.[85] Here it receives two tributaries, one from the north-west called Wadi Hilgit, and one from the south-east called Wadi Egat.[86]

Wadi Hilgit originates on the main watershed in longitude 34° 52′, near Gebel Um Usher. A very steep and difficult pass over the watershed separates its head from that of another Wadi Hilgit draining northward to Wadi Huluz. The two wadis are called Wadi Hilgit lil Kharit and Wadi Hilgit lil Huluz respectively when it is necessary to distinguish them. On its course southward to Kharit, Wadi Hilgit receives as tributaries Wadi Um Hasidok and Wadi Um el Tiur, draining the mountains of the same names.

Wadi Egat drains part of the west slopes of Gebel Abu Gurdi and the south part of Gebel Egat, for the first half of its course being shut in by high hills and for the latter half passing over a gently falling plain.

After passing Gebel el Anbat, Wadi Kharit continues its course a little south of west, in broad shallow drainage channels over a great sandy plain. In this part of its course it receives many important feeders from the mountain masses which limit the plain to the north. The principal of these feeders are the Wadis Anbat, Abarun, Um Daba, Abu Argub, Safihat, Um Sellim, and Medsus. Near where Wadi Medsus enters, Wadi Kharit takes a more southerly course, passing north of a mass of low dark hills called Gebel Geneina, and here it receives Wadi Abu Gurdi, draining the west slopes of the mountain of the same name, the ill-defined Wadi Elemikan (see [p. 84]), draining the extensive plain south of Gebel Abu Gurdi, and the Rod el Geneina, draining from the hills of Geneina. A little further on, curving to the north-west, it receives Wadi Abu Hashim and Wadi Abu Selili, which drain the south flanks of Gebel Kahfa.

The next feeder is the Wadi Helie, which drains the west slopes of Gebel Kahfa and enters Kharit from the north-east; a well, Bir Helie, exists in this wadi about eight kilometres above its junction with Kharit. The well appears to be of the same character as Bir Abu Hamamid; it was yielding plenty of good water in the spring of 1906, but in the autumn of the same year the supply was said to be smaller and rather salty.

About ten kilometres below the point of influx of Wadi Helie, Wadi Kharit receives Wadi Abu Hamamid (see [p. 85]), coming from the north-east, and some fourteen kilometres further on another tributary, the Rod el Kharuf, enters from the opposite side conveying the drainage from the north-west flanks of Gebel Zergat Naam.

In the remaining portion of its course to the Nile, Wadi Kharit receives numerous other tributaries, of which the principal are Wadi Khashab and Wadi Antar on the north, and the Wadi Garara on the south (see [pp. 86] and [87]).

On the whole, Wadi Kharit is poor in vegetation; trees are fairly abundant in the central portion of its course, but both near its head and near the river it is very barren. In consequence of its sandy and arid character near the Nile, it is not usual for caravans to journey along the wadi from its mouth; Arabs from Daraw usually go up the tortuous and sandy Wadi Allawi, and thence enter Kharit either by the Rod Abu Modellim or by a track among hills which leads eastward to Bir Qoleib. Bir Qoleib is a good well in a small tributary of Wadi Kharit, about seventy kilometres by road from the Daraw. From Bir Qoleib to the wells of Abu Hamamid and Helie the westward journey is about 110 kilometres, while from Bir Qoleib to the well of Abu Hashim, south-east (on the road to Abu Saafa), is a distance of about seventy-five kilometres.

Wadi Elemikan is the name given to an ill-defined system of drainage channels meandering over the plain south of Gebel Abu Gurdi. It originates on the main watershed, and at its head there is a very easy pass over into the Wadi Lahami, which descends to the sea. At this point, which is 590 metres above the sea, the watershed is ill-defined, being a sandy plain; but while to the west the plain continues with only a slight fall, to the east it soon gives place to rugged country through which narrow wadis descend rapidly towards the sea coast. The plain west of the watershed is remarkable for the presence of three great bosses of quartz, the largest of which, called Marwot Elemikan, rises as a conspicuous cone of dazzling whiteness to a height of sixty-eight metres above the plain. Besides the drainage from the plain itself, Wadi Elemikan receives feeders from the hills which flank Gebel Abu Gurdi to the south, and also a portion of the drainage from the Wadi Abu Gurdi, which divides into two channels on emerging from the mountains. Passing between the granite hills of Gebel Abu Derega and Gebel Selaia, Wadi Elemikan courses a little north of westward over a great sandy plain to join the Wadi Kharit north of Gebel Geneina in longitude 34° 36′. It is a barren wadi, but water can sometimes be obtained a little north of it at a small spring called Megal el Selaia, at the foot of a low hill one kilometre south-east of the great rounded granite boss of Gebel Selaia. I obtained a small supply of very good water here early in 1906, but the spring is a very slow one and is said to fail altogether in dry seasons.

Wadi Abu Hamamid, an important tributary of Wadi Kharit, originates as a series of gullies in the mountains of Gebel Abu Hamamid, on the west face of the main watershed, in longitude 34° 48′. It courses, among high hills a little north of west to longitude 34° 41′, then turns south-west and enters the plain which extends to the west of Bir Shadli. Here it receives part of the drainage from Wadi el Sheikh, and turns westward among lower hills, passing north of the red hills called El Hamra, to Bir Abu Hamamid, and then turning south-west between El Hamra and Hamrat Mukbud to join Kharit in longitude 34° 23′.

Bir Abu Hamamid is an important well; it is a rude irregular excavation, about six metres deep, in the wadi floor, down which men can walk to fill their water skins. This well was yielding more plentiful supplies in the autumn of 1906 than any of the other wells in the neighbourhood; the water was rather salty and muddy, but quite drinkable.

From near Bir Abu Hamamid, a track leads north-westward over the hills to Bir Khashab and on to Bir Masur. To reach Bir Shadli, one follows up the Wadi Abu Hamamid till it opens on to a plain, and then strikes almost due eastward across the plain.

A small tributary which joins Wadi Abu Hamamid from the north-east, in longitude 34° 41′, called Wadi Marasani, is important as leading to a pass over the main watershed into Wadi Marasan, a tributary of Wadi Huluz. The altitude of the pass is 685 metres above sea; it is quite practicable for baggage camels.

Wadi el Sheikh, the only great tributary of Wadi Abu Hamamid, originates in longitude 34° 40′, in the hilly tract west of Gebel Abu Hamamid. In the upper part of its course, it is a narrow winding wadi, mostly shut in by high hills, pursuing mainly a direction a little west of south, fed by numerous lateral wadis entering from among the hills to the east, of which the principal are the Wadis Um Somra, Krioni, Um Nasir, Um Hereini, Um Sereiha, Um Deheisi, Um Retba, and Um Hargal. Near the point where Wadi Um Deheisi joins it, the Wadi el Sheikh emerges from the hill country and meanders over a plain. At its entry on to the plain is the tomb and well of Sheikh Shadli, views of which are given on [Plate V.] The tomb, from which the wadi derives its name, is a white domed structure, tended by a Moorish guardian. The Ababda Arabs hold the memory of Sheikh Shadli in high veneration, and make yearly pilgrimages to his tomb. The well, Bir Shadli, close to the tomb, is a shallow excavation in the stony alluvium of the wadi floor. Here there is a perennial supply of water, which, however, varies much in quality and quantity; after rain, there forms a large pool of good water, the surface being maintained almost level with the ground by underground influx; while when there has been no rain for a year or more the water is only found by digging to several metres depth, and then only infiltrates slowly at the bottom of the hole, the quality simultaneously falls off and the water acquires a saline and purgative character.

After passing Bir Shadli and entering on the plain, Wadi el Sheikh splits up into numerous channels, one of which joins the Wadi Abu Hamamid, while the others continue in a south-westerly direction, fed by the Wadis Um Retba and Um Hargal, draining from the north flanks of Gebel Kahfa. Uniting together as they leave the plain to re-form a single Wadi el Sheikh, these drainages turn westward among the hills to join the Wadi Abu Hamamid.

Bir Shadli is one of the best-known centres of the Ababda Arabs. Though there is no permanent settlement, it is seldom that many days elapse without Arabs coming to the place to water their animals, which graze in the adjoining wadis. Many roads converge here. To the west, a track leads to Bir Abu Hamamid. To the north-east, a track leads up the Wadi Sheikh, across Wadi Abu Hamamid, and by an easy pass near Gebel Marasan over the main watershed into Wadi Huluz. To the south-east there are several alternative routes by which one can journey over easy passes north of Gebel Kahfa on to the plain of Selaia and down the Wadi Lahami to Berenice. Yet another road leads a little west of south across the Wadi Um Hargal, and by an easy pass into Wadi Helie, a small tributary of Wadi Kharit which drains the west side of Gebel Kahfa, and in which there is a well of similar character to that of Abu Hamamid.

Wadi Khashab commences its course near Gebel el Heda, a little east of longitude 34° 30′, and continues in a generally south-west direction to the latitude of Gebel Hamrat Mukbud. Here it takes a westerly course, passing south of Gebel Homr Akarim and entering Wadi Kharit from the north in about longitude 33° 49′. Wadi Khashab receives its name from its relatively well-wooded character; in its upper parts it presents the appearance of a broad valley, in which trees are so numerous as to give a very pleasing contrast to the dreary wastes on either side of it. Bir Khashab is a series of pits sunk in the wadi floor in about longitude 34° 23′, which were yielding small supplies of water in 1906.

The principal feeders of Wadi Khashab are Wadi Metawit and Wadi Antar. Wadi Metawit is a short valley originating near Gebel Metawit, and joining Wadi Khashab a short distance above Bir Khashab. It possesses an important well, Bir Metawit, excavated about eight metres deep in the centre of the wadi floor, about three kilometres north-north-west of the summit of Gebel Metawit, on a road leading south-east from Bir Masur to Bir Shadli. This well, near which are some large acacia trees, was yielding a plentiful supply of excellent water in the spring of 1906.

Wadi Antar originates near the hills of Nukheira and El Heda, and courses westward as a very wide shallow sandy depression south of Gebel Um Goraf. At the foot of Gebel Derera it turns southward, receiving the tributary Wadi el Anz from the left a little further on; it turns again westward and then north-west to near Gebel Muktil, beyond which it courses south-west and joins Wadi Khashab in longitude 33° 55′, a short distance only above the point where that wadi enters Kharit.

Wadi el Garara, the great southern tributary of Wadi Kharit, heads on the main watershed east of Gebel Um Harba. Pursuing at first a north-westerly course over a sandy plain, it emerges between two high sandstone hills ten kilometres north of Gebel Um Harba, and turns somewhat more to the west, receiving the Wadi el Kreim, which drains the south-east flanks of Gebel Zergat Naam. A little further on it receives an unnamed tributary which courses north-westward from Gebel Um Harba as a great valley nearly full of blown sand. Still further on its course it is fed by another unnamed tributary which, coming from the main watershed in latitude 23° 30′, courses over a wide sandy plain north-westwards. This latter tributary is very barren, but is of some importance as forming a very easy though sandy road over the main watershed to the Wadi Arned (which leads to the springs of Abu Saafa) and as passing, about five kilometres before reaching the pass, a well known water-hole called Galt el Aguz. This galt is a huge sandstone basin in the hills on the east side of the road, fairly easy of access. After rain it holds an immense supply of water, but owing to the porous nature of the sandstone it becomes dry in a few months of drought; rude Greek inscriptions on the rocks, mixed with spirited drawings of animals, show that this source of water supply was known and used in Ptolemaic days. Besides the drainage from the pass, the tributary first mentioned takes that from the sandstone hills of Um Khafur situated further east.

A little lower down, Wadi Garara receives feeders from the north-east, draining the hills round Gebel Nikeiba and Gebel Felieiti, and then the long Wadi Timsah coming from the south.

Wadi Timsah heads among high granite hills a little north of latitude 23°, and courses in a nearly northerly direction for nearly ninety kilometres to join Wadi Garara. The prevailing character of Wadi Timsah itself is sandy and dreary, but its feeders from the eastern hills are richer in vegetation, and in years when there is rain they furnish in their upper portions good grazing ground for Arab camels. The principal of these feeders, enumerating from the south northwards, are the Wadis Um el Rid, Awamtib (with Wadi Um Marakh), Shabakhit, and Dagalai. All these drain the western parts of the high sandstone hills called by the same names. Water can be got from galts here after rain. Near the head of Wadi Um el Rid, there is a very easy pass over the main watershed into Wadi el Dreb, which leads to the well of Um Reit.

Of the Wadi Ghadrib, which heads near the hills of Gebel Abu Rahia and Gebel Um Rewat, in latitude 23°, and follows a course roughly parallel to, but a few kilometres west of that of Wadi Timsah, not very much is known. Its prevailing character is sandy and arid.

The small tributary called Wadi Abu Hashim, which enters Wadi Garara from the south in about longitude 34° 5′, is important as containing the important wells known as Bir Abu Hashim. The wells are excavations in the alluvium of the wadi floor, and furnish good water at a depth of about eight metres. A beacon has been erected on a high hill to the west of the wells and overlooking them, the position of which is latitude 23° 41′ 44″ N., longitude 34° 3′ 33″ E., altitude 386 metres above sea and sixty-six metres above the wells. The principal roads from Bir Abu Hashim are, to Aswân (first water at Um Hibal, nearly one hundred kilometres distant), to Daraw (first water at Bir Qoleib, seventy-five kilometres distant), and to Abu Saafa Springs (a journey of about one hundred kilometres with possibly water en route at the Galt el Aguz, sixty kilometres from Abu Hashim).

Wadi Natash commences among the low hills forming the Nile — Red Sea watershed between Gebel Migif and Gebel Abu Had. It pursues a course roughly parallel with that of Wadi Shait, at first over a sandy plain from which rise the two conspicuous cones called El Nahud (the breasts), and afterwards narrowing in among hills. Pursuing a somewhat devious course in a direction generally a little south of west, Wadi Natash passes south of Gebel Nugra (in longitude 33° 40′) and enters on the great plain called Atmur Nugra, where it joins the Wadi Kharit and drains to the Nile near Kom Ombo.

There is, I believe, no water source in Wadi Natash itself, but Bir Masur is situated in a branch wadi only a few kilometres north of it in longitude 34°. At Bir Masur there are numerous pits sunk in the alluvium of the wadi, in one or more of which good water can generally be found at a depth of about ten metres; but the supply cannot always be relied on, for although I obtained plenty of water in March 1906, I found there was only a very small quantity available in October of the same year.

Wadi Alaqi, the greatest of all the Egyptian wadis draining westwards to the Nile, has its head on the main watershed near Gebel Is, close to the 22nd parallel in longitude 35° 27′. Its main channel, over 350 kilometres in length, pursues a general westerly course, winding at first, past the old mining centres of Darahib and Alfawi, towards Gebel Muqsim, on the 34th meridian, and then, curving round to the north of that mountain, it turns to the north-west, past the gold mines of Um Gariart, and enters the Nile Valley opposite the large village of Dakka, in latitude 23° 8′. The area of its basin is unknown, much of it being unexplored, but it probably comprises no less than four square degrees of the earth’s surface, or 44,000 square kilometres. Its heads and upper tributaries lie among high mountainous tracts partly in Egypt and partly in the Sudan, and occasionally the rainfall in these southern parts of the eastern desert is sufficient to convert the usually dry wadi into a temporary stream for a part or all of its length. That it may on the rare occasions of sufficient rainfall discharge no inconsiderable quantity of water into the Nile is proved by Linant’s experience about 1830, when he records that the torrent from the Wadi Alaqi into the Nile was so great as to prevent his dahabîa sailing up the river past the point of influx, even with a good wind and all sails set.[87] A great flow of water down the Wadi Alaqi also occurred in the autumn of 1902 as a consequence of heavy rains in the mountainous country east of the meridian 34° 30′. This torrent was observed by Mr. John F. Wells, who was then manager of the Um Gariart mine. In the early morning news was brought to the mine that great waters were coming down the wadi. Except for a slight rainfall at the heads of the Wadis Qoleib and Haimur, the drainage of which did not appreciably swell the flood of the main wadi, there had been no rain within one hundred kilometres of the mine, and when the alarm was given, at 6.30 a.m., only a small trickling of water down the wadi was visible, and the news was thought to be an exaggeration. But an hour later the whole wadi was a raging torrent, and by nine o’clock there was a mighty stream, over 300 metres wide and from one to two and a half metres deep, rushing past the mine. The flow continued for about two and a half days. On this occasion the stream, in spite of its magnitude at Um Gariart, did not reach the Nile; after flowing for some seventy kilometres past the mines, it entered a wide depression at Hagab Kara, some forty kilometres from the mouth of the wadi, where it formed a great pool and sank into the sand. Mr. Wells informs me that the water did not penetrate the sandy and gravelly floor of the wadi to the bed rock (the thickness of the sandy and gravelly layer at Um Gariart is fourteen metres) till three months later, and then the rock, though damp, did not absorb enough water to yield any supply to wells sunk in it. The local Arabs stated that these downrushes of water, which they term “seil,” occur on an average at about ten-year intervals; the last one occurred seven years before that of 1902.

The part of the basin of Wadi Alaqi falling within the limits of the district described in this volume includes the whole country west of the main watershed between the parallels of 22° and 23°. This area is drained by numerous tributaries of Alaqi, all entering the main wadi from its north side. The following is a brief description of these tributaries, commencing with the uppermost (easternmost) of them.

Wadi Himeitra is a small wadi draining the south face of Gebel Himeitra. It contains a well, Bir Himeitra, at the foot of the mountain, which is said to yield constant supplies of water. Below the well, Wadi Himeitra continues for about ten kilometres in a south-westerly direction, joining the Wadi Alaqi about seven kilometres above the ruins of Darahib.

The Miti Kwan, the next tributary of Alaqi, has its heads in the north flanks of Gebel Himeitra. Near its head it receives as feeders from the north-east the Wadis Kirir and Duag, draining mountains of the same name which form part of the Adar Qaqa range. About fourteen kilometres further down its course, the Miti Kwan receives the Wadi Merau, which drains the hills of the main watershed round Eir Arib. Below the point of influx of Merau, the Miti Kwan pursues a very winding course among the hills for some eleven kilometres, then receives from the north the Wadi Miaus, a small wadi with many branches among the hills and containing a well, Bir Miaus, about seven kilometres up from its mouth. After receiving Wadi Miaus, the Miti Kwan continues a winding course for about nine kilometres and enters the Wadi Alaqi on the 22nd parallel, about fifteen kilometres below the ruins of Darahib. A well-known road, connecting the Wadi Alaqi with the Abu Hodeid and Meisah wells, leads up the Miti Kwan for a distance of some twenty-three kilometres, and then passes northwards over a stony plain, crossing the watershed into the head of Wadi Hasium, in which is Bir Kagog.

Wadi Dageina is a small many-branched tributary of Alaqi, draining the hills east of Gebel Egat.

Wadi Alfawi, which enters Wadi Alaqi a little lower down its course, is likewise a small wadi draining the hilly tract east of Gebel Egat; there are some old mines on its western side close to its junction with Wadi Alaqi.

Wadi Egat, the next important tributary of Alaqi, drains by very numerous branches the remarkable peak of Gebel Egat and the south faces of Gebel Heleikonti. It contains a well, Bir Egat, situated east-south-east of the peak, about twenty-six kilometres up from its junction with Alaqi, and there are extensive remains of old mining operations to be seen in the same neighbourhood. Passing east and south of Gebel Egat, the wadi emerges from the mountains, coursing almost due west; and after receiving various feeders, the principal of which is Wadi Hiteib, from the mountains to the north, it enters Wadi Alaqi in longitude 34° 40′, about twenty kilometres west of Gebel Egat.

Wadi Hateib,[88] which enters Wadi Alaqi about twenty kilometres below Wadi Egat, has its heads in the south faces of Gebel Um el Tiur el Foqani and the north flanks of Gebel el Hateib or Suhin. Coursing generally south-westward, it receives small feeders on the west from Gebels Adraq and Guqub. About four kilometres above where it enters Wadi Alaqi, Wadi Hateib is joined from the east by Wadi Suhin, the heads of which drain the south faces of Gebel Hateib or Suhin.

Wadi Guqub, a very small wadi which enters Alaqi six kilometres lower down than Hateib, drains the hilly tract which here lies to the north of Alaqi; it contains an important well, Bir Guqub, which yields good water though in varying quantity. A road leads from Wadi Alaqi up the Wadi Guqub past the well and on to Aswân, via El Haimur.

Wadi Um Teneideb drains the western faces of Gebels el Adraq and Guqub, and joins Wadi Alaqi in longitude 34° 11′, about thirty-three kilometres below Wadi Gugub. It has two main branches, which unite about ten kilometres above the point of junction with Wadi Alaqi. The old mines of Betam are situated near the northern of the two branches, about seven kilometres west of Gebel el Adraq, on the road just mentioned as leading from Wadi Alaqi to Aswân.

Wadi Defeit, which is probably the most important Egyptian tributary of Wadi Alaqi, has its heads in Gebels Heleikontî and Heianai, about the meridian of 35°. Its general course is that of a flat circular arc convex to the north and having its chord east and west; the total length of its main channel, from its head in Gebel Heleikontî to its junction with Wadi Alaqi in longitude 34° 10′, is over one hundred kilometres, while its numerous tributaries probably reach a total length three times as great. The principal head of Wadi Defeit is called Wadi Sarid; its branches extend among the hills close to the heads of Wadi Egat and Wadi Miaus. The name Defeit is applied to the wadi where Wadi Sarid is joined by the feeders from Gebel Heleikontî. Passing between the high ranges of Heianai on the north, and Heleikontî and Shanaiyet on the south, Wadi Defeit receives numerous feeders, of which the principal are the Wadis Dauriai and Hamidâ, both entering it from the mountain to the south; continuing westwards, it cuts through the north end of the mass of Gebel Um el Tiur el Foqani, and on emergence is joined by the Wadi Bint el Feqoh, a great westward-coursing tributary draining the north flanks of the Heianai range and the more northerly mountain of Anweyib. Continuing its westward course, Wadi Defeit passes between Gebels Um el Tiur el Tahtani and Adraq; then it enters on an extensive tract of more open country, receiving three main feeders, Wadi Meladoyeb, Rod Hauanin, and Wadi Bagharid, from the hills to the north, before joining Wadi Alaqi.

Wadi Seiga, the next great northern tributary of Wadi Alaqi, has only been partially explored. Its head is in the watershed range near the conspicuous twin peaks of Gebel Sheyenit. Pursuing at first a southerly course, it cuts through the east side of the mass of Gebel Seiga; and about thirty kilometres lower down passes through hills with old gold mines on either hand. Below the mines, Wadi Seiga takes a south-westerly course, and receives a large tributary from either side. That from the west, called Wadi Deheis, heads in Gebel Deheis and curves round east of Gebel Abu Brush, receiving in its course two great feeders, the Wadis Um Gholqa and Abu Had, both of which head far to the north in the main watershed. The eastern tributary, called Wadi Um Derera, drains the south part of the hill-mass in which the Seiga mines are situated. Wadi Seiga joins Wadi Alaqi in longitude 33° 53′, some forty-five kilometres below the mines; the junction is outside the limits of the maps in this volume.

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[84]Dry in 1906.

[85]To be distinguished from another mountain of the same name further south, near the Wadi Hodein.

[86]To be distinguished from the better known Wadi Egat much further south, a feeder of Wadi Alaqi.

[87]“L’Etbaye.” p. 1.

[88]Mr. Campbell’s map names this Wadi Hadaiber. My guides, however, gave the name Gebel Hateib to the mountain which is drained by the wadi, and I have ventured to alter the name on this ground. Mr. Campbell’s map names the mountain Gebel Suhin; it probably has two names, as is quite usual in desert nomenclature, because its two sides are drained by different wadis. There is a Wadi Hiteib draining from the south-eastern part of the same hill-mass into Wadi Egat.

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CHAPTER V.

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THE WADIS DRAINING EASTWARDS TO THE SEA.

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The eastward drainage differs strikingly from the westward in being much steeper and more complex, due to the greater proximity of the mountains to the sea than to the Nile. While all the westward drainages form parts of but three great basins, there are on the seaward side no less than forty-seven distinct drainage basins, each having a separate outlet to sea (see [Plate II]). Only two of the eastern basins, Hodein and Di-it, are comparable in size with the great basins of the west, the remainder being relatively small.

The following list gives the names in order, from north to south, of the main wadis draining to the sea, with their tributaries so far as they fall within the area treated of in this volume, the principal feeders of the tributaries being indicated in parentheses. It may be remarked that the minor feeders and tributaries are frequently of greater importance to the Arabs than the main channels, owing to their containing vegetation in greater abundance.

[WadiDabur.]
[WadiIgli.]
[WadiUm Khariga.]
[WadiSukari.]
[WadiUm Tundeba.]
[WadiAmba-ut.]
			Wadi Ghuel.
			Wadi Fegas.
			Wadi Ma-ud.
[WadiGhadir]			Wadi Sabahia.
			Wadi Zabara (Wadi Atabi, Wadi Um Abid, WadiUm Dafiri).
			Wadi Allawi (Wadi Lewewi).
[WadiUm Gamil.]
			Wadi Huluz (Wadi Abiad lil Huluz, Wadi Mahali,Wadi Tarfawi, Wadi Hilgit lil Huluz, Wadi Um Semiuki, Wadi UmHegiligi lil Huluz, Wadi Marasan, Wadi Um Suerab lil Huluz, WadiAbu Gerifat, Wadi Um Iteili, Wadi Ga-etri, Wadi Abu Etl).
			Wadi Um Suerab lil Gemal.
			Wadi Durunkat.
[Wadi Gemal]			Wadi Hafafit (Wadi Abu Had, WadiHefeifit).
			Wadi Nugrus (Wadai el Nom, Wadi Abu Rusheid,Wadi Abu Sada, Wadi Sikait).
			Wadi Mukhatatat.
			Wadi Um Sueh.
			Wadi Um Heran.
			Wadi Nasbia.
			Wadi Abiad (Wadi Um Seyal).
			Wadi Um Kabu.
[WadiUm el Abbas]			Wadai el Anz.
[WadiAbu Ghusun]			Wadi Romit (Wadi Shoab, Wadi AbuHegilig, Wadi Hefeiri).
Wadi el Ranga.
[WadiHamata.]
[Wadi Haratreit.]
[Wadi Khashir.]
[Wadi Mikbi.]
			Wadi Um Karaba.
			Wadi Eidab.
			Wadi Um Gunud.
			Wadi Um Rishan.
[WadiLahami]			Wadi Um Homar.
			Wadi Sefent.
			Wadi Um Khuzama.
			Wadi Um Ghobasha.
			Wadi Gumudlum.
			Wadi Abu Marwa lil Lahami.
[WadiMukhit]			Wadi Naait (Wadi Um Sumur, Wadi Abu Marwa lilNaait, Wadi Abu Ghalqa).
			Wadi Abu Daba (Wadi Murra).
[WadiAbu Dibban.]
[WadiMindeit]			Wadi Um Sellim lil Mindeit.
			Wadi Um Maiat.
[WadiKalalat]			Wadi Dibag lil Batoga.
			Wadi Um Sellim.
[WadiUm Goran.]
[WadiKunserob]			Wadi Dibag lil Kunserob.
[WadiAbu Beriga.]
			Wadi Abu Debebi lil Khoda.
			Wadi Salib el Abiad.
			Wadi Salib el Azraq (Wadi Um Karaba).
			Wadi Allawi.
			Wadi Um Tawil lil Khoda.
			Wadi Hindia.
			Wadi Um Akra.
[WadiKhoda]			Wadi Shut (Wadi Abu Hugban, WadiTawil lil Shut).
			Wadi Um Gubur.
			Wadi Shib.
			Wadi Um Seyal lil Khoda.
			Wadi Gumudlum.
			Wadi Bulluk.
			Wadi Um Lassaf.
			Wadi Shenshef.
[Wadi Um Etli.]
[WadiSorubiab]			Wadi Bint el Kurdum.
			Wadi Titai.
			Wadi Abu Nikheil.
			Wadi Abu Reye.
			Wadi Um Buerat.
[WadiRahaba]			Wadi Abiad (Rod Elbel, Wadi Abu Ribian).
			Wadi Megah.
			Wadi Hutit.
			Wadi Dagalai lil Rahaba.
			Wadi Abu Had.
			Wadi Marafai.
			Wadi Arned (Wadi Muegil, Wadi Um Arta).
			Wadi Saalek.
			Wadi Um Reit (Wadi Dreb, Wadi Malhat).
			Talet Um Danaqa.
			Talet Um Sideiri.
			Wadi Gihab (Wadi Gihab Abu Derb).
			Wadi Maghal.
			Wadi Naam (Wadi Fil, Wadi Abu Seyal, Wadi UmBisilla, Wadi Erf Um Araka, Wadi Arais, Wadi Silsila, Wadi Abraq,Wadi Betan).
			Wadi Dif (Wadi Feqoh, Talet Um Karaba, WadiEnqireidia, Wadi Gelabat Shabai).
[WadiHodein]			Wadi Orga el Atshani.
			Wadi Orga el Rayani.
			Wadi Anfeib (Wadi Anfeib el Tawayib, WadiAtalab, Wadi Mitatib).
			Wadi Khasiya.
			Wadi Madi (Wadi Difotib, Wadi Eirahimib, WadiFaditiai, Wadi Shellal el Gharbi, Wadi Sinatib, Wadi Tugudbaia,Wadi Berendiyeb, Wadi Atluk, Rod Mukrayib, Wadi Kolaiqo, WadiEdunqul).
			Wadi Um Tenedba.
			Wadi Khashab (Wadi Dehaiartib).
			Wadi Um Seleim.
			Wadi Kreiga (Wadi Korbiai, Wadi Meneiga, WadiAbiad, Wadi Eberer, Wadi Shigig).
[WadiKolaiqo.]
			Wadi Radad.
			Wadi Shellal el Sharqi.
			Wadi Muqur (Wadi Ti Ilak, Wadi Tikosha).
			Wadi Qadiloi (Talet Tihu Shana).
[WadiShab]			Wadi Baaneit.
			Wadi Kilanai.
			Wadi Diqdib.
			Wadi Um Saha.
			Wadi Sherefa el Sharqi.
			Kwat Hewah.
			Wadi Mantil Hasium.
			Wadi Hilwit Hasium.
			Wadi Shinai.
			Wadi Delawet.
			Wadi Abu Hodeid.
			Rod Anut Berer.
			Wadi Tikraneib.
[WadiIbib (Hasium)]			Wadi Abu Hireiq.
			Wadi Odruk.
			Wadi Nilateib.
			Wadi Medarai (Wadi Merdiyeb, Wadi UmRasein).
			Wadi Soaorib (Wadi Haiyo, Wadi Hankuk, WadiDishlo, Wadi Eimya, Wadi Qidmib).
			Wadi Um Bishtit (Wadi Delawet, WadiOrgem).
			Wadi Habliai.
			Wadi Sarobaiya.
			Wadi Awitla.
			Wadi Lasewid.
[WadiMeisah]			Sarob Kwan.
			Akla Da-aiyob.
			Hanqun Ra-ub.
			Wadi Eqaiyib.
			Wadi Shendib.
			Wadi Hareitra.
			Wadi Qurat (Wadi Dibir, Wadi Hashimaiyib,Wadi Oshqeq, Wadi Mashushenai).
			O Harbub.
[WadiKiraf (Di-ib)]			Wadi Salalob.
			Wadi Warabeit (Sarob Kwan, Wadi Wi-eqwer,Wadi Kwileimidaiyeib).
			Wadi Qumad Lim.
			Wad el Qireira (Wadi Didaut, WadiBaueiwai).
			Wadi Halal Hendiyeb.
[WadiDi-it.]
[WadiEikwan.]
			Wadi O Sir Hadal.
[WadiYoider]			Wadi Qeirat.
			Wadi Siamtit.
			Wadi Akwamtra.
[WadiAideib]			Wadi Yahameib (Wadi Akau, WadiKansisrob).
[WadiTodhi.]
[WadiDelowa.]
[WadiSerimtai]			Wadi Um Seyal.
			Wadi O Sir Eirab.
[WadiShellal.]
[WadiAqilhoq.]
[WadiAqwei.]
[WadiKreit-reit-or.]
[WadiQabatit.]

Wadi Dabur falls only partly within the district to be described in the present volume. It drains the hill country between Gebels Atut and Igli, by numerous feeders, and courses north-east to enter the sea about latitude 25° 16′, beyond the limits shown on the map.

Wadi Igli is a short wadi draining from Gebel Igli and coursing a little north of east to the sea somewhat south of latitude 25° 10′.

Wadi Um Khariga has its principal head in a cul-de-sac west of Gebel Ghuel and north of Gebel Hangalia, at an altitude of approximately 800 metres above sea-level. Near its head there is an easy pass entering from the west, forming a line of communication with Hangalia mine; the highest point of the pass is 773 metres above sea-level. After coursing for about twelve kilometres a little west of north between the high hills called Gebel Um Khariga, with a rapid fall, the wadi turns north-east, receiving just below the bend a large tributary which heads in an easy pass to Wadi Ghadir. Near this place a road crosses the wadi northwards through the low hills, and passes west of Gebel Igli el Iswid; it is said to go on to Qena. Further on in its course towards the sea, Wadi Um Khariga receives another tributary draining the south flanks of Gebel Igli el Iswid. The lower portion of Wadi Um Khariga has not been surveyed in detail; but it passes through a tract of lower hills and enters the sea in about latitude 25° 5′. The total length of the main channel of Wadi Um Khariga is about fifty kilometres, and the area of its basin is about 300 square kilometres.

Wadi Sukari, the next wadi to the south, heads at a pass from Wadi Ghadir; for about nine kilometres it courses east of north between the eastern range of Gebel Um Khariga and the craggy Gebel Sukari, then turns more to the east and enters the sea a little south of Wadi Um Khariga. Near the south end of Gebel Sukari there are numerous ruins and some ancient gold mines.

Wadi Um Tundeba heads near the mountain of the same name, and courses about north-east to the sea. In one of the heads of this wadi, about three kilometres west of the summit of Gebel Um Tundeba, is an important water source, called Galt Um Tundeba. This is a rock basin situated about one kilometre up a little wadi; it contained a good supply of water in December 1905, but as it depends for its supply on rainfall in the surrounding hills, it cannot be relied on as a permanent water source.

Wadi Amba-ut is a small wadi originating near the granite hills called Gebel Amba-ut, and following a course about parallel with the Wadi Um Tundeba seawards.

Wadi Ghadir, which drains by numerous tributaries the eastern face of Gebels Hangalia and Zabara, as well as the hilly country round Gebels Ghadir, Allawi, and Lewewi, has a basin of over 500 square kilometres and a length along its main channel, not counting its feeders, of about forty-five kilometres; it enters the sea in latitude 24° 50′.

The principal head of Wadi Ghadir is at an easy pass between Gebels Ghuel and Um Khariga, in latitude 24° 55′, at an altitude of about 500 metres above sea-level. Coursing south-east, it receives important feeders from gorges in the west face of Gebel Ghuel; the principal of these feeders, Wadi Ghuel, contains water holes, which gave an excellent supply of rain water in 1905-06. A little further along its course, Wadi Ghadir passes the low hill district called Kurdeman, where there are some old gold mines, and then receives as tributaries Wadi Fegas and Wadi Ma-ud, draining the mountains of Ghuel and Hangalia. Taking now a more easterly direction towards Gebel Ghadir, it receives from the north-west Wadi Sabahia, draining the craggy felsite hill of the same name; there are some old gold mines about a kilometre north-east of this hill, in a branch of Wadi Sabahia.

The Wadi Zabara, an important tributary draining the north flanks of Gebel Zabara and the south-east part of Gebel Hangalia, enters Ghadir from the south-west, nearly opposite Wadi Sabahia. Wadi Zabara has itself three main heads, called by the separate names of Wadi Atabi, Wadi Um Abid, and Wadi Um Dafiri. There are ruins and ancient mines close to where the Wadi Atabi joins Wadi Zabara, while in the upper part of Wadi Um Dafiri are more extensive ruins and numerous ancient emerald mines, as well as a series of rock basins which were yielding good water in 1905-1906.

After receiving the Wadi Zabara, Wadi Ghadir continues its course south-east past Gebel Ghadir, from the slopes of which numerous small feeders enter the main channel. Almost due south of Gebel Ghadir, in the southern one of two branches into which the wadi splits as it passes round a low island-like mass of hills, is Bir Ghadir, a well sunk in the alluvium of the wadi floor. When I visited it early in 1906 this well was filled by downwash, and the Arabs of the district deferred digging it out until the rock basins were empty; it is an important water source and is said to yield good supplies. The mines of Hangalia were supplied by water from Bir Ghadir in 1905, when nearer sources were dry.

About six kilometres below the well, Wadi Ghadir passes close north of Gebel Allawi, where there are some old gold mines. The Wadi Allawi, which with its tributary Wadi Lewewi drains the hilly country between Gebels Zabara and Sikait, enters Ghadir a little to the east of Gebel Allawi; both Allawi and Lewewi are very tortuous wadis, their names in fact meaning “crooked” in the Ababda tongue (Lewewi is a diminutive of Allawi).

Wadi Um Gamil, the next wadi entering the sea to the south, drains the hilly country south-east of Sikait. Very little is known about its course, the only part surveyed being the heads east of Gebel Sikait.

Wadi Gemal is the terminal portion, about sixty kilometres in length, of the main drainage channel from a basin nearly 200 square kilometres in area. With its numerous large feeders, the principal of which is Wadi Huluz, about eighty kilometres in length, the Wadi Gemal drains the Hafafit and Nugrus ranges of mountains on the north, and a great mass of high mountains, including Gebel Hamata, on the south. It will be convenient here to describe only the Wadi Gemal proper, leaving the great wadis which join to form it, and its major tributaries, for separate treatment.

The name Wadi Gemal is first given to the drainage at the point where Wadi Huluz turns sharply eastward in longitude 34° 39′.[89] At this point the country becomes more open than in the gorge-like Wadi Huluz. To the north is a mass of low granite hills, some of which have remarkable shapes, with a great deal of drift sand, while to the south are the higher dark hills flanking Gebel Um Suerab. Among these surroundings the wadi pursues a winding course, with a general north-easterly direction, receiving the Wadi Um Suerab lil Gemal and the Wadi Durunkat as tributaries from the south.

About six kilometres below the point of influx of Wadi Durunkat, on the right (south) side of Wadi Gemal, is a locality called Geli, where there are extensive ruins. A very remarkable rock in the middle of the main wadi marks the place whence a track leads south-east past the ruins and across the heads of Wadis Um Ghazal and Mukhatatat into the upper part of Wadi el Abiad.

Passing a remarkable bell-shaped hill (Gebel Um Regeba, rising to 571 metres above sea, the “mosque rock” of Floyer’s map) about four kilometres on the left, Wadi Gemal receives two small feeders coming from among the hills to the south, and then the important tributary called Wadi Hafafit enters from the north-west.

Below the point of influx of Hafafit, the Wadi Gemal becomes more narrow, and shut in by high hills. Near the meridian of 34° 49′ there are some ruins on the north side of the wadi, and a little further on the Wadi Nugrus, one of the largest tributaries of Wadi Gemal, enters from the north-west at a rather sharp bend. Further down, Wadi Gemal receives Wadi el Mukhatatat and Wadi Um Sueh from the south, and Wadi Um Heran and Wadi el Nasbia from the north. The Wadi Abiad, which next joins Wadi Gemal from the south, is an important feeder. Two kilometres below the mouth of Wadi el Abiad, the Wadi Um Kabu enters Wadi Gemal from the north-west, while nearly opposite to it is a small wadi, called Um Sellimi, in which there are water pools after rain. The wadi now curves more northward round the base of the double-topped hill mass called Madaret Um Gamil. Just beyond the northward turn a road[90] leads up a narrow tortuous gully in a north-westerly direction, passing close south of the hill summit and forming the most ready means of ascent of Madaret Um Gamil; the climb from the road at the top of the gully is only about 200 metres. The course of the Wadi Gemal to the sea has not been surveyed beyond four kilometres east of Madaret Um Gamil; it goes through low hilly country and enters the sea in about latitude 24°.

The fall of the Wadi Gemal averages about six metres per kilometre, being as low as four metres per kilometre in some places, and probably exceeding ten metres per kilometre where it emerges from the hills on to the coast-plain. It is interesting to note that the observations of level indicate a local increase of gradient above the place of influx of Hafafit and Nugrus. The Wadi Gemal is well supplied with trees, as are also almost all its tributaries with the exception of the sandy Wadi Hafafit.

Wadi Huluz is a long winding wadi, mostly shut in by high rock walls, draining the high mountains round Gebel Hamata and coursing north-east for a distance of over seventy-five kilometres to the point, near Gebel Um Suerab, where, turning sharply eastward, it enters more open country and takes the name of Wadi Gemal. The slope of Wadi Huluz averages fifty metres per kilometre for the first ten kilometres from its heads in the mountains. In the next ten kilometres the slope is much flatter, being twenty metres per kilometre. From twenty to forty kilometres from its head the average fall is only ten metres per kilometre, while still further down the rate of fall lessens till in the last reaches, just before entering the Wadi Gemal, it is only six and a half metres per kilometre.

The principal heads of Wadi Huluz are close to the south-east of Gebel Hamata, in a cul-de-sac formed by the high mountains of Gebel Hamata (1,978 metres above sea) and Gebel Ras el Kharit (1,661 metres). Here a number of steep gorges unite to form the main channel, which due south of Hamata has an altitude of 1,053 metres above sea-level. Following a winding course among the mountains as a rapidly falling valley with a sandy floor averaging 100 metres or more in width, it passes west of the great mass of Hamata, receiving the drainages from the north-east flanks of that mountain and from the north face of Gebel Um Hasidok. At its crossing the meridian of 35° it receives as a feeder the Wadi el Abiad lil Huluz, which drains the north face of Hamata and the south flanks of Gebel Abu Ghusun; draining mostly from granite country, this feeder has a floor of coarse granitic sand, from the whitish colour of which it takes its name.

The next feeder of Wadi Huluz, called Wadi Mahali, enters from the south, its head being on the main watershed between Gebels Um Usher and Um Hasidok. Passing between Gebels Um Usher and Um Laham, the Wadi Huluz receives Wadi Tarfawi, draining the mountain of the same name from the east. Further down, feeders come in from Gebel el Mehali on the south and from the high hills south of Gebel Um Heshenib on the north. Near the meridian of 34° 50′ two important tributaries enter Huluz near together from the south. The upper one, Wadi Hilgit lil Huluz, heads in a very steep and difficult pass, leading into Wadi Hilgit lil Kharit. The lower one, called Wadi Um Semiuki, drains the north-east flanks of Gebel Abu Hamamid. Nearly opposite the mouth of Wadi Um Semiuki is another feeder of Wadi Huluz, which I believe forms the main drainage channel for the south face of Gebel Um Heshenib; but it is said to be very steep and stony, and my Arabs preferred to reach Gebel Um Heshenib by a small wadi, containing several tombs, some four kilometres higher up Wadi Huluz, whence there is a stony pass leading into the above-mentioned main drainage channel at a point above the obstructions in it.

About eight kilometres further on, on the north-east side of the wadi, there is a low gap over which by a very easy pass one can descend into the head of Wadi Durunkat, leading to Wadi Gemal. Some three kilometres lower down, Huluz receives two tributaries together; one, from the south-east, is called Wadi Um Hegiligi lil Huluz, while the other, from the south-west, is called Wadi Marasan and heads in an easy pass on the main watershed, over which a track leads south-east and south to the well and tomb of Sheikh Shadli.

Two sheikhs’ tombs and some smaller graves exist at a bend in the Wadi Huluz, three kilometres below the point of influx of Wadi Marasan. Below these enter as feeders Wadi Um Suerab lil Huluz from the north, and Wadi Abu Gerifat from the south. The wadi now becomes very tortuous. Near the meridian of 34° 40′, on the south side of the wadi, at a bend where trees are very abundant, is a small gully containing the important water holes called Um Gerifat. These are rock basins fed by rain water draining down steep gorges from the hills round the twin-peaked Gebel Um Sedri; they are easily accessible in a few minutes from the main wadi, and contained good supplies of water in the winter of 1905-1906. About four kilometres lower down, the Wadi Um Iteili enters from the east, and about five kilometres beyond this Huluz opens out into a somewhat triangular space, when the Wadi Gaetri enters from the west and Wadi el Khisei from the east. The Wadi Gaetri leads by an important pass into the more open country to the west (wells of Wadi Khashab and Wadi Natash).

At the open space above-mentioned, Wadi Huluz turns northward, winding somewhat, for some eight kilometres, and then, after receiving the Wadi Abu Etl as a feeder from the west, turns sharply eastward and becomes the Wadi Gemal.

Wadi Durunkat, a tributary of Wadi Gemal, forms an important road from Wadi Gemal into the higher parts of Huluz. By following it up to its head about twenty kilometres from its junction with Wadi Gemal, one can enter Wadi Huluz by a very easy pass in longitude 34° 46′, thus cutting off the long winding course of Wadi Huluz itself; and from this pass one can cross the main watershed by the Wadi Marasan to reach Bir Shadli.

Wadi Hafafit, another tributary of Wadi Gemal, has its head situated close to the east side of Gebel Migif, in latitude 24° 50′, on the main watershed, where there is an easy pass into the head of Wadi Shait. Following a very straight course for nearly forty kilometres south-east, with the remarkable range of high gneiss mountains called Gebel Hafafit on the left, and the sugar loaf granite hills of Abu Had on the right, Wadi Hafafit forms a broad barren valley in which there are heavy accumulations of blown sand. Wadi Abu Had, a small western feeder of Hafafit, is well known by reason of the well of bitter water, Bir Abu Had, at its head. An eastern feeder of Wadi Hafafit, which joins it shortly before the junction with Wadi Gemal, is called by the diminutive name of Wadi Hefeifit.

Wadi el Abiad, likewise a tributary of Wadi Gemal, derives its name from the coarse white granitic sand which forms its floor. Its heads are situated near latitude 24° 20′, among the granite mountains called Gebel el Abiad and on the northerly slopes of Gebel Um Heshenib. There is a very steep pass from its head, east of Gebel Um Heshenib, into Wadi Huluz. Pursuing an almost northerly course and falling rather rapidly, Wadi el Abiad is at first very wide, with high granite hills on each side. It narrows further down, at a point opposite Gebel Shoab, where a small eastern feeder leads by an easy sandy pass into the Wadi Shoab. A little lower down, passing into diorite country, it turns more to the east, and after receiving the Wadis Um Seyal el Foqani and el Tahtani from the south-east, enters the Wadi Gemal near Madaret Um Gamil. The wadis called Um Seyal receive their name from the abundance of acacia trees in them; at the head of Wadi Um Seyal el Foqani there is a pass leading by the Wadai el Anz into Wadi Um el Abbas.

Wadi Nugrus, an important tributary of Wadi Gemal, commences its course on the main watershed west of Gebel Nugrus, in latitude 24° 48′, at the pass into Wadi Gerf, 690 metres above sea-level, and courses south-east in almost a straight line for nearly forty kilometres to join the Wadi Gemal in latitude 24° 34′ and longitude 34° 50′. The fall to this point is some 450 metres, or an average of over ten metres per kilometre, but the fall is most rapid near the head, where the floor of the wadi is rocky and steep; the slope for the first few kilometres is over double the average.

The approach to the head of Wadi Nugrus from the north, by one of the heads of Wadi Gerf, is almost a plain. But as soon as Wadi Nugrus is entered one becomes very sensible of the greater steepness of the eastern drainage by the stony nature of the track and the rapid fall. The wadi here is in fact only a narrow gorge with the huge mountains of Hafafit and Nugrus on the west and east sides respectively. Some three kilometres below the pass, close to the west side of the wadi, in a narrow gorge, is the spring called Megal el Harami, situated in gneiss rocks, and giving supplies of good water; the water infiltrates slowly, however, so that the yield is not sufficiently rapid to supply large quantities at once. Lower down, the wadi broadens out considerably, with a sandy floor in the middle of which low dark hills rise like islands. About thirteen kilometres below the head, an important feeder, the Wadai el Nom, comes in from the north-east. This wadi drains the south-east flanks of Gebel Nugrus and the west flanks of Gebel Hangalia; it contains rock basins holding water for some time after rain, and leads to a steep winding pass which enables one to make a circuit round the great granite mountain of Gebel Nugrus. The pass is, however, impracticable for baggage camels, and one has to dismount from a riding camel in order to get over.

Beyond the junction of Wadai el Nom, the Wadi Nugrus continues its straight course south-east, between the long range of Gebel Hafafit on the west and Gebel Zabara on the east. Some thirty kilometres below its head, Wadi Nugrus receives the Wadi Abu Rusheid from the north, and a little further on one encounters on the east the ruins of an old village called Medina Nugrus. Just opposite the ruins is a small feeder called Wadi Abu Sada, a short distance up which are rock basins yielding water after rain, but these were dry in 1905. Not far below this, there are some old workings in a small feeder on the east side of the Wadi Nugrus, six kilometres above its junction with Wadi Gemal.

Wadi Sikait, a tributary of Wadi Nugrus, heads in some high red granite hills north-west of Gebel Sikait. A pass leads over the western head, while in the eastern one is a small spring, which, though a mere trickle, is said to be constant and to yield excellent water. These two heads join at a well recently sunk by miners. Lower down, on the flanks of Gebel Sikait, are numerous emerald mines, with an ancient tower and many other ruins, and in the wadi near these is another recently sunk well, which has only yielded water of inferior quality. From near the mines there lead two tracks on either side of the wadi. That to the west is a rough path over gneiss hills into Wadi Abu Rusheid. That to the east winds past the ancient tower, ascending gradually to a pass into one of the heads of Wadi Um Gamil. Lower down the Wadi Sikait are many ancient mines, and the ruins of three rock temples and an ancient village. Just before the Wadi Sikait enters Wadi Nugrus, a track leaves on the east for Wadi Um Heran, in which I am told water is sometimes to be found. The length of the Wadi Sikait is about fourteen kilometres, and its fall is from 535 metres above sea at the pass at its head to about 250 metres where it enters Wadi Nugrus, or an average slope of twenty metres per kilometre. It is a narrow gorge shut in by high hills, with a fair abundance of trees.

Wadi Um el Abbas originates by the union of several heads in the neighbourhood of the high granite hills of Um el Abbas and Abu Hegilig. One of its heads leads to an easy pass called Kab el Haram, four and a half kilometres east of Gebel Abu Hegilig. Another, close east of Gebel Abu Hegilig, leads to another easy pass into the head of a tributary of Wadi Romit. A third head, called the Wadai el Anz, leads to yet another pass into Wadi Um Seyal el Foqani, a tributary of Wadi el Abiad. The course of the Wadi Um el Abbas has only been surveyed for a short distance below the place where its heads unite; it pursues a north-easterly course among low hilly country and enters the sea in about latitude 24° 36′.

MAP OF THE
DISTRICT OF NUGRUS & SIKAIT

Ball. Geography & Geology of South-Eastern Egypt.

PLATE VI.

Photo-Metal-Process. Survey Dept. Cairo 1910. (60-190)

Wadi Abu Ghusun commences its course among the high mountains of Gebel Abu Ghusun, north of Gebel Hamata. Pursuing a northerly course for about ten kilometres, it passes close east of the sharp granite peak of Gebel Hefeiri, then turns more to the east, receiving Wadi Romit as an important tributary from the west near the bend, and reaches the sea in about latitude 24° 29′.

Wadi Romit, a tributary of Abu Ghusun, originates in the granite mountains called Gebel el Abiad, near the parallel of 24° 20′ and follows a winding course in a general easterly direction for about sixteen kilometres to its junction with Wadi Abu Ghusun. It receives several important tributaries. The chief of these, Wadi Shoab, originates close to the south-west of Gebel Shoab, where there is an easy pass into the Wadi el Abiad. Another tributary of Romit, the Wadi Abu Hegilig, drains the south part of Gebel Um el Abbas, while a third is the Wadi Hefeiri, draining the hills round the granite peak of the same name. All these tributaries, like Wadi Romit and Wadi Abu Ghusun itself, contain abundance of trees, and have a rather rapid fall.

Wadi Hamata drains the eastern flanks of the high hills north of Gebel Hamata, its principal heads being about latitude 24° 15′. Only the heads of this wadi have been surveyed; it follows a winding course among the lower hill country and reaches the sea in about latitude 24° 24′.

Of the three wadis draining seawards south of Hamata, called Wadi Haratreit, Wadi Khashir, and Wadi Mikbi, very little is known, not even their heads having been visible from the stations which I occupied. The summits of the mountains drained by them have, however, been mapped, and their courses are approximately known from the accounts of Floyer; these are indicated on the map probably in nearly their true positions. Draining mostly steep and precipitous mountain faces, the upper parts of these wadis must have an extremely rapid fall, and consequently a rough stony floor.

Wadi Lahami, which enters the sea north of the peninsula of Ras Benas, is well known by reason of the easy pass over the main watershed at its head forming an important means of access to Berenice from the west. At this point, four kilometres north-east of the white quartz cone called Marwot Elemikan, the watershed is sandy, level, and low, being only 590 metres above the sea. The drop on crossing the watershed is fairly rapid, the wadi winding about among the hills in a general north-easterly direction. About six kilometres below its head, Lahami receives the Wadi Um Karaba, which drains the south face of Gebel Abu Gurdi. A little further on, Wadi Eidab enters from the south-east; this feeder is said to head in a rough steep pass over the hills into the Wadi Abu Daba. After passing between the high hills of Gebels Um Goradi and Um Gunud, Wadi Lahami receives the short Wadi Um Gunud, in which there are two well known galts, or rock basins forming reservoirs of rain water; these contained good supplies in 1906-7. Lower down, Wadi Lahami crosses a stony sloping plain, where it receives the drainage from the north and east flanks of Gebel Abu Gurdi and from the mountains to the north of it, by a series of feeders, the principal of which are Wadi Um Rishan, Wadi Um Homar, and Wadi Sefent. East of the plain there is a sort of shunt or loop-line of Wadi Lahami, called the Wadi Abreik, which is preferred to the main channel for a road. Just receiving Wadi Sefent, Wadi Lahami turns sharply eastward, and then north-eastward, receiving as feeders Wadis Um Khuzama, Um Ghobasha, and Gumudlum, draining Gebels Um Sellim and Gumudlum to the north; these feeders are said to contain natural reservoirs full of water after rain. From the south, Lahami is fed by the Wadis Um Eshub and Abu Marwa lil Lahami, draining the lower hill country. The lower course of Wadi Lahami has not been traced in detail. It passes north-west of the well marked granite peak called Gebel Um Huk, as remarked above, and reaches the sea north of the peninsula of Ras Benas. To get to Berenice, one leaves Wadi Lahami about twenty-four kilometres below the pass at its head, and turns off south-east up the tributary Wadi Abu Marwa, which leads to Wadi Naait by an easy road.

Wadi Lahami is well supplied with trees; it presented a very green appearance early in 1906, but the absence of rain for a year made it much more desolate looking in 1907, all the foliage being then blackened and withered. Its length is approximately fifty kilometres, its average slope twelve metres per kilometre, and the area of its basin is about 650 square kilometres.

The drainage from the low hills on the Peninsula of Ras Benas, except for a small portion which joins Wadi Mukhit, reaches the sea by a multitude of small wadis, none of which bear special names. The hills being nearer to the south side of the peninsula than to the north, the wadis draining southwards are on the whole much shorter and steeper than those draining northwards, and the latter cross a sloping plain two or three kilometres wide to reach the sea. Passage across the hills from south to north is only possible to camels at a few places. The southern wadis are mostly barren, but the northern ones contain abundance of a dark coloured grass of which camels are fond. There is no permanent water source on the peninsula, the nearest reliable source of supply being a galt in Wadi Mindeit, on the main land, about twelve kilometres west of Berenice. The tip of the low sandy projection of Ras Benas is marked by a sheikh’s tomb, one of the largest on the coast. It is chiefly built of wreckage cast up on the beach. From the hills it looks like a rectangular rock, and I determined its position by triangulation as latitude 23° 53′ 50″ N., longitude 35° 47′ 13″ E. The sheikh’s memory appears to be greatly venerated by sailors, and several of my camel men made pilgrimages to the tomb to pray.

The Island of Mukawar, about six kilometres south of the sandy tip of the ras, is nearly two kilometres in length from north to south. I did not visit it, but it has the appearance of being made of coral; its highest point, near the south end, is thirty-four metres above the sea-level.

Wadi Abu Daba drains the eastern flanks of Gebel Eidab and Gebel Um Maiat, and courses eastward through the lower hill country to the coast plain, where it joins the drainage from Naait in Wadi Mukhit. The principal feeder of Abu Daba is Wadi Murra which enters it from the south-west a few kilometres before its emergence on to the plain. At the head of Wadi Abu Daba there is said to be a rough steep pass over the mountains into Wadi Eidab. The place where Abu Daba debouches on to the coast plain is marked by a group of low bouldery looking granite hills called Khasheib Abu Daba.

Wadi Abu Dibban is a short wadi draining eastwards from the hills across the coast plain to the sea a little north of Berenice. In its course across the plain it passes a little north of a conspicuous granite hill called Sikeit, a well known landmark five kilometres north-west of Berenice.

Wadi Mindeit drains the hills between Gebel Um Maiat and Gebel Kalalat, entering the sea at Berenice.[91] Wadi Um Sellim lil Mindeit, a shorter wadi coursing across the plain a little further south, is interesting as furnishing the nearest fresh water source to Berenice; it leads to a rock basin or galt among the hills, where rain water collects. This source is some ten or twelve kilometres from Berenice.

Wadi Naait[92] is a narrow tortuous gorge, with a sandy floor shut in by high hills, coursing eastward to the coast plain a little south of the 24th parallel. Though only a small wadi some sixteen kilometres in length, it is well known because it forms the usual road from Wadi Lahami to Berenice. Its actual head has not been surveyed, but lies probably between the mountains of Um Gunud and Um Hegilig. Its principal feeders are Wadis Um Sumer and Abu Marwa lil Naait, which enter it from the north-west, and Wadi Abu Ghalqa, entering from the north and draining the granite hills called Gebel Abu Ghalqa. All three of these feeders enter Naait near together, some ten kilometres before it emerges on the plain; the lower part of the wadi is free from lateral branches. The fall is ten metres per kilometre among the hills. On emerging from the hills on to the sandy coast plain, it joins an ill-defined drainage line called Wadi el Mukhit, which enters the sea at Port Berenice, some fifteen kilometres further east. The name Wadi el Mukhit is also given to other ill-marked drainage lines entering Port Berenice from the sandy tract between the hills of the main land and the hills of the peninsula of Ras Benas. Some three kilometres north-east of the mouth of Wadi Naait, on the coast plain, is a conspicuous isolated low hill, forming a well-known landmark and called Grain el Rih. The plain drained by Wadi el Mukhit is a dreary sandy waste, and the crossing of it in a high wind is very trying by reason of the immense clouds of sand raised and carried in the air.

Wadi Kalalat heads in the north-west portion of Gebel Kalalat, and courses nearly eastward to reach the sea in latitude 23° 52′. For the first two-thirds of its course of about thirty kilometres, Wadi Kalalat is shut in by high hills, and falls rather rapidly. At its head a rough steep pass is said to exist into the head of Wadi Shut. After passing round the north flank of Gebel Kalalat, the wadi receives two small tributaries called Wadi Um Maiat and Wadi el Dibag lil Batoga, the former draining the north-east face of Gebel Kalalat and the latter the north-west face of Gebel Batoga. After receiving Wadi Dibag, the Wadi Kalalat makes a bend northward for about two kilometres, then turns south-eastward to the opening of the hills on the coast-plain. About two kilometres above the point where it leaves the hills, on the south side of the main wadi, is a rocky gully containing the Galt Batoga a rock basin which contained good water in 1907 and which is very easy of access in a few minutes from the main wadi. About one and a half kilometres further down, the small Wadi Um Sellim, draining the north-east parts of Gebel Batoga, joins the Wadi Kalalat just before it opens on to the coast-plain. The course of Wadi Kalalat from here to the sea, about eleven kilometres, is ill-marked, over a sandy plain. A ruined enclosure of considerable size, called Garia Kalalat, lies close south of the wadi about seven kilometres from the sea.

Wadi Um Goran is a small wadi draining by many heads from the east face of Gebel Batoga and its foot hills to the sea in latitude 23° 50′.

Wadi Kunserob, draining the south parts of Gebels Kalalat and Batoga, courses at first nearly southwards, then curves round south of Gebel Dibag, and after receiving Wadi Dibag lil Kunserob from the north-west, proceeds eastward through the hills and across six kilometres of sandy coast-plain to the sea in latitude 23° 47′.

Wadi Abu Berigâ is a short drainage line from among the hills to the sea, a little south of Wadi Kunserob.

Wadi Khoda is an important main drainage channel some forty-five kilometres in length, coursing a little north of eastward to reach the sea in latitude 23° 43′. For the greater part of its length it is shut in by high hills, only the last six kilometres being across the sandy coast-plain. With a basin approximately 780 square kilometres in area, it drains the mountains of Abu Dahr, Dahanib, Shut, Reyan, Shenshef, Hindia, and Um Akra, some of which rise to over 1,000 metres above the sea; it thus receives a fair amount of water in rainy years, and is well supplied with trees and bushes. Its average fall is about nine metres per kilometre.

The head of Wadi Khoda is formed by the union of three wadis, coming approximately from the north, west, and south, in the form of a cross. The central one of these, Wadi Abu Debebi lil Khoda, heads in a very easy pass leading to Bir Betan and the old mines of Um Eleiga. The one to the north, Wadi Salib el Abiad, is said to lead into Wadi Khiua, and to possess some old mines, but has not been explored. The remaining one of the three, Wadi Salib el Azrak, drains the east face of Gebel Abu Dahr and the high hills east of it; the feeder of it from Abu Dahr, called Wadi Um Karaba, leads by an easy pass, just north of the mountain, to Bir Betan and the Um Eleiga mines, while some eight kilometres from its junction with Khoda a track leads up a gully south-westward over another easy pass to Bir Rahaba. The names Salib el Abiad and Salib el Azrak refer to the form of the wadis and the nature of their floor, salib meaning “cross,” while abiad and azrak refer to the prevailing white and dark colours of the sand in the respective arms of the cross; these colours are due to the wadis draining light-coloured granites and dark-coloured serpentines and schists respectively.

A little below the union of the three arms above-mentioned, Wadi Khoda expands into a small rather stony plain, where the sinuous Wadi Allawi[93] enters from the north. This important feeder, which drains the eastern face of Gebel Dahanib, is mostly shut in by high hills, and is relatively well wooded; if it be followed up for about ten kilometres, one comes to the tomb of Sheikh Farhan, near which meet many small feeders, one of them containing a small rock basin near its head.

About eight kilometres below the point of entry of Wadi Allawi, Wadi Khoda receives two feeders from opposite sides; that from the north, Wadi Um Tawil lil Khoda, drains from Gebel Dahanib, while that from the south, Wadi Hindia, is a sandy rapidly-falling wadi draining Gebel Hindia.

Some five kilometres further down, Wadi Um Akra, draining the mountains of the same name, enters Khoda from the south, while another two kilometres brings us to the place of influx of Wadi Shut, an important feeder from the north. The head of Wadi Shut is on the west side of Gebel Kalalat, whence its course is westward for about ten kilometres; it is then joined by the Wadi Abu Hugban, coming from the south-west, and from this point it runs south-south-east for some twenty-three kilometres to its junction with Wadi Khoda. Wadi Shut is a rather wide wadi with a sandy floor, fed by many tributaries from the mountains of Dahanib, Um Hegilig, Reyan, and Shut. Its principal feeder in the lower part of its course is Wadi Um Tawil lil Shut, which drains the south part of Gebel Dahanib and enters Shut from the west about five kilometres above its junction with Khoda. The Wadi Shut has a fair growth of trees, and is said to possess also a large water source, the exact locality of which has not, however, been ascertained.[94]

Just below the place where Wadi Shut joins it, Wadi Khoda receives a small feeder called Wadi Um Gubur, entering from the north and marked by several graves near its mouth. On the other side, two kilometres further on, Wadi Shib enters from the south, and five kilometres further the Wadi Um Seyal lil Khoda enters Khoda from the north.

The Wadi Gumudlum, the next great feeder of Khoda, enters from the north four kilometres below Wadi Um Seyal. It is a wadi some eighteen kilometres in length, coursing south-south-east, and having its head on the west side of Gebel Kalalat. A little below wadi Gumudlum, near a boss of white quartz, several small feeders, of which the two principal are called Wadi Buluk and Wadi Um Lassaf, enter Wadi Khoda from the south; these drain the north side of the high hills called Gebel Um Etli.

The last feeder of Wadi Khoda, the Wadi Shenshef, enters the main wadi some three kilometres above the place where it debouches on to the coast-plain, or eight kilometres from the coast. It is a narrow and very tortuous gorge winding among high hills. If it be followed up for about ten kilometres, one comes to several small wells called Bir Shenshef, which contained water in 1907, and a little above the wells, where the wadi becomes more open, there are ruins, called Hitan Shenshef, which attest the former existence of a town or large village. The ruins are on both sides of the wadi, and many of them are extremely well built of slabs of quartz schist; besides the houses in the wadi itself, there are small towers on the hills. As there are apparently no mines in the hills here, the origin of the ruins is not clear; from the strong situation and the watch towers, and its proximity to fresh water and the sea, it may possibly represent an old slave dealer’s stronghold.

For some eighteen kilometres south of the Wadi Khoda, the seaward drainages have not been explored, but they are believed to be only short wadis, as the high mountains of Faraid are here only about ten kilometres from the coast. From guides’ statements, the Wadi Um Etli, coursing eastward and draining the south faces of Gebel Um Etli, enters the sea in about latitude 23° 38′, and there is probably at least one other short wadi draining to the sea about in latitude 23° 35′ from the north part of Gebel Faraid. The sandy coast-plain in this region is about five kilometres wide.

The Wadi el Sorubiab, draining from the north part of Gebel Faraid, and the Wadi Bint el Kurdum, draining the mountains around the remarkable “Bodkin” peak, enter the sea together by way of a small lagoon in latitude 23° 30′. Another wadi, for which I could not obtain any name from my guides, drains the extreme south parts of Gebel Faraid and the north slopes of the smaller Gebel Fereyid, entering the sea in about latitude 23° 19′.

Wadi Rahaba, with a basin of about 900 square kilometres in area, drains the country between Gebels Faraid and Abu Dahr. From its head, situated about six kilometres south-east of Gebel Abu Dahr, there is an easy pass into Wadi Salib el Azrak, a tributary of Wadi Khoda. About three kilometres below its head, a feeder called Wadi Titai enters Rahaba from the hill country to the east; and a kilometre lower down, another feeder called Wadi Abu Nikheil, comes in from the west. At this point there is an important well, Bir Rahaba, sunk in the alluvium of the wadi floor; this is said to yield good summer supplies, but was filled up by downwash when I visited it early in 1907. Some three kilometres below Bir Rahaba, a tributary called Wadi Abu Reye enters Wadi Rahaba from the north-west; and there is said to be a well, called Bir Abu Reye, about one and a half kilometres up this wadi. Another feeder, the Wadi Um Buerat, joins Rahaba from the south-west a little further on, and then the wadi, which has thus far taken a southerly course, turns south-east, winding considerably for some eight kilometres till it is joined by its most important feeder, the Wadi el Abiad.

This Wadi el Abiad drains the western side of the northern peaks of Gebel Faraid, and derives its name from the white granitic sand which forms its floor. It has a length of some twenty kilometres and is fed by the Rod Elbel, which heads in a sandy plain at the foot of the highest peak of Faraid, and by the Wadi Abu Ribian, which collects the drainage from the lower hill country west of the Bodkin peak.

About three kilometres lower down than the point of influx of Wadi el Abiad, Wadi Rahaba receives the Wadi Megah as a tributary from the north-west; a well, called Bir el Gahlia is said to exist at the head of this wadi, about twelve kilometres up from its opening into Wadi Rahaba. Some six kilometres further down, Wadi Rahaba opens out; its course down to this point has been shut in by high hills, but now becomes an ill-marked drainage line over a sandy plain. The plain is broken by small hills, and is limited east and west by other hills which increase in height further away, forming in fact the foot-hills of Gebels Orga and Um Tenebda on the west and of Gebel Faraid on the east. In this part of its course Rahaba receives several tributaries, the principal being Wadi Hutit from the north-west, Wadi Dagalai lil Rahaba and Wadi Abu Had from the east, and Wadi el Marafai, which runs for some ten kilometres nearly parallel to Wadi Rahaba, among low hills two or three kilometres east of the main Wadi, joining the latter about due west of Gebel Fereyid.

Wadi Rahaba curves round to the south of Gebel Fereyid in a quadrant of about seven kilometres radius, and then proceeds nearly due east to reach the sea in about latitude 23° 12′.

The upper parts of Wadi Rahaba, where it is shut in by high hills, contain many trees and bushes; but the lower parts are more barren and sandy, the actual drainage line being in places difficult to define on account of the paucity of vegetation and the openness of the plain. The total length is about seventy-five kilometres, and the total fall 450 metres; the slope averages eight metres per kilometre in the upper twenty-five kilometres, where the wadi is narrow and shut in, but only five metres per kilometre in the broad and sandy course which forms the remaining fifty kilometres.

Wadi Hodein, one of the largest and most important of the seawards draining wadis of the Eastern Desert, has a basin of nearly 12,000 square kilometres, or over a square degree of the earth’s surface. Its main channel, formed by the union of the Wadis Arned, el Sania, Um Sumur, Saalek, Um Reit, and el Nom, in latitude 23° 18′, longitude 34° 43′, and reaching the sea at Bir Shalatein[95] in latitude 23° 8′, longitude 35° 37′, has a length of 108 kilometres and an average slope of three metres per kilometre. For the first fifteen kilometres of its course it is shut in by the high sandstone scarps of Gebel Abraq and Gebel Hodein; but shortly after passing the Abu Saafa Springs its channel becomes wide and sandy, passing through lower metamorphic hill country; and in the last twenty-five or thirty kilometres of its course it is merely an ill-defined drainage line over the sandy coast-plain. Its lower reaches are dreary and inhospitable, but its upper-portion is pleasantly wooded, and contains the perennial springs of Abu Saafa. Wadi Hodein is remarkable for the large number and length of its tributary wadis, some of which exceed the main channel itself in length, while many of them contain wells and form important lines of communication by leading to easy passes over the main watershed. In the description which follows, I shall first consider the wadis which by their union form the head of the main channel, afterwards tracing the course of the main wadi in detail to the sea, noting the influx of the various tributaries on either hand, and finally describing the larger tributaries themselves.

The most important of the wadis which join to form the head of Wadi Hodein are Wadis Arned, Saalek, and Um Reit. These join in a small plain with the Wadis el Sania, Um Sumur and El Nom, which are smaller and will not need further mention.

Wadi el Arned originates on the main watershed about five kilometres south-east of Galt el Aguz. The watershed here is only 427 metres above sea-level, and is so flat and sandy that it is almost impossible to say within a kilometre where the divide actually is; the wadi in fact heads in a sandy plain about two kilometres wide with low sandstone hills on either hand, from which feeders join the main drainage line. About six kilometres below its head, Wadi Arned is joined from the south by its most important feeder, the Wadi Muegil. This wadi, which has a length of some twenty kilometres, originates in the hill country about nine kilometres north of Gebel Um Reit, where an easy pass connects it with Wadi Saalek; it flows in a northerly direction, entirely among sandstone hills, and is fairly provided with vegetation. Some two kilometres lower down, Arned receives a smaller feeder from the north, called Wadi Um Arta; by following this up for about five kilometres, one can reach a rather steep and sandy eastward pass into the head of Wadi Silsila, and this forms the shortest route from the Galt el Aguz to the springs of Abraq. About four kilometres below the junction of Wadi Abu Arta, near an isolated hill on the east side of the Wadi Arned, there appears to be another opening into one of the heads of Wadi Silsila; this opening is very sandy and looks like a practicable alternative route to Abraq Springs, though it has not been explored. Lower down its course, Wadi Arned is at first very sandy and bare, with high sand-drifts swathing the feet of the hills on the east; but it gradually narrows into a gorge and becomes less sandy, then opens out again, and near its junction with Wadi Hodein it contains abundant vegetation. The Wadi Arned forms the easiest and most direct road from Abu Saafa to Daraw, via Galt el Aguz, Bir Abu Hashim, and Bir Qoleib.

Wadi Saalek is a short wadi with many feeders, draining the hills round Gebel Saalek; one of its northern feeders leads to a pass into the head of Wadi Muegil, while one of its south branches heads in a pass leading round the west side of Gebel Um Reit to Wadi and Bir Um Reit.

Wadi Um Reit heads in the granite mountain called Gebel Um Reit and flows north-eastward, to the south of the mountain, for about twenty-two kilometres, to its junction with Arned and Saalek to form Wadi Hodein. The head of Wadi Um Reit leads to a pass north-west of the mountain into Wadi Saalek, while the western head of Um Reit, which bears the name Wadi el Dub, leads on to a sandy plain forming the main watershed, whence there are easy tracks to the various feeders of Wadi Timsah. The well called Bir Um Reit is a deep excavation, in the wadi floor at the foot of the mountain, near a large tree. Dr. Hume, who visited it in 1906, found it to yield water of only mediocre character. It is about one hundred kilometres by road from Bir Abu Hashim, the nearest well to the west, but only about thirty kilometres from Abu Saafa Springs, the nearest water eastward; to get to Abu Saafa from Bir Um Reit, one has only to follow down the wadi, and the supply at Abu Saafa can always be relied on for quantity and quality. Near the well, Wadi Um Reit receives feeders draining the high granite hills of Etresia; the principal of these is called Wadi Malhat. The lower part of the course of Um Reit is almost entirely in sandstone hills; it has not been mapped in detail except near its junction with Hodein.

We turn now to the main channel of Wadi Hodein, which originates, as above-mentioned, by the union of the Wadis Um Reit, Saalek, Arned, and other smaller wadis in a small plain, and shall follow its course onwards to the sea. Three small feeders, Talet Um Danaqa and Talet Kurit on the south, and Talet Um Sideri on the north, join the channel a few kilometres below its head, while about nine kilometres from the head there enters a larger wadi coming from the south, called the Wadi el Gihab. The main Wadi Gihab has not been followed, but its eastern branch, called Wadi Gihab Abu Derb, contains a large and very easily accessible galt about four kilometres from Hodein, and leads about ten kilometres further on, to a very steep and difficult pass into Wadi Dif; this pass is practicable only on foot, being risky even for unladen camels.

The Springs of Abu Saafa are situated in the Wadi Hodein, about two kilometres below the point of influx of Wadi Gihab, at an altitude of 310 metres above sea-level. The Wadi Hodein is here narrow, and shut in by very high steep sandstone scarps. There are four springs, all issuing from the northern scarp at intervals of about sixty metres along the wadi, and all about three metres above the wadi floor, trickling into pools about a metre in diameter close by. The most westerly of the four springs is a mere trickle; the next yields a rather greater flow, from a carved niche in the rock, with a Greek cornice; the third is the one most used, having the greatest flow of the four, while the easternmost is almost stagnant and has yellow incrustations near it. The rate of flow, even from the largest spring, is very slow, probably not more than ten litres per minute, and the overflow from the pools is only a tiny stream a few centimetres wide which soon loses itself in the sand of the wadi floor; but the pools are large enough for a dozen or more camels to drink from, and soon fill up again when emptied. The water is of excellent quality, very clear, and the supply never fails. Near the springs there are five or six small date palms, and the wadi hereabouts has many other trees. After rain, this part of Wadi Hodein at times becomes a stream; this was the case in October 1907, for I found numerous pools in the wadi floor, and scum and froth showing that an impetuous stream about half a metre deep had flowed down the wadi only a few days prior to my visit. Just below Abu Saafa Springs, Wadi Hodein receives the short Wadi Maghal from the north-west; this wadi, which is walled in by high sandstone plateaux, contains water holes about three kilometres from Wadi Hodein; but these are less important than the springs of Abu Saafa, and are, moreover, off the main road.

Wadi Hodein now opens out, the high sandstone scarps of Gebels Abraq and Hodein running north and south-east, and enters a sandy plain with very low hills, from among which some small feeders join the main wadi. About fifteen kilometres below the opening of scarps, Wadi Hodein receives, from the north-west, the Wadi Naam,[96] a great tributary draining the mountains of Zergat Naam, Um Bisilla, and Abu Dahr. The next influx is from Wadi Dif, which enters Wadi Hodein from the south-west about six kilometres further on; Wadi Dif itself is only a short wadi, but it collects the drainage of an immense area to the south by long feeders, and contains a good well. Nearly opposite to Wadi Dif, the Wadi Orga el Atshani joins Wadi Hodein from the north-west; the Wadi Hodein has here two large island-like masses of low hills in it, between which the main drainage line passes. Lower down, Wadi Orga el Rayani enters by two mouths from the north. Both the Wadis Orga are said to originate near Gebel Orga, some thirty kilometres to the north, but their courses have not been mapped; the one called El Rayani is said to lead to a good well, Bir Orga, about twelve or fourteen kilometres above its junction with Hodein. On the opposite (south) side, Wadi Hodein receives the Wadi Anfeib, draining the high sandstone plateau of Gebel Anfeib. A little further on the small Wadi el Khasiya comes in from the north, by two channels, one on either side of a small group of isolated hills; and nearly opposite is the mouth of Wadi Madi, which drains the west side of the great mountain mass of Gerf, some sixty kilometres to the south, and possesses a good well about fifty kilometres up its course from Wadi Hodein. Several feeders come in from the north a little further down the wadi, of which the chief is the Wadi Um Tenedba, draining the mountain of the same name, while others drain the hill country round Gebel Harhagit. On the other (south) side is the mouth of Wadi Khashab, draining the west side of Gebel Khashab and the hills west of it. A few kilometres further on, Wadi Hodein widens considerably, and from here onward it is very sandy and arid. A long spur running north-west from Gebel el Anbat nearly cuts across the wadi, the main channel of which passes north and east of the spur, while to the west of it is a rather broad sandy plain with ill-marked drainage lines from the hills, of which the chief bears the name of Wadi Um Seleim. Near Gebel el Anbat are numerous small feeders of Wadi Hodein from that hill and the other hills to the north-east. About eight kilometres below Gebel el Anbat, Wadi Hodein quits the hills and, turning a little north of east, merges into the coast-plain, over which its remaining course of about twenty-seven kilometres is very ill-defined. Just where it leaves the hills, Wadi Hodein is joined from the south-west by Wadi Beida, draining the mountain of the same name and containing two wells; and a little further on it receives Wadi el Kreiga, which drains the hill country round Bir Meneiga. The junctions of Wadi Beida and Wadi Kreiga with Wadi Hodein are very difficult to trace on the ground, being almost lost in the general sandy plain.

Bir Shalatein, a very salt well in the Wadi Hodein, about two kilometres from its mouth and only about seven metres above the sea, is chiefly of importance by reason of its marking the administrative limit of the Egyptian and Sudan spheres of government. It is merely a few shallow pits sunk in the wadi bed, yielding water drinkable only by camels. An iron beacon two metres high has been erected on a low bank close to the well, and will enable the well, which is itself inconspicuous, to be easily found.

Wadi Naam, a great tributary of Wadi Hodein coming from the north-north-west, originates about ten kilometres south-east of Gebel Zergat Naam by the union of the Wadis Abu Seyal, El Fil, and Um Bisilla, and courses south-south-east for about forty-nine kilometres to its junction with Wadi Hodein. It is a very barren wadi, being for most of its length a broad, shallow, and very sandy drainage line among low hills, and in its lower parts, where it crosses the plain of Abraq, its course is very ill-marked. Its slope decreases from five metres per kilometre near its head to about three metres per kilometre in its lower reaches. Besides the three wadis which, as above-mentioned, unite to form its head, Wadi Naam has several large tributaries, of which the chief are the Wadis Silsila and Abraq on the west, and Wadis Erf Um Araka, Arais, and Betan on the east.

The Wadi el Fil, which may be regarded as the main head of Wadi Naam, though it is not the longest, drains the north-east portion of Gebel Zergat Naam (sometimes called Hagar el Fil). The rocky gullies forming its heads contain rock basins which yield water for a short time after rain.

Wadi Abu Seyal drains the south part of the same range; its head is very steep, and is said to contain a very large galt, which holds supplies of water for five months after rain.

Wadi Um Bisilla drains Gebel Um Bisilla, which it half encircles, its main head being north-east of the mountain, where there is an easy pass into Wadi Abu Nilih, and thence an easy road to the head of Wadi Lahami. About eleven kilometres west of the mountain, Wadi Um Bisilla receives, from the north-east, the Wadi el Khiua, which, with its tributaries, Wadis Abu Fagir and Abu Nilih, drains the low hill country north of Gebel Um Bisilla. The lower parts of Wadis Um Bisilla and Khiua have not been surveyed in detail; their courses as shown on the map are only approximate, but being based on guides’ statements near the spot they are probably substantially correct.

Wadi Erf Um Araka heads as a series of small wadis among the low hills south of Um Bisilla, and curves round westward between the high hills of Abu Shigelat and Erf el Gimal on the north, and Erf Um Araka or Gebel Belamhandeit on the south, to join Wadi Naam about five kilometres lower down than Wadi Um Bisilla. The hill country round the heads of Wadi Erf Um Araka is fairly open, so that one can proceed freely from the head of Wadi Arais, across those of Wadi Erf Um Araka, and on into the heads of Wadi Um Bisilla.

Wadi Arais originates by the union of many small feeders in the low hill country between Gebels Um Guruf and Hendusi, and courses for the first fourteen kilometres in a south-south-west direction. About nine kilometres below its head the Wadi Um Guruf, draining the hills round the conspicuous granite boss called Gebel Um Guruf, enters from the north-west. Some five kilometres further on, just beyond the place where Arais makes a sharp westward bend, Wadi Belamhandeit, draining the east face of the long gneiss range called Erf Um Araka or Gebel Belamhandeit, enters from the north. Wadi Arais now narrows into a winding gorge, cutting westward for about ten kilometres through the complex of high gneiss hills called Gebel Arais to join Wadi Naam. Its junction with Wadi Naam takes place in a small plain, with the sandstone plateaux of Gebel Um Sididad on the west and the gneiss hills of Gebel Arais on the east. The fall of Wadi Arais is from 464 metres above sea at the pass into Wadi Erf Um Araka, to 345 metres where it joins Wadi Naam after a course of twenty-five kilometres; so that its slope averages four and a half metres per kilometre.

Wadi Silsila[97] heads in high sandstone hills on the meridian of 34° 40′, north of Gebel Abraq, where at least one pass, steep and sandy, leads to the Wadi Arned. Its course is almost due east, over a plain with low sandstone banks, with a great deal of blown sand. Feeders enter it from the sandstone hills which bound the plain, the principal being the Wadi Um Sididad, draining the high sandstone hills, called Gebel Um Sididad, on the north. About seven kilometres before it joins Naam, Wadi Silsila cuts through the range of low sandstone hills which stretches southward from Gebel Um Sididad to near Abraq springs; in proceeding to Abraq from the pass at the head of Wadi Silsila, one bears off to the south before reaching this range, entering the drainage of Wadi Abraq over an open sandy plain.

Wadi Abraq is a rather ill-defined drainage line which originates on the north side of Gebel Abraq, and after skirting the high sandstone scarp, from which it receives small feeders, for about thirteen kilometres, turns eastward to join Wadi Naam, about nine kilometres above its junction with Hodein. Wadi Abraq is sandy and barren, and would be scarcely worthy of mention but for the fact that it contains some of the most important water sources of the entire Eastern Desert, the Abraq Springs. There are no less than five springs within a length of as many kilometres of the wadi, yielding perennial supplies of excellent water.

The first spring from the north, called Bir el Sunta, is a pool about two metres in diameter at the entrance to a little gully in the face of the high sandstone scarp; it is very easily accessible to camels, being practically on the plain, and fills as rapidly as it is emptied. The second and third springs, called together Bir Abu Dibesat, are about 1,500 metres south-east of Bir el Sunta, near the tomb of Sheikh Hamid; they form smaller pools at the foot of the scarp. The fourth spring, Bir Abraq, is situated a short distance up a stony gully which emerges from the scarp a little further south; the water lies in large pools under dipping sandstone beds on the south side of the gully. The fifth spring, Bir Gumbit, is said to be some three kilometres further south-east, and, like the others, at the foot of the sandstone scarp; it has not, however, been visited by the survey party.

Fig. 2.—Map of Abraq Springs. Scale: 5 centimetres to a kilometre.

The water at all the Abraq Springs is of excellent quality; it contains masses of green algæ, but these are easily avoided in baling out, and the water can be obtained quite clear. Of the four springs visited, the one called Bir Abraq is the chief; but Bir el Sunta is rather easier of access for camels. The springs are practically all at the same level, viz., 330 metres above sea, and all derive their water from the same sandstone beds. No camel food grows near the wells, and there are very few trees in the vicinity; consequently, the Arabs of the neighbourhood do not camp near the springs, but in Wadi Hodein and its tributaries, drawing water from Abraq or Abu Saafa at intervals. There are, however, ruins of a large ancient fort on a low hill east of Bir Abraq, and some Arab graves a little further north; among these latter is a large tomb said to be that of Sheikh Hamid.

Wadi Betan originates on the north side of Gebel Abu Dahr, where an easy pass, 610 metres above sea-level, connects its head with Wadi Um Karaba, and courses at first westward to near Gebel Hendusi; it then turns southward to join Wadi Naam a few kilometres only above its junction with Wadi Hodein. Its total length is over fifty kilometres, and its average slope is about seven metres per kilometre. Only the head of Wadi Betan has been surveyed in detail; but this is the most important part, as containing water sources and old mine workings; and the lower part of its course as shown on the map is probably substantially correct, being based on statements made near the spot by guides familiar with the district.

About five kilometres below its head, Wadi Betan contains the two wells called Bir Betan. These are excavations in the alluvium of the wadi. The lower one is at the mouth of the small Wadi Um Eleiga, while the other is about 600 metres further up Wadi Betan, close to a small tree. Both these wells were filled up by downwash when I visited them in February 1907, and their places were only recognisable by the clay “hôds” near them; at this time there was no necessity for the Arabs to open them, as a galt at the head of the wadi, just south of the pass into Wadi Um Karaba, was yielding a good supply of water.

Just above the wells, Betan receives from the south the feeder called Wadi Mistura, draining the west side of Gebel Abu Dahr. The little Wadi Um Eleiga, which drains into Betan close to the south well, is of importance as leading to some extensive ruins and old workings about two kilometres up from its mouth. The ruins are mostly rubble hovels, while the workings, which were evidently for gold, vary from mere scratchings to pits ten metres deep in the rock. A diorite mill-stone is to be seen near the ruins.

The Wadi Abu Debebi lil Betan, which joins Betan on the north about three kilometres below the wells, leads by an easy pass into Wadi Abu Debebi lil Khoda, one of the heads of Wadi Khoda, and forms the nearest way to the coast from Bir Betan. Wadi Abu Sieiyil is a small feeder entering Betan from the south, three kilometres further down. The principal remaining tributaries of Betan are the Wadis Hefeiri, Abu Beid, and Egat. Wadi Hefeiri runs westward from near the Abu Debebi pass, and turning south near Gebel Hendusi, receives the Rod el Hendusi just before entering Betan. Wadi Abu Beid el Azrak originates near Gebel Abu Sieiyil west of Abu Dahr, and flows southwards to join Wadi Abu Beid el Abiad, which in turn flows into Wadi Betan. A well, Bir Abu Beid, is situated near the junction of Wadi Abu Beid el Abiad and Wadi Abu Beid el Azrak, where there are numerous seyal trees; it was yielding a fair quantity of good water in 1906. Of the Wadi Egat, nothing has been seen; it is, however, stated by the Arabs to originate in the rugged hilly tract south of Gebel Abu Dahr, and to join Wadi Betan lower down its course than Abu Beid.

Wadi Dif originates in the sandstone hills round Bir Dif, and pursues a very sinuous north-easterly course, cutting through the high sandstone plateau which is named Gebel Hodein to the north, and Gebel Dif to the south of it. For the major part of its length of twenty-nine kilometres it is very narrow, with very high steep sandstone scarps on either side, but it is a little more open near its origin, where Wadi Feqoh joins it, and in its lower part it winds as a broad sandy valley through the low hills which separate the Wadi Hodein from the high sandstone plateaux; it joins Wadi Hodein close to the meridian of 35°. Except the Wadi Feqoh, which is of immense length, and drains a very large area, Wadi Dif has only a few insignificant feeders. Of these, Talet Um Karaba and Wadi Enqireidia enter from the south plateau near the place where Wadi Dif leaves the high sandstone hills; and Wadi Gelabat Shabai, coursing north-east through the low hill country flanking the plateau, joins Wadi Dif just above its junction with Hodein.

Bir Dif is situated in a small gully forming the head of Wadi Dif, in latitude 23° 12′ 42″. To a traveller coming up Wadi Dif, Wadi Feqoh forms the main continuation of Wadi Dif, and the gully containing Bir Dif appears to be a lateral tributary coming in from the west; but the Arabs restrict the name Dif to the drainage line below the spring, and apply the name Feqoh to all the upper main channel. Bir Dif is a spring forming two pools of good water, situated about a kilometre up the gully, at the junction of sandstone and schists. The approach to the pools is very stony, but camels can easily reach the water; the spring is 290 metres above sea-level.

Wadi Feqoh, a tributary of Wadi Dif, is many times longer than Wadi Dif itself, and even longer than the Wadi Hodein of which Wadi Dif is a tributary, having a length along its main channel of 150 kilometres, with feeders totalling several times that length. Though only portions of Wadi Feqoh have been surveyed in detail, the position of its entire course is known with tolerable accuracy from the statements of guides at various stations from which portions of it could be pointed out. It is for the most part a very barren wadi, forming an ill-defined drainage line through a dreary waterless sandy waste. Its very name, which means “devoid of nourishment,” indicates its character. It originates near the west side of Gebel Soaorib, only some twenty kilometres north of the 22nd parallel of latitude, where the main watershed separates it from the feeders of the Wadi Alaqi. From here it follows a north-westerly course, passing between the mountains of Eir Arib and Hadal Derqa. Curving slightly to the north, it crosses the great sandy plain west of Gebel Korabkansi, and passes close west of the isolated mountain called Gebel Shabih. Further on, it enters a country of low hills with sandy interspaces, passing close west of the low range called Gebel Um el Kalala, and then sweeps round in a great curve towards the east to join the Wadi Dif close to Bir Dif. The fall of its bed from near Gebel Shabih to its junction with Wadi Dif, that is, in a length of seventy-two kilometres, is from 470 metres to 280 metres above sea, giving an average slope of only about 2·6 metres per kilometre; Wadi Feqoh has in fact the most gentle gradient of all the great seawards-draining wadis.

Wadi Feqoh has many tributaries. Those near its head, and others coming in from the western mountains through the low hill country north of Gebel Mishbih, have not been traced; but those draining Gebel Korabkansi and Gebel Niqrub, which are probably the most important, have been mapped in detail. Most of the drainage from these localities eventually finds its way into the great trunk feeder of Wadi Feqoh, called the Wadi Gimal,[98] which joins Wadi Feqoh about sixteen kilometres before its junction with Wadi Dif. The tributaries of Wadi Feqoh are of much more interest than Wadi Feqoh itself, as they contain in many places a fair or even relatively rich assemblage of trees and bushes, and at least one good well, Bir Sararat Seyet.

The most southern tributaries of Wadi Feqoh which have been mapped are Wadi Kamoyib, draining eastward from Gebel Wadhait, and Wadi Tawayib, draining the east face of Gebel Korabkansi. These are for the most part barren wadis each coursing for about sixteen kilometres across a sandy plain to join Feqoh.

The main head of Wadi Gimal is called Wadi Seyet. It originates between Gebel Wadhait and Gebel Dreb about latitude 22° 35′, and by means of many feeders drains the east face of Gebels Dreb and Gerf. The principal feeder of Wadi Seyet from the south-west is Wadi Wadhait, collecting the south drainage of Gebel Korabkansi, while on the east the Wadi Sherefa el Gharbi, which leads to the important Sherefa pass, contributes the drainage from the northern parts of Gebel Dreb and the south-west parts of Gebel Gerf. These both join Wadi Seyet a little south of latitude 22° 40′, while a little further down there enter from the east two small feeders called Wadi Delawet and Wadi Buyet. The name Seyet is given to this wadi only down to where it passes through a narrow gap between high hills in latitude 22° 42′; below that point it is called Wadi Gemal. Wadi Seyet is remarkably well wooded, containing an immense number of fine large acacia trees, and presented an almost park-like appearance at the end of 1907. It also contains a deep well, Bir Sararat Seyet, excavated in the wadi floor just above the gap between the hills above referred to. This well was full of downwash in the winter of 1907. It is said to be twenty metres deep and to yield plenty of good water, but at that time there was plenty of water in galts in the mountains, and the Arabs said they preferred to derive their supplies from these so long as they lasted, only digging out the well when further supplies were necessary.[99] An unnamed feeder from the west, joining Wadi Seyet just below the well, leads by an easy pass into the head of Wadi Hushenab, which drains through Wadi Sortdau into the Wadi Gemal lower down its course.

The country between Gebel Korabkansi and Gebel Niqrub Foqani, through which the course of Wadi Gemal lies, is a gently sloping plain with mere low banks, among which the drainage lines branch out forming numerous loops. The main channel runs fairly straight in a north-westerly direction, receiving Wadis Sortdau and Remalib, draining the hills north-west of Gebel Korabkansi as tributaries on its west side; but a sort of loop line runs off eastward and reaches the main channel again by the Wadi Haletiai, which also collects the drainage from the south parts of Gebel Niqrub Foqani. After passing west of this last-named mountain, Wadi Gemal takes a more northerly course; it receives an immense number of feeders from the west and north of Gebel Niqrub Foqani, of which the principal is called Wadi Umeiatib. Other feeders enter from among the low hills on the west, the principal being Wadi Hadelshisheib, coming from the neighbourhood of the dark cone called Gebel Mismih. From Bir Sararat Seyet to its junction with Wadi Feqoh the length of the main channel of Wadi Gemal is fifty-seven kilometres, and its fall is from 560 metres above sea to about 310 metres, or on the average about four and a half metres per kilometre; its slope is thus much more rapid than that of Wadi Feqoh, though in its lower parts, where it passes over what is almost a plain, its gradient is less than half this average amount. The upper parts of the Wadi Gemal and its tributaries contain as a rule a fair abundance of trees and bushes.

Wadi Abu Hashim, which joins Wadi Feqoh about three kilometres above Bir Dif, commences its course near Gebel Butitelib, where an easy pass, broad and sandy, 405 metres above sea-level, divides it from the heads of Rod Mukrayib, a tributary of Wadi Madi. Wadi Abu Hashim follows a north-westerly course, nearly in a straight line, collecting principally the drainage from the western slopes of the range of high schist hills which flank the sandstone plateau of Gebel Anfeib. It has a length of seventeen kilometres, and an average slope of about six metres per kilometre. It is a fairly open wadi, without much vegetation; on its west side are only very low hills.

Wadi Anfeib, which enters Wadi Hodein from the south-west eight kilometres below the point of influx of Wadi Dif, is formed by the union of three main heads, called Wadi Anfeib el Tawayib, Wadi Atalab, and Wadi Mitatib, draining respectively the northern, central, and southern parts of the great sandstone plateau of Gebel Anfeib. Mitatib is joined half-way down its course by Wadi Unfagalan, which likewise heads in the plateau. Below the junction of its three main heads, Wadi Anfeib has a course of only about seven kilometres to run, through low hill country, before it joins Wadi Hodein.

Wadi Madi, the next great tributary of Wadi Hodein from the south, heads in the western side of the complex group of mountains called Gebel Gerf, and courses in a northerly direction for over seventy kilometres before joining Wadi Hodein in longitude 35° 7′, five kilometres lower down Wadi Hodein than the mouth of Wadi Anfeib. The heads of Wadi Madi are extremely complex, consisting of a multitude of branching drainage lines, and some of them divide their drainage with the Wadi Gemal, which enters Wadi Hodein by way of Wadis Feqoh and Dif. The most southerly head is the Wadi Difoteb, draining from the west side of Gebel Gerf in latitude 22° 39′; but only a part of the drainage from this gets into Wadi Madi, the rest going into Wadi Sherefa el Gharbi. A similar fate is shared by Wadi Eirahimib, which heads in a slightly difficult pass, leading into Wadi Um Reddam, about three kilometres west of the highest point of Gebel Gerf in latitude 22° 42′; this wadi courses in a direction a little south of west, falling very rapidly, past the hill mass of Gebel Tueiwi, where it divides, part of its drainage going northwards as Wadi Madi, and part crossing the plain as Wadi Buyet and joining the Wadi Seyet. The next head of Wadi Madi to the north is formed by Wadi Faditiai, which drains the high hills east of Gebel Tueiwi, and captures a part of the drainage brought down by the above-mentioned Wadi Eirahimib. Exactly where the name Madi commences to be applied to the drainage is uncertain, as Arabs differ on the point, but it is probably most correct to consider Madi as commencing just south of Gebel Tueiwi, where the drainage of Wadi Eirahimib, with part of that from Wadi Difoteb, divides into two parts, the lesser going down Wadi Buyet to join Wadi Seyet, while the greater forms Wadi Madi itself. On this basis, Wadi Faditiai is a tributary of Wadi Madi, joining it by several openings between latitudes 22° 44′ and 22° 46′. There are numerous feeders from the low hill country both to Wadi Faditiai and to Wadi Madi proper. After receiving Wadi Faditiai, Madi flows in a well-defined trench, with many trees, north-west for a few kilometres to latitude 22° 47′, where it turns sharply, almost at a right angle, to the north-east. A kilometre and a half beyond the bend where there is a high granite hill on the west side of the wadi, is Bir Madi. This is a well sunk in the alluvium of the wadi floor, having its mouth lined with stone slabs; in December 1907, when I visited it, the water was four and a half metres deep, with its surface three and a half metres below the wadi floor, and the water was good. The wadi floor here is 476 metres above sea-level. A beacon on the granite hill overlooking the well has the position latitude 22° 47′ 46″ N., longitude 35° 1′ 38″ E., altitude 556 metres above sea. Below the well, Wadi Madi follows a rather winding course among moderately high hills to a little north of latitude 22° 50′, where it gets into more open country and continues as a broad sandy valley, curving gently in a northerly direction, to latitude 23° 5′. Beyond this point, where it receives the Rod Mukrayib and the Wadi Kolaiqo from the west and east respectively, Wadi Madi becomes narrower, and winds about, though still keeping a general northerly direction, among low hill country to its junction with Wadi Hodein. Wadi Madi has many tributaries, the chief being the Wadis Shellal el Gharbi, Tugudbaia, Sinatib, Atluk and Kolaiqo, and the Rod Mukrayib, which will be treated separately further on. The upper parts of Wadi Madi and many of its tributaries are well stocked with trees, but its central parts, where it is wide and sandy, are more barren. Its principal head, the Wadi Eirahimib, falls at an average rate of sixteen metres per kilometre; from near Gebel Tueiwi to Bir Madi the average slope is nine metres per kilometre; while in the final fifty-four kilometres of its course from Bir Madi to Wadi Hodein, the average gradient is rather less than six metres per kilometre.

Wadi Shellal el Gharbi, a tributary of Wadi Madi, originates in the mountains about six kilometres north of the highest peak of Gebel Gerf, where a pass connects it with Wadi Shellal el Sharqi, a tributary of the eastward draining Wadi Radad. Flowing at first nearly due west, Wadi Shellal el Gharbi receives the Wadi Um Reddam, which collects the drainage from the north faces of the highest peaks of Gebel Gerf. Two of the heads of Um Reddam lead to passes; one eastward to Wadi Shellal el Sharqi, and one westward into the head of Wadi Eirahimib. Entering a lower hill country from which it receives numerous feeders, Wadi Shellal el Gharbi turns north-west to join Wadi Madi about eight kilometres below Bir Madi. It has a rather rapid fall, and contains a fair quantity of trees and bushes. Its total length along its main channel is twenty-one kilometres.

Wadi Sinatib, which enters Wadi Madi about six kilometres below Shellal el Gharbi, is a small wadi coursing north-west through the low hill country north of Wadi Shellal.

Wadi Tugudbaia conveys to Wadi Madi the drainage from the dyke country south-east of Gebel Niqrub el Foqani. It is only a short wadi, and enters Wadi Madi nearly opposite Sinatib.

Wadi Berendiyeb, which joins Wadi Madi from the west about latitude 22° 54′, drains the western flanks of Gebel Niqrub el Foqani. It is a many headed wadi, coursing at first among the low foot-hills of the mountain, and then crossing almost a sandy plain to join Wadi Madi. Its length along its main channel is about twelve kilometres. North of Berendiyeb, there are two other feeders of Wadi Madi coming from the low hills north-east of Gebel Niqrub el Foqani; they have no special names, being broad and sandy and without much vegetation in consequence of their draining only low country.

Wadi Atluk, which flows into Wadi Madi from the south-east almost opposite Gebel Niqrub el Tahtani, has a rather curious origin. It arises from a splitting of the course of Wadi Korbiai, part of the drainage of which passes eastward down Wadi Kreiga, while the other part retains its northerly direction as Wadi Atluk. The total length of Wadi Atluk is about twenty-one kilometres. It has not been surveyed in detail, but for most of its course it lies in low hill country.

Rod Mukrayib is a many-branched wadi which drains the hilly country between Gebel Niqrub el Tahtani and Gebel Anfeib. One of its heads leads by an easy pass near Gebel Butitelib into the head of Wadi Abu Hashim; another head drains the north face of Gebel Niqrub el Tahtani; while a third drains the south end of Gebel Anfeib, coursing between the sandstone plateau and the schist hills west of it. From the pass into Wadi Abu Hashim to its junction with Wadi Madi the length of its channel is fifteen kilometres, with a fall of from 405 metres to 250 metres above sea, giving an average slope of ten metres per kilometre. It joins Wadi Madi on the north side of an isolated group of hills, just where Wadi Madi begins to narrow in, about nineteen kilometres above its junction with Wadi Hodein. From the point where Rod Mukrayib joins Wadi Madi there is a good open road across the heads of Wadi Edunqul into those of Wadi Anfeib.

Wadi Kolaiqo, which joins Madi almost opposite Rod Mukrayib, originates in the hills between Gebel Niqrub el Tahtani and Gebel Khashab, where a pass at its head leads into the heads of Wadi Khashab. It is a fairly wide wadi, shut in by rather high hills, coursing west-north-west with a length of nine kilometres and a fairly rapid fall.

Wadi Edunqul, a small tributary entering Wadi Madi, about ten kilometres above its junction with Wadi Hodein, drains by numerous gullies the south end of Gebel Anfeib, coursing a little north of east with a length of about eleven kilometres.

Wadi Khashab, a tributary of Wadi Hodein, drains by many branches the hilly country east of Gebel Beida. One of its heads leads to a pass six kilometres due west of the summit of Gebel Beida, whence there is a road to Bir Beida; just before reaching the pass, there is a large quartz vein with some ruins near it. Another feeder of Wadi Khashab, the Wadi Dehaiartib, heads in a pass leading to the head of Wadi Kolaiqo. Wadi Khashab has not been explored south of 23° 0′. From this parallel to Wadi Hodein its length is about twenty-six kilometres, but its head may be five kilometres or more further south. The country on the west side of Wadi Khashab consists of low hills, but on the east it drains very high hills, and its feeders course in trenches across the stony slopes at the feet of the hills to join the main channel. Wadi Khashab contains large numbers of trees, whence its name (Khashab = wood). Its average slope is about eight metres per kilometre.

Wadi Beida originates at a pass 395 metres above sea-level, six kilometres west of the summit of Gebel Beida, where a road leads over into Wadi Khashab. From the pass Beida courses south-east for seven kilometres, receiving feeders from the high hills on either side. It then turns abruptly at an acute angle, following a northerly direction for one and a half kilometres; then turning east for one kilometre, it receives a great feeder draining the south slopes of Wadi Beida, afterwards turning south for one and a half kilometres to a point marked by the ruin of a small well built stone structure, in which mortar and stucco has been used. From this point the wadi follows a winding course, at first south-east but gradually working round into a north-easterly direction, as a narrow gorge through the high hills of Gebel Beida. Just where the wadi begins to turn northward, about one and a half kilometres below the ruin above-mentioned, are the two wells called Bir Beida. The upper well is at the opening of a defile leading south-eastward to a pass, forming the point of departure in the nearest road from Bir Beida to Bir Meneiga; this well was dry in November 1907. The lower well is about 500 metres further down the wadi, at a sharp bend in its course; it is an excavation in the alluvium of the wadi floor, and was yielding good water in 1907 from a depth of about six metres. The Arabs say that the supply at this well only fails after three or four years without rainfall, but the water only infiltrates slowly, so that after it has been emptied by a caravan it requires a day or so to refill. The top of the well is 205 metres above sea-level.

About four kilometres below the well, Wadi Beida emerges from the high hills, and crosses a tract of much lower hill country seven kilometres wide, receiving in this part of its course many feeders from the eastern face of Gebel Beida; it then divides, still preserving its general north-easterly direction, into a number of shallow channels coursing across the sandy plain to join the Wadi Hodein.

From Bir Beida the nearest wells are Bir Meneiga and Bir Shalatein; the water of the latter is, however, very salt and only drinkable by camels. To Bir Meneiga, a distance of thirty-seven kilometres, the track leads over the pass already mentioned south-east of the upper (dry) well, thence into Wadi Kreiga, and up that wadi into Wadi Meneiga; the road is rather stony near Meneiga, and rises rapidly, so plenty of time should be allowed. To reach Bir Shalatein, forty kilometres distant, one descends Wadi Beida into Wadi Hodein and follows Wadi Hodein towards the sea; the road is easy, being mostly across a falling sandy plain.

Wadi Kreiga, the last great tributary of Wadi Hodein, originates by the union of the Wadis Korbiai and Meneiga, both draining that north extension of the mountain mass of Gebel Gerf which is sometimes called Gebel Korbiai or Gebel Meneiga.

Wadi Korbiai and Wadi Meneiga have their heads only separated by a narrow mountain ridge, but there is no possible track over this ridge from one to the other. In each case the wadi contains two water sources near its head, and the limit of “navigability” of the wadi is formed practically by these sources, above which there are steep stony gorges.

Bir Korbiai consists of two wells, both situated at the foot of a sudden drop in the rocky bed of Wadi Korbiai, about 150 metres apart, sunk in the bouldery alluvium; there is some rude timbering at the mouth of the wells over which a large stone is placed to prevent infilling by downwash. In December 1907 both wells contained abundance of excellent water, only a metre below ground level. Both wells are easily accessible, though the road to them is stony. The wells are stated to yield good supplies for three or four years after rain has fallen, but after longer drought they only yield a little.

Below the wells, Wadi Korbiai sweeps round in a semicircle of about three kilometres radius round the west flank of the hills to join Wadi Meneiga. On its right side are the steep slopes of Gebel Korbiai, but on the left is lower hill country. Small feeders enter from both sides. The bed of the wadi is stony, but there are a fair number of trees in it. Only a part of the drainage of Wadi Korbiai turns eastward to join Wadi Meneiga in forming Wadi Kreiga; the other part pursues a northerly course into the Wadi Atluk, a tributary of Wadi Madi.

Bir Meneiga is important, not only as giving a perennial supply of good water, but also as marking a point on the administrative frontier of Egypt and the Sudan. It consists of two springs in the stony bed of Wadi Meneiga, near its head. The northern spring is taken as marking the frontier; its position is latitude 22° 47′ 8″ N. longitude 35° 12′ 20″ E., altitude 605 metres above sea-level. The southern spring is about 320 metres further up the wadi, at a level four or five metres higher. Each of the springs consists of a tiny pool among the rocks of the wadi floor, easily accessible to camels. The pools only contain eight or ten gallons each, but camels can drink as fast as they like and the pool keeps full. The water is excellent. There are numerous ruins at Bir Meneiga; they consist of rude rubble hovels and extend for over a kilometre down the wadi below the springs.

Above the springs, Wadi Meneiga soon becomes impassable, ending in rocky gorges in the mountains. Below the springs it courses for about seven kilometres in a direction a little west of north to join Wadi Korbiai and form the head of Wadi Kreiga. The fall in this seven kilometres is 200 metres, so that the slope is the phenomenally rapid one of twenty-eight metres per kilometre, and of course the floor of the wadi is very stony and camel progress is very slow. There are several lateral feeders, including one from the east, three kilometres below the springs, leading to the head of Wadi Radad; but I am not sure whether the pass is practicable as I only saw it from the mountain top.

From the mouth of Wadi Meneiga, Wadi Kreiga courses about 15° north of east, as a fairly wide wadi with a stony floor, with high hills on either side from which small feeders enter. The first large feeder, the Wadi Abiad, enters from the north-west, six kilometres below the mouth of Wadi Meneiga; it is a steeply falling wadi, which, like all wadis bearing the name of Abiad, has a floor of light-coloured granitic sand. Some eight kilometres lower down, two feeders enter from opposite sides: that from the north is called Wadi Eberer, while that from the south bears the name of Wadi Shigeg. Neither of these has been followed up far, and their length is unknown; but they are believed to be of no great extent. Below this point the country opens out considerably, and the wadi anastomoses round low hills, while its floor becomes less stony and more easy under foot. The various channels unite again about eight kilometres further down, where the wadi receives a tributary from the north-west just before it passes the high hill mass which forms the southward extension of Gebel Beida. This tributary leads to an easy pass, forming a direct road to Bir Beida. Lower down several lateral feeders come into Kreiga from either side, and the wadi emerges on to a sandy plain with scattered low hills. Across this plain Kreiga takes a more northerly direction for about sixteen kilometres to join the Wadi Hodein. The length of Wadi Kreiga from the mouth of Wadi Meneiga to Wadi Hodein is about fourty-one kilometres. Its fall between these points is from 405 metres to about 70 metres above sea-level, giving an average slope of eight metres per kilometre; the slope in the upper parts, where the wadi bed is stony, is of course somewhat greater, and that in its lower more sandy reaches is somewhat less than this average.

Wadi Kolaiqo is a very ill-defined drainage line heading in the low hills called Gebel Kolaiqo, and coursing north-east for about thirty kilometres across the sandy coast-plain to reach the sea about latitude 23° 0′. It is very sandy, and absolutely barren except for a little scrub in its upper parts. It would hardly have been noticed had not the triangulation station on the hill at its head been occupied.

Wadi Shab, with a basin of about 1,250 square kilometres, drains the eastern and southern portions of the great group of mountains of which Gebel Gerf is the centre, and reaches the sea in latitude 22° 52′, a little to the north of Mersa Shab. It has a great number of heads, most of which bear special names, the name Shab being applied collectively to them from the locality near the hill of Qrein Salama, about forty kilometres from the sea, where they begin to unite together into one great trunk channel. From the circumstance that its heads are situated in a high mountain mass where the rainfall is relatively great, and moreover have steeply falling stony beds which absorb but little of the precipitation, the upper portions of Shab and its feeders are well stocked with trees. Only in the last stages of its course to the sea, where the absorption of its drainage by the sandy coast plain becomes great, does the abundance of vegetation fall off and the channel become barren. Its principal heads and feeders are Wadi Radad (fed by Wadi Shellal el Sharqi), Wadi Tikosha, Wadi Muqur (fed by Wadi Ti Ilak), Wadi Qadiloi (fed by Tilat Tihu Shana), Wadi Baaneit, Wadi Kilanai, Wadi Um Saha, Wadi Diqdib, Wadi Sherefa el Sharqi, and Kwat Hewah. At least three of these contain good water sources, Bir Muqur, Bir Baaneit, and Bir Diqdib being situated in the upper parts of the wadis bearing the same names. The various heads and feeders of Shab will be described in detail below, commencing from the northernmost one.

Wadi Radad may be more properly described as a tributary than as one of the heads of Wadi Shab, as it joins the trunk wadi some fifteen kilometres below the other feeders. It originates in a rugged tract of high hills near Bir Meneiga, and courses eastward for about thirty-six kilometres, joining Wadi Shab on the coast-plain near the low hills of Ti Qireira, about twenty-four kilometres up from the point where Wadi Shab enters the sea. It has not been surveyed in detail, but its course was mapped from the triangulation station of Gebel Gerf and from other occupied stations whence portions of it were visible.

Wadi Shellal el Sharqi, a large feeder of Wadi Radad, originates in the mountains between Bir Diqdib and Bir Muqur. It has many heads, the best known of which is one coming from the west, leading to a pass into Wadi Shellal el Gharbi, a tributary of Wadi Madi; while another, a little further south, leads to another pass into Wadi Um Reddam and forms a possible road to Bir Sararat Seyet. Wadi Shellal el Sharqi follows generally a northward course, with a rapid fall, and joins Wadi Radad about eighteen kilometres below the head of the latter.

Wadi Muqur heads in the eastern mountains of the Gerf group, which are sometimes called Gebel Muqur. Here the drainage from several steeply falling rocky gullies collects into a single winding gorge shut in by the mountains. The limit to which camels can go up the gorge is marked by a well called Bir Muqur. At the time of my visit to this, in February 1908, the well was filled up by debris, through which, however, the water constantly rose and trickled into pools in a series of rock basins at slightly lower levels. The flow was at the rate of about five litres per minute, the overflow from the basins running to waste at this rate in the sand of the wadi. The water was of excellent quality. The Arabs state that when the water ceases to flow as a spring they dig out the debris and use the place as a well. Below the well, Wadi Muqur pursues a winding course north-eastward for about two and a half kilometres; then, receiving the short Wadi Ti Ilak, draining the mountains to the west, it turns sharply eastward and emerges from the high hills into lower country about three kilometres further on. In the lower country the wadi changes its direction to east-north-east, receiving many feeders from among the low hills west of Qrein Salama, and its bed divides and anastomoses into a series of channels, which eventually unite just before it enters Wadi Shab, five kilometres north-east of Qrein Salama. From near its head at Bir Muqur to its junction with Shab, Wadi Muqur has a length along its main channel of about nineteen kilometres; it falls from 470 metres above sea-level at the well to 200 metres at its junction with Shab, so that the average gradient is about fourteen metres per kilometre.

A few kilometres before reaching Wadi Shab, Wadi Muqur is joined by the Wadi Tikosha, draining the moderately high hills which lie between Wadi Radad and Gebel Muqur, and winding among low hills over the plain.

The Wadis Qadiloi and Baaneit drain from the east faces of Gebel Muqur and the mountains and hills close south and east of it, into Wadi Shab. There is an eastward extension of hills from Gebel Muqur, partly drained by Tilat Tihu Shana, which flows into Wadi Qadiloi; south of this extension there is a sort of bay, occupied by lower hills separating Wadi Qadiloi from Wadi Baaneit, through which several cross channels connect the two wadis. Bir Baaneit is a small well in Wadi Baaneit, near its head; it is said to yield water always, but refills slowly, so that only six to ten camels can be watered at once. A little below the well, Wadi Baaneit leaves the hills and courses north-east across a rapidly falling stony plain. On the plain, south of the main channel, are the two ruins called Darahib Baaneit. They are built of rubble stone set in plaster, with stucco facing in places, and appear to be ancient Moslem tombs, the larger one having evidently once supported a dome; there are about twenty Arab graves near the ruins.

South of Wadi Baaneit the plain is crossed by many drainage channels coursing north-east to join Wadi Shab, and the plain is covered here with quite a park-like growth of acacia trees. The principal channel, which comes from the hills about four kilometres south Bir Baaneit, is called Wadi Kilanai.

A little south of Wadi Kilanai the plain cuts far back to the west, and the drainage entering this portion comes from the heart of the Gerf mountains to the north-west. A large isolated granite hill-mass called Kilia Arib and numerous smaller hills break the monotony of the plain and cause much branching and looping of the drainage channels. The principal artery draining the south parts of Gebel Gerf is the Wadi Diqdib, which originates on the south flanks of the highest peaks, right in the heart of the mountain mass. In one of the heads is a well called Bir Diqdib, which, though of great service to the Koatil Arabs who inhabit this district with their camels and other animals, is of little importance to the traveller because of its situation in a closed-in wadi and thus not being on any route. From its head, Wadi Diqdib courses south-westward for fifteen kilometres or more among the mountains, receiving many feeders, before it emerges on to the plain. On leaving the mountains it splits up, part of its drainage going round by the north side of Kilia Arib, and part by the south, in each case by a number of anastomosing channels.

The Wadi Um Saha drains the hills south-west of Bir Baaneit, and after coursing southwards among the mountains turns the corner and runs north-east across the plain to Wadi Shab.

Wadi Sherefa el Sharqi, which drains the south portion of the Gerf massif and the north-east flanks of Gebel Dreb, heads in the important Sherefa pass, 807 metres above sea-level, and forming the direct route from Gebel Hamra Dom and Gebel Um Rasein to Bir Sararat Seyet by way of Wadi Sherefa el Gharbi. The pass is a fairly easy one, though the fall is rapid, especially on the east side, where Wadi Sherefa el Sharqi falls no less than one hundred metres in the first two kilometres of its course. A feeder which enters Wadi Sherefa el Sharqi from the south about two kilometres below the pass is said to lead by another pass to a well called Bir Bint el Dreb, situated at the head of Wadi Dreb, a tributary of Wadi Feqoh. For the first seven kilometres of its east-south-easterly course below the pass, Sherefa el Sharqi is shut in by very high hills, from which numerous feeders join it; it then divides just before reaching the great white granite hills called Eir Arib, part of its drainage going southward to join Kwat Hewah, and part continuing its course on the north side of the granite hills to join Diqdib near the granite cones of Tibashoi and thence turning northwards over a large sandy plain to enter Wadi Shab.

Kwat Hewah drains the eastern flanks of Gebel Dreb and the north flanks of G. Medarai. Its heads unite to form a series of channels in a small plain south-west of Eir Arib, and here it receives a contribution from Wadi Sherefa el Sharqi as mentioned above. As it passes Eir Arib, Kwat Hewah divides, part of its drainage curving round to the north to join that of Wadi Diqdib and Wadi Sherefa el Sharqi on its way to Wadi Shab, and the remainder going south-west to join the Wadi Medarai. From the head of Kwat Hewah there is said to be an easy pass into the Wadi el Krim, a tributary of Wadi Feqoh.

Wadi Ibib, which drains the eastern slopes of Gebels Medarai, Abu Hireiq, and Abu Hodeid, and the eastern and northern faces of Gebels Soaorib, Adar Qaqa, Leqaq, Um Seleim, Qidmib, Orgem, and Um Bishtit, as well as Gebel Hamra Dom and the smaller hills south of it, is formed by the union of the Wadis Hasium and Medarai, a little east of Gebel Um Rasein, and enters the sea at Mersa Shab. It has a drainage basin of about 1,800 square kilometres. Including Wadi Hasium, which is simply the upper portion of Ibib, its total length along its main channel is slightly over one hundred kilometres. Its principal tributaries are the Wadis Shinai, Abu Hodeid, Abu Hireiq, Medarai, Soaorib, and Um Bishtit.

Wadi Hasium, which forms the upper portion of Wadi Ibib, originates on the main watershed in about latitude 22° 10′ and longitude 35° 15′; a pass leads from its head on to a stony plain, whence a track leads to Miti Kwan, a tributary of Wadi Alaqi. Near its head, Wadi Hasium contains a small well called Bir Kagog. A few kilometres further down, the short Wadi Mantil Hasium, draining the western face of Gebel Adar Qaqa, enters from the east, while the Wadi Hilwit Hasium, draining the mountain of the same name and containing a galt near its head, joins Wadi Hasium from the west. Continuing its course northward past the mountains of Adar Qaqa and Leqaq, Wadi Hasium enters an extensive sandy plain, open to the north, bounded on the west by the mountains of Abu Hodeid and Um Rasein, on the south by those of Leqaq and Um Seleim, and on the east by those of Qidmib and Orgem. This plain, which averages fifteen kilometres in width, is broken by low hills, the principal of which, Gebel Hamra Tit, Kulet Meiqrum, and Kulet Tinasal, rise to considerable heights. Hasium courses slightly east of north near the western edge of this plain to near Gebel Um Rasein, then curves to the east across it, receiving the Wadi Medarai and becoming Wadi Ibib. In its northward course through the plain, Wadi Hasium receives a number of important tributaries from the western mountains, besides a few smaller feeders from the mountains to the south and from the hills on the plain. These may be briefly described in order.

Wadi Shinai, draining the hills south of Gebel Abu Hodeid, courses a little south of east and enters Wadi Hasium about latitude 22° 19′; it has not been surveyed in detail, but it contains a well known water source, Bir Shinai, which is said to be about seven kilometres from its junction with Hasium.

Wadi Delawet, another small feeder which likewise drains the hills south of Abu Hodeid, and enters Wadi Hasium about three kilometres below Wadi Shinai, is of importance as leading to a camel track over hills which forms the means of access to Bir Odis Maaleq, I have not visited this water source, but it is said to yield immense quantities of good water, and to be situated at a rather high level in the head of a small wadi called Wadi Odis, a tributary of Abu Hodeid. It appears to be a spring fed by the rainfall on the surrounding high mountains, the overflow filling large rock basins. The reason why it is approached by the Wadi Delawet and the track over the mountains, instead of by ascending Wadi Abu Hodeid and the Wadi Odis directly, is that the latter route is very difficult for camels owing to the steep and stony nature of the wadi floor; it is, however, possible to use this route on foot. As nearly as I could make out from my guides’ statements, the total distance of Bir Odis Maaleq from the mouth of Wadi Delawet is about nine kilometres, of which the first four are in the Wadi Delawet and the remaining five on the hill track. The distance by the other route from Bir Abu Hodeid is about four kilometres, some of which is climbing. My native assistant, who was sent to erect the beacon on Gebel Abu Hodeid, took two and a half hours to go on foot from Bir Abu Hodeid to Bir Odis Maaleq, and estimated the latter spring to be some 150 metres higher than Bir Abu Hodeid.

Wadi Abu Hodeid, which drains the mountain mass of the same name, lies to the east of the highest peaks of Gebel Abu Hodeid and is shut in between them and another high range further east. It has a general south-south-easterly direction, and a very rapid fall. Its principal feeder is the short Wadi Odis above referred to, which falls into it from the west about six kilometres below its head. About one and a half kilometres below the point of influx of Wadi Odis, there is a large and important spring of good water in the wadi, called Bir Abu Hodeid. Though I have not visited this spring, its situation is shown on the map with tolerable accuracy, as its position with regard to neighbouring triangulated points was indicated by the guides. My native assistant, who passed the spring on his way to erect the beacon on Gebel Abu Hodeid, reported it to be very similar to the springs of Abu Saafa in appearance, though the latter are in a different rock. From its position in the midst of high mountains, Wadi Abu Hodeid must at times of rainfall collect a great deal of water, and this explains the constant supplies yielded by the spring. Above the spring, the steepness of the wadi renders its ascent very difficult for loaded camels, and there is no road through its head, but guides state that there is good grazing at certain seasons in its upper parts, and animals are taken there to feed. Below the spring, the wadi opens out and curves eastward round the foot of the remarkable rounded peak of Abu Hodeid Oqla to join Wadi Hasium on the plain.

The Rod Anut Berer, which joins Wadi Hasium about the same point as Wadi Abu Hodeid but from the opposite side, drains the mountains of Leqaq and Um Seleim which bound the plain to the south.

Wadi Tikraneib, a small wadi full of trees, drains a jagged range north of Abu Hodeid Oqla, and joins Wadi Hasium on the plain by several channels.

Wadi Abu Hireiq, draining the mountains of the same name, originates about latitude 22° 27′. On leaving the high mountains its channel divides, part of the drainage going north-east as Wadi Merdiyeb, and part south-east as Wadi Abu Hireiq. This latter wadi passes between the main mountains and a high isolated range of hills for about seven kilometres, then curves round to the eastward to join Wadi Hasium. There are numerous loopings and branchings of the wadis in this neighbourhood, caused by the feeders from the hills and by the presence of isolated hill masses, which the drainage lines frequently encircle, and it becomes impossible to say which of the various channels is the main wadi, so that the name Wadi Abu Hireiq is applied to all of them collectively.

Wadi Odruk is a small wadi draining between two groups of high hills south-west of Gebel Um Rasein; it joins one of the channels of Wadi Abu Hireiq about four kilometres above its junction with Hasium.

Wadi Nilateib, another small wadi further north, drains the south end of Gebel Um Rasein and the north-east faces of the hills close south-west of it. Coursing at first south-east for about three kilometres, it then curves round the foot of Gebel Um Rasein to join Wadi Hasium by two channels. There is a clear passage from the heads of both Wadi Odruk and Wadi Nilateib into Wadi Merdiyeb. All the wadis hereabouts contain plenty of trees and scrub, especially in their upper parts; as Wadi Hasium is approached they become more sandy and barren. It is, of course, the presence of vegetation available for grazing which determines the possession of a name by such small wadis as these two.

The drainage from the east face of Gebel Um Rasein joins Wadi Hasium directly by many small channels, which appear not to bear any special name.

Wadi Medarai, which forms the Wadi Ibib by its junction with Hasium, ten kilometres due east of Gebel Um Rasein, has its main head in Gebel Medarai, its length along its main channel being about twenty-five kilometres. By numerous tributaries, many of which contain abundance of trees and scrub, it drains the whole of the high hill country between Gebel Medarai and Gebel Um Rasein, and it also takes a part of the drainage from Kwat Hewah. One of its heads is said to lead to a rather difficult pass, south of Gebel Medarai, into the Wadi Kirwau, a tributary of Feqoh. For the first ten kilometres or so of its length, Wadi Medarai courses a little north of east; it then receives the feeder from Kwat Hewah above referred to, and changes its direction to a little south of east, passing close north of Gebel Um Rasein on its way to join Wadi Hasium on the sandy plain of the numerous feeders of Wadi Medarai from the hills west and north of Um Rasein, the principal is Wadi Merdiyeb, which originates ten kilometres south-west of Gebel Um Rasein by the splitting of Wadi Abu Hireiq. From this point of origin, it runs in a north-easterly direction in a rather sinuous course among the hills for about twelve or thirteen kilometres, joining Wadi Medarai close north of Gebel Um Rasein. Another little feeder of Wadi Medarai, though only about two kilometres long, is of some importance from its leading to Bir Um Rasein, a small well among the north foot-hills of Gebel Um Rasein.

Vegetation ceases to be abundant both in Wadi Medarai and in Wadi Hasium before their junction to form Wadi Ibib, and Wadi Ibib itself is for the most part a barren sandy ill-defined channel coursing north-eastward across a dreary plain for some fifty-seven kilometres to Mersa Shab. In this fifty-seven kilometres its fall is very nearly 300 metres, giving an average slope of only a little over five metres per kilometre. The slope of the lower part of Wadi Hasium is rather steeper than this, while that of Wadi Medarai is about twice as great.

But though Wadi Ibib itself is barren, it has some great tributaries which contains abundance of trees and scrub in their upper reaches, as well as several wells. The principal of these tributaries are the Wadis Soaorib and Um Bishtit, which with their feeders drain the mountains of Soaorib, Qidmib, Orgem, and Um Bishtit, while other smaller tributaries drain the lower hills north-east of Um Bishtit and Gebel Hamra Dom.

Wadi Soaorib originates in the midst of high mountains a little south of latitude 22° 10′, between the southern portion of Gebel Soaorib and the range which extends southwards from Hadal Aweib Meisah. At its head is a difficult pass westward into the head of Miti Kwan, a tributary of Alaqi. Curving at first eastward, it soon takes on a north-westerly direction, and in latitude 22° 11′ 30″ reaches a small open space called Mitba; here it is met by several tributary wadis of which the principal is the Wadi Haiyo, draining the eastern slopes of Gebel Soaorib. From Mitba the direction of Wadi Soaorib becomes more northerly, and about nine kilometres below Mitba it turns to the west, emerging from the mountains into the more open country which forms the south end of the great plain already referred to. Here it is joined by the Wadi Hankuk, draining north-eastward from Gebel Adar Qaqa, and a few kilometres further on by the Wadi Dishlo, which drains the western flanks of Hadal Aweib Meisah and enters Soaorib from the east. About three kilometres below the point of influx of Wadi Dishlo, Wadi Soaorib is joined from the south-west by another tributary which drains the west side of Gebel Um Seleim. From this point onwards, Wadi Soaorib courses a little east of north in a not very well defined course for about twenty-two kilometres over a gently falling sandy plain, joining Ibib to the north-west of the sand-swathed hills called Baqari Daba. In this part of its course, Wadi Soaorib receives small feeders from among the hills west of it on the plain, the principal of them draining north-eastward between the hills called Kulet Meiqrum and Kulet Tinasal. It also receives more important tributaries from the mountains to the east of it, the principal of these being the Wadis Eimya and Qidmib. Wadi Eimya drains the western face of Gebel Qidmib, while Wadi Qidmib drains the northern parts of the same mountain. Wadi Qidmib has two main heads; the western one lies between two high mountain ridges, and contains a well called Bir Qidmib, while the eastern one leads to a steep pass by which Wadi Meisah can be reached. Before reaching Wadi Soaorib, Wadi Qidmib is joined by other feeders draining the western flanks of Gebel Orgem and Baqari Daba.

From its head at the pass into Miti Kwan to its junction with Ibib, Wadi Soaorib has a length of about fifty kilometres. The level of the pass is unknown, but from Mitba to Ibib the level of the wadi floor falls from 505 metres above sea to 260 metres in a length of about forty-one kilometres, giving an average slope of six metres per kilometre. Most of the upper portions of Wadi Soaorib and its tributaries are well stocked with trees and bushes, but as the wadi crosses the sandy plain it becomes more and more barren. The place where it enters on the plain in latitude 22° 20′ marks a tribal boundary, the upper parts, including Wadi Dishlo, belonging to the Balgab Arabs, while the lower parts, including Wadis Eimya and Qidmib, are Kurbeilab territory.

Wadi Um Bishtit, which joins Wadi Ibib some five kilometres lower down its course than does Wadi Soaorib, heads in a small open space in latitude 22° 26′ and longitude 35° 35′. At its head there are two easy passes, one leading northward into the head of Wadi Habliai, another tributary of Wadi Ibib, and the other southward into the heads of Wadi Meisah. Just below its head Wadi Um Bishtit is joined by the small Wadi Delawet, draining the hills close to the south; while a little lower down is another small tributary from a rocky gorge among the south hills, which is important as leading to Bir Um Bishtit. This well, which was filled by downwash when I visited it in March 1908, is situated in the floor of the gorge at a sharp bend, about a kilometre up from the main wadi. According to the guides, it requires excavating about five metres deep, and yields water in quantity for about a year after rain, but when there has been no rain for a year only small supplies can be got, as it fills slowly; at the time of my visit there was no necessity to open the well because there was plenty of water in galts in the mountains of Meis-heit-ar, a little further south. The well is easy of access, and lies at 330 metres above sea-level.

The total length of Wadi Um Bishtit is about fourteen kilometres. In the first half of its course it runs north-westward, shut in by high hills, and contains abundance of small trees. After cutting through the hills it receives the Wadi Orgem from the south, and turns northward in opening country to join Wadi Ibib north of the hills called Adar Aweib Um Bishtit. Its average slope is about nine metres per kilometre.

Wadi Orgem, which joins Wadi Um Bishtit about four kilometres below the gorge containing the well, has its head at an easy pass near the remarkable peak of O Shakafa; this pass leads into Wadi Meisah, about three kilometres above Bir Meisah. From the pass, the Wadi Orgem runs between the high hill ranges of Orgem and Um Bishtit, in a direction a little west of north, for about sixteen kilometres to its junction with Wadi Um Bishtit.

Wadi Habliai, which heads in an easy pass about three kilometres east of Bir Um Bishtit, and runs northwards for about ten kilometres to join Wadi Ibib, is a broad sandy and rather barren wadi draining gneiss hills; the hills on the east are much lower than those on the west, and their feet are swathed in drift sand.

The last feeders of Wadi Ibib are those draining from the isolated range of high granite hills called Gebel Hamra Dom. These feeders are very numerous, some coming from the west side of the hills and curving round its south end to join Wadi Ibib, while others from the east side course east and north-east over the plain directly into Wadi Ibib. They contain numerous small trees near their heads, and after rain there springs up short grass in this locality, affording for short periods grazing for great flocks of sheep. The most northerly drainage channel from the east side heads in the hills a little north of the highest peaks, and here, after rain has fallen recently, shallow wells are dug in the sand and yield good water. The place where the wells are is called Ti Dabei Hamra Dom. One cannot rely on getting water there for long after rain has fallen, as the supplies are soon exhausted. In January 1908, I heard that water and grass were extremely abundant, and large numbers of Arabs were encamped there with their flocks and herds. But when I reached the place at the end of the next month, most of the grass had been eaten up; only a few Arabs remained, and these were baling out the last drops of water from the holes to fill their skins preparatory to forsaking the place.

Wadi Meisah, which drains the north and east slopes of Hadal Aweib Meisah, the eastern slopes of Gebel Qidmib, and the mountains of Meis-heit-ar, besides the lower hills of Titailibab, Tahaqayet, and Eqrun, has a total length along its main channel (including Wadi Awitla, the central one of its three main heads) of about seventy-five kilometres, and enters the sea about latitude 22° 45′.

Wadi Meisah has three main heads, called by separate names. The most northerly is the Wadi Sarobaiya, draining from between Gebels Qidmib and Meis-heit-ar; one of the heads of this leads to a steep pass into Wadi Qidmib. The central head, Wadi Awitla, drains the north slopes of Hadal Aweib Meisah. The southern head, the Wadi Lasewid, drains the eastern slopes of Hadal Aweib Meisah and the lower hills to the east of it; by ascending its southern feeders, one can pass easily into the heads of Wadi Baueiwai, while one of the gullies opening into it from Hadal Aweib Meisah contains a series of rock basins and a small spring called Megwel Um Edwa, rather difficult of access for camels, which was yielding fair supplies of water in April 1908.

These three heads, each of which has numerous feeders, join together in a small plain at the south-east foot of O Shakafa, a remarkably prominent peak practically isolated from the mountains near it, and from this point onwards the main drainage channel is called Wadi Meisah. The little plain where the three head wadis unite is covered with trees, and has almost the aspect of a park; it is 455 metres above sea-level. Curving eastward and northward close round the foot of O Shakafa, Wadi Meisah receives from the south the Sarob Kwan, a short and very broad wadi leading to an easy pass into Wadi Didaut, and then winds about as a narrow gorge shut in by high hills. Just where it leaves the foot of O Shakafa, there is a track from the east side of the wadi over a very easy pass into the head of Wadi Orgem. Bir Meisah is a well sunk in the alluvium of the wadi bed about three kilometres below O Shakafa, and 410 metres above sea-level. When I visited it in March 1908, it was filled with downwash, and as there was plenty of water in the rock basins of the mountains further north there was then no necessity to dig it out. The Arabs say the well is about ten metres deep, and its water is not so good as that obtainable from the galts, so that they only open it when the other sources in the neighbourhood are exhausted. Two gullies entering Wadi Meisah from the east, just below the well, each contain large galts, called Meis-heit-ar, a short distance up from their mouths; these were both yielding good and plentiful water supplies in the spring of 1908. After winding about among the hills for ten kilometres below the well, Wadi Meisah receives a feeder from the west having three heads. The northern one, Akla Da-Aiyob, is a very sandy gully, in fact it is choked by drift sand, and all the trees in it are dead. The central one, coming westward from among high hills, is called Hanqun Ra-ub, while the southern one, called the Wadi Eqaiyib, is only separated from Meisah at its head by an easy pass, so that it almost forms a loop of Meisah itself. To go from Bir Meisah to Bir Um Bishtit, one crosses this pass into Wadi Eqaiyib, then up Akla Da-aiyob, and over another easy pass at its head into Wadi Um Bishtit; the total distance between the two wells by this route is only sixteen kilometres.

In its lower stages Wadi Meisah traverses broad open sandy spaces between low hills, receiving a number of small feeders from either side. It curves round to the eastward a little south of the hills of Eqrun and then courses in a north-easterly direction across the sandy coast-plain to the sea. In the last stages of its course its channel is very ill-defined, the drainage spreading over the plain. The trees, which are fairly abundant in its upper parts, become fewer as one descends, but its lower portions are not always entirely barren, for after recent rain short grass springs up in its broad shallow bed and affords a moderate amount of grazing for sheep. The slope of the wadi floor just below the well is about ten metres per kilometre; lower down, the gradient gradually lessens, and in the last forty kilometres of its course is only a little over five metres per kilometre.

Wadi Kiraf, the next wadi to enter the sea south of Meisah, is really the terminal portion of the great Wadi Di-ib, the name Kiraf being only applied to the drainage from the point of junction of the Wad el Qireira with Di-ib to the sea, that is, for a distance of some thirty-one kilometres up from its mouth. The Wadi Di-ib is probably the most important and remarkable of all the seawards draining wadis of the Eastern Desert of Egypt and the Northern Sudan. I have only seen that terminal portion of its length which lies in Egypt, that is, north of the 22nd parallel; but the examinations of that length (the part of it lying within Egyptian territory, including Kiraf, is some eighty-five kilometres) is enough to show that the wadi must drain an enormous basin, for the average slope is the remarkably small one of two metres per kilometre, and the wadi floor in many places, instead of being sandy, consists of mud similar to that of the Nile Valley. According to the “Sudan Handbook,” it rises far to the south, probably near the 20th parallel, and flows generally northwards, so that its length must be well over 300 kilometres. Just before it enters Egypt proper, there is an expansion in its bed covered with rich alluvial mud, on which crops of durra are grown; my camels were fed for some weeks on durra obtained from this source whilst I was working in the neighbourhood. In the present volume I shall only deal with that portion of Di-ib and its tributaries which lie north of the 22nd parallel, describing first the main channel and afterwards its principal tributaries.

Wadi Di-ib enters Egypt a little west of the 36th meridian, as a broad sandy drainage channel with many trees. Its bed is here only 170 metres above sea-level. Wadi Di-ib receives two feeders from the east near the 22nd parallel; the Wadi Shendib,[100] draining the western flanks of the high mountain mass of Gebel Shendib, is believed to join Wadi Di-ib a little south of the frontier, while the Wadi Hareitra, draining the north-eastern flanks of Gebel Shendib and the western slopes of Gebel Hanquf, probably enters Di-ib a little north of it. For the first eighteen kilometres of its course north of 22°, Wadi Di-ib flows northward over a sandy plain, with low hills and ridges, their feet often swathed in drift sand, on either side. It then receives an important tributary from the west, called Wadi el Qurat, draining the north slopes of Gebel Shiab and the hilly country between Gebel Mashushenai and Adar Aweib. After receiving Wadi el Qurat, Wadi Di-ib enters mountainous country, being shut in for some fifteen kilometres by Adar Aweib on the east and Gebel Balatitda on the west. In its northerly course here Wadi Di-ib receives many feeders from the hills, of which two entering from opposite sides near Bir Meheriqa are of interest. That from the east is really a drainage channel from the sandy plain south of Gebel Sul Hamid; but it is choked by huge accumulations of drift sand so that the drainage never reaches Wadi Di-ib, but accumulates in a depression called O Harbub, about four kilometres above its mouth. This channel, though very sandy, is quite a practicable road, as I found by traversing it on my way to Gebel Elba from Bir Meheriqa. The feeder from the west, which enters Wadi Di-ib about one and a half kilometres below Bir Meheriqa, is called Wadi Salalob; it drains the north face of Adar Aweib, and heads in a very steep pass into Wadi Wieqwer. I managed to get my riding camel over this pass only with difficulty when unmounted, and it is quite impracticable for loaded camels; the rise in the last kilometre before reaching the top of the pass from the direction of Wadi Di-ib is over one hundred metres, the summit of the pass being 315 metres above sea-level.

Bir Meheriqa is a spring situated in the mouth of a small gully at the foot of Gebel Balatitda, close to the east side of Wadi Di-ib, and practically on the same level as the wadi floor (120 metres above sea-level), so that it is extremely easy of access. The floor of the gully is covered with conglomerate of recent formation and in this are several holes with pools of clear water about one metre in diameter by twenty centimetres deep, which fill as fast as emptied. The water is rather salt, but is drinkable. The portion of Wadi Di-ib which lies among the mountains has a floor of sandy mud, with abundance of trees and plants, among which several gazelles were grazing as I passed through.

About six kilometres below Bir Meheriqa, Wadi Di-ib is joined from the west by Wadi Warabeit, which drains a rather large extent of high hills to the west and cuts through the hills north of Adar Aweib to reach Wadi Di-ib. This wadi forms the route to Bir Meisah from Bir Meheriqa via the well known easy passes of Bani Sana and Sarob Kwan; the total distance is about sixty-five kilometres.

Soon after receiving Wadi Warabeit, Wadi Di-ib gets into lower hill country, with great accumulations of drift sand. From near Gebel Tishushi Tiboki it receives the Wadi Qumad Lim from the north-west, and then after passing the extensive group of low hills of Tishushi it is joined by the Wad el Qireira, which drains a large area east of Hadal Aweib Meisah.

From its junction with Wad el Qireira to the sea, Wadi Di-ib is called by the special name of Wadi Kiraf. It is merely an ill-defined drainage channel coursing north-east across a great sandy plain for a distance of thirty-one kilometres to the sea, with only one insignificant feeder, Halal Hendiyeb, joining it from the westward close to the dark little hill called Einiwai. The Wadi Kiraf is almost barren, the great accumulations of sand about the lower parts of Wadi Di-ib probably absorbing most of the drainage. But to the west of the mouth of Kiraf there is quite a dense growth of bushes and trees, covering a large tract and visible from low hills at considerable distances. This locality is called Shekra el Delam; I did not visit it, but the Arabs say there is no wadi there, and it is possibly due to the drainage of Wadi Kiraf running below the surface of the sandy plain and being dammed back by the sea. A salt well, called Bir Adal Deib, exists close to the shore in the same locality.

Of the Wadi Shendib, only a few of the heads are situated in Egypt, Gebel Shendib being a mass of mountains cut through by the 22nd parallel. Collecting from the west face of the mountain group, a number of drainage lines unite, in the lower hills flanking the main mass, to form the main channel of Wadi Shendib, which courses westward through low hill country a little south of the 22nd parallel to join Wadi Di-ib. None of the heads have been surveyed in detail; their position is shown on the map from the statements of guides combined with the knowledge gained by triangulating fourteen of the principal peaks and sketching the mountain forms from a considerable distance. As the mountain peaks are of great height (the highest peak of Shendib, marked by an iron beacon, is 1,912 metres above sea) and frequently wrapped in clouds for days or even weeks together, it is probable that the heads of Wadi Shendib are very steep and convey considerable streams at certain seasons.

Wadi Hareitra, which lies just within Egypt, has likewise only been sketched in from a distance, but having been approached more closely its course is better known than that of Wadi Shendib. Its main head is nearly on the frontier, in longitude 36° 20′, between Gebels Shendib and Hanquf. From its head it makes a nearly quadrantal turn northward and westward, with a radius of about ten kilometres, among the mountains from which it receives tributaries, and then crosses the plain westward, turning south-west among low dark hills to join Wadi Di-ib after a course of about forty to forty-five kilometres from its head.

The unnamed drainage channel which is blocked by sand at O Harbub before reaching Wadi Di-ib heads in a tract of low hills with sandy interspaces about thirteen kilometres west of Gebel Elba; it receives no part, however, of the drainage of Elba itself, which goes northward by other more important channels. It is a broad and shallow ill-defined drainage line across the sandy plain, with very few trees, but its feeders from the low hill tract of Sul Hamid are less barren. The principal interest of this drainage line lies in its forming a convenient direct road from Bir Meheriqa to Bir Akwamtra and Halaib, being far less sandy, as well as shorter, than any alternative route round the north side of Sul Hamid. In using this road, one leaves the drainage line to the south on the plain, and skirts the hills of Sul Hamid till one reaches the flat sandy divide at the head of Wadi Eikwan, with the “Scragged hill” of Qash Amir in view. Here one turns eastward about four kilometres south of Qash Amir, and follows an easy pass into Wadi Siamtit, a small feeder of Wadi Yoider, whence tracks lead to Bir Akwamtra, Bir Kansisrob, and Halaib.

Wadi el Qurat, which joins Wadi Di-ib from the west in latitude 22° 8′, is a broad wadi with great abundance of trees. Its main head, which has not been surveyed in detail, appears to be in Gebel Shiab, about twenty-four kilometres above its junction with Di-ib, and the first part of its course is through a rugged tract of low hills. Before reaching Wadi Di-ib it is joined by the Wadi Dibir, and Wadi Hashimaiyib on the north and by Wadi Oshqeq on the south. The northern feeders are rather complex, owing to numerous anastomosings and cross-connexions in the low hill country between Gebel Mashushenai and Adar Aweib; but they contain abundance of vegetation and give good grazing grounds. The short Wadi Dibir heads in Wadi Mashushenai, part of the drainage of which it captures. Wadi Mashushenai is a little wadi to the south of Gebel Mashushenai, with a well, Bir Mashushenai, near its head; part of its drainage goes south to Wadi Dibir as above mentioned, while the rest continues as Wadi Mashushenai, flowing south-eastward among low hills for about five kilometres to join Wadi Hashimaiyib.

Wadi Hashimaiyib heads between Gebel Warabeit and Gebel Mashushenai. Curving round the north of Gebel Mashushenai almost in a semicircle, it runs south-south-east among low hills to join Wadi el Qurat after a course of about sixteen kilometres. Besides the Wadi Mashushenai above-mentioned, Hashimaiyib receives, just before entering el Qurat, the Wadi Sinqinyeib, which drains part of the west face of Adar Aweib and the hills west of it, with a length along its main channel of ten kilometres. There is an easy road up this wadi, passing close west of Adar Aweib into Wadi Wieqwer, a tributary of Wadi Warabeit; there is no actual pass, because the westward drainage of Adar Aweib actually splits, one part going north by Wadi Wieqwer, and the other south by Wadi Sinqinyeib.

Wadi Warabeit has its most important head at the easy and well known pass of Bani Sana, leading into Wadi Hamida. It is here a rather wide wadi, with a fairly rapid fall (about thirteen metres per kilometre), between the high hills of Gebel Hamida and those forming the south prolongation of Gebel Geror, and receives numerous feeders from either side. For the first six kilometres, it runs south-east; it then arrives at a small open space, where it is joined by eastward drainages from Gebels Hamida and Warabeit, and turns rather sharply to the east-north-east. After coursing in this direction for some five kilometres, it enters another open space, where it receives several feeders, the principal being the Wadi Wieqwer, draining northwards from the hills west of Adar Aweib. It then receives the Wadi Kwileimidaiyeib from the north, and cuts eastward through the hills to join Wadi Di-ib. The total length of the Wadi Warabeit from the pass of Bani Sana to Wadi Di-ib is nineteen kilometres, and in this length it falls from 335 to 113 metres above sea-level, so that its average slope is nearly twelve metres per kilometre. Both the wadi itself and its feeders are abundantly supplied with trees and bushes, while coarse grasses abound in places. Wadi Warabeit forms a convenient road from Bani Sana to Bir Meheriqa, being free from sand and well stocked with camel food.

Wad el Qireira, which joins Wadi Di-ib from the south-west to form Wadi el Kiraf, is really only the terminal portion of the more important Wadis Didaut and Baueiwai, which join to the north-east of the conspicuous dark hill mass called Ti Keferiai. It is a broad shallow drainage line across the sandy plain, with little vegetation. To the north of it, small hills are dotted over the plain, the most important being one of red granite, called Osnei, containing a galt which yields water for some time after rain. To the south are the low hills of Tishushi, partly smothered in drift sand.

Wadi Didaut, a feeder of the Wad el Qireira, commences its course south-west of the hill of Adar Aqdeib. One of its heads leads to the easy pass of Sarob Kwan, on the road to Bir Meisah. Another leads to a water source in the hills south of Adar Aqdeib, called Megwel Didaut, while a small feeder a little lower down, coming from Adar Aqdeib, also contains a water source called Megwel Adar Aqdeib. Both these water sources are within about half an hour’s journey from the main wadi. After passing Adar Aqdeib, Wadi Didaut curves round to the north, receiving feeders from the hills of Um Ein and Qara Saba to the south, then turns east-north-east, passing between the hills called Kikeiyet Sharqi and Kikeiyet Gharbi, and then between the red granite hills of Adatalob Adara and the black mass of Ti Keferiai to join Wad el Qireira. The total length of Wadi Didaut is about thirty-five kilometres, and its average slope is about eight metres per kilometre. Its upper parts possess abundance of vegetation, the beautiful flowering bush called Sarob being conspicuous in Sarob Kwan; but in its lower portions it becomes almost lost in drift sand. There is an easy open track from near Megwel Adar Aqdeib, passing between the high hills called Qara Saba and Gebel Um Ein, to the Wadi Baueiwai.

Wadi Baueiwai heads in the mountains south of Hadal Aweib Meisah. Numerous feeders from the mountains course across a tract, about six kilometres in diameter, of very low granite hills called Iarih Meisah; this tract is almost entirely shut in by mountains and high hills, with an outlet south-west of Gebel Um Ein. Through this outlet the main channel passes, and receives the Wadi Miatit, draining the mountains of the same name, from the south-west. Curving in a great sweep round the foot of Gebel Um Ein, Wadi Baueiwai turns north-eastward, passing close south-east of the hills of Qara Saba and Ti Keferiai to join the Wadi Didaut and form the Wad el Qireira. From the head of Wadi Baueiwai there appears to be an easy pass by the east side of Hadal Aweib Meisah into the heads of Wadi Meisah. A small feeder of Wadi Baueiwai, draining the north-east flanks of Gebel Um Ein, leads to a water source called Megwel Um Ein. Another feeder coming in from the west side of Qara Saba forms an easy route to Wadi Didaut, as already mentioned above. The principal other tributaries of Wadi Baueiwai are the Wadis Aqwem and Hamida. Wadi Aqwem is a broad and very sandy wadi coursing north-north-east along the west side of Gebel Nubitra, and reaching Wadi Baueiwai in about latitude 22° 18′; it leads to a water source called Megwel Aqwem, situated just south of the end of a long spur of high hills running out north-eastward from Gebel Miatit. Lower down its course Wadi Aqwem is fed by tributaries from the high hills east of it, one of which, the Wadi Nubitra, contains a well. This well, called Bir Nubitra, is said to yield only very small supplies; it is situated about three kilometres up the Wadi Nubitra, among high hills. One of the many heads of the small Wadi Nubitra leads northwards by an easy pass into the head of Wadi Hamida.

The Wadi Hamida heads in the mountain of the same name, and courses parallel to Wadi Aqwem, from which it is separated by a long ridge of high hills. About one and a half kilometres below its head at the easy pass into Wadi Nubitra above referred to, it receives a small gully from the east; by following up this gully, which is narrow and tortuous, for about a kilometre, one can reach a tiny spring called Megwel Hamida. When I visited it in April 1908, the spring was a mere trickle, very salt; a galt a little further up the gorge was dry at the same time, but bears signs of holding a useful store of water after rain. About three kilometres below the gully containing the spring, Wadi Hamida reaches an opening whence one can either go south-east for two kilometres to the easy pass of Bani Sana, or north-west through a gap in the longitudinal ridge which encloses the wadi on the left. Wadi Hamida itself, however, keeps straight on its course past Gebel Geror, and joins Wadi Baueiwai south-east of the hill of Ti-Keferiai. The heads of Wadi Hamida contain a fair amount of vegetation, but its lower parts are more barren and very sandy.

Wadi Di-it drains the north parts of the hill mass of Sul Hamid, and courses north-east to reach the coast independently about latitude 22° 29′. It has not been explored, and is of no great importance; vegetation in it is probably confined to its upper parts among the hills. Of its total course of about thirty-five kilometres, a large portion lies over the sandy coast-plain.

Wadi Eikwan is a broad shallow and sandy channel draining the high jagged hill called Qash Amir and the eastern parts of the low hill mass of Sul Hamid. Its head is about four kilometres south of Qash Amir, in the flat sandy plain. Taking at first a northerly direction past the west side of Qash Amir, it turns to the north-east further on and crosses the coast-plain to reach the sea only a little south of the mouth of Di-it. Its total length is about thirty six kilometres, and its average slope is about nine metres per kilometre.

Wadi Yoider, the next wadi to the east, is of considerable importance, as it drains the west portion of Gebel Elba and its heads are extremely rich in trees and other vegetation, while one of its tributaries contains a large well of good water (Bir Akwamtra). The main head of Wadi Yoider may be considered to be the wadi which bears the special name of Wadi O Sir Hadal, draining the south-west flanks of Gebel Elba and the north-west flanks of Gebel Hanquf, and heading in an easy pass close to the well of Bir Salalat O Sir, about 450 metres above sea-level. Wadi O Sir Hadal courses north-west between the mountain ranges for about eight kilometres, receiving a rather large feeder from the south about six kilometres below its head. It then emerges from the mountains and turns north among lower hills, here receiving the Wadi Qeirat, draining westwards from near the summit of Elba. A few kilometres further on it enters an open plain sloping rapidly downwards to the north, receiving the small and narrow Wadi Siamtit from between two high hill masses to the west. From here onwards Wadi Yoider courses in gentle curves a little north of east to reach the coast in about latitude 22° 27′. A well called Bir Nabit, situated in Wadi Yoider, a few hundred metres up from its mouth, is believed to yield only brackish water. In its journey to the coast Wadi Yoider receives several feeders from among the rugged granite hills of El Sela to the west of it, as well as the important Wadi Akwamtra from the north-east flank of Gebel Elba. The head of this Wadi Akwamtra is quite close to the summit of Elba, and its course is at first almost due west, afterwards changing to nearly north among the lower flanking hills, and dividing into two channels which re-unite lower down. Bir Akwamtra, one of the best water sources in the Bisharin country, is situated at an altitude of 330 metres above sea-level in the eastern channel of Wadi Akwamtra, about three kilometres up above the place where it leaves the hills. It is an excavation in the stony floor of the wadi. The water in April 1908 was about four metres below the wadi floor, and formed a pool about two metres in diameter in a wide open hollow which filled as fast as it could be emptied. The water was of excellent quality. There are two other wells a few hundred metres further down the same wadi; one of these contained a little water, while the other was dry, and only the principal well was being used. The floor of the wadi near and above the well is very stony, so that it is not a very good camping ground, and the Hamedorab Arabs pitch their tents of matting further down the wadi. When I visited the place there were numerous Bisharin Arabs at the well with their women and children, all busily employed in watering their flocks and herds and washing their clothes. The wadi, in spite of its stony floor, is literally full of large trees, principally acacias, so close together that laden camels cannot pick their way through them for more than a short distance above the well, and thousands of doves inhabit the trees. There are some ruins near the wells, built of boulders set in mud; they are said to have been erected by Dervishes in 1886, when they seized Halaib and Bir Akwamtra. These Dervishes were killed off by Egyptian troops, some of them being chased to Bir Meisah and shot there.

As the densely wooded and stony character of Wadi Akwamtra prevents camels from passing up it much above the well, I found it necessary, in order to pitch a camp within a reasonable distance of the summit of Gebel Elba, to descend Wadi Akwamtra for about a kilometre and to cross the Asut Duk pass leading east into the head of Wadi Yahameib. This pass is too steep for loaded camels, and even riding camels have to be led down it; baggage camels have to go round the hill spurs north of the pass. The head of Wadi Yahameib is also full of trees and scrub, but it is possible to get camels up within four kilometres of the summit of Elba by this route, whereas Bir Akwamtra is over six kilometres from it.

Wadi Aideib, with its principal tributary the Wadi Yahameib, drains the north-east portion of Gebel Elba and reaches the sea in about latitude 22° 21′. A well, called Bir Abu Ramad, is situated in the wadi bed not far from the sea; like that of almost all the wells close to the coast, its water is probably brackish. The main head of Wadi Aideib is on the east side of the main peaks of Elba. Coursing at first north-eastward, this drainage channel runs through an open sloping plain about one and a half kilometres wide between the mountain spurs, its channel here dividing into a great loop with numerous feeders from the ranges on either side. Passing west of the high isolated granite mass of Karam Elba, it runs northward over the sloping plain, receiving the Wadi Yahameib from the west near the low red granite hills called Ti Hamra, and then courses north of east to the sea.

Wadi Yahameib originates on the north-west flanks of Gebel Elba, where steep well wooded gorges unite in a steeply sloping stony plain, covered with trees and scrub, between two great spurs of the mountain. There is no pass at its main head, but just before it enters the plain there is a small feeder from among the hills to the west, by following up which one can get over a rather steep pass called Asut Duk; this pass forms a short cut for unladen camels between the wells of Kansisrob and Akwamtra, but is too steep for animals loaded with baggage. Curving round to the east, Wadi Yahameib is fed, just before it joins Wadi Aideib, by the Wadis Akau and Kansisrob, both draining the north parts of a great spur of Gebel Elba. Wadi Akau contains a small spring, called Megwel Akau, a short distance above its opening from the hills, while Wadi Kansisrob contains a great well of good water called Bir Kansisrob, a short distance up from its mouth. Bir Kansisrob is second only to Bir Akwamtra in importance, and there are usually many Bisharin camps in the wadi just below it. Like all the wadis draining from Elba, Wadis Yahameib and Aideib are full of trees and scrub and grasses; in going to the foot of Elba up the head of Wadi Yahameib with baggage camels, much more difficulty is caused by the closeness of the trees and scrub than by the stony nature of the floor. The Elba district is, I believe, the only place in the Eastern Desert of Egypt where vegetable growth is so abundant as seriously to hinder one’s caravan in approaching the mountains; for the progress of baggage camels to be arrested while still four or five kilometres from a peak by the steep and stony nature of the ground is common enough; but for the arrest to be due to trees and scrub was a new and interesting experience. Even the sand dunes on the west side of Wadi Yahameib are half-covered with coarse grasses, and look green instead of the usual yellow. When we could get no further with our camping equipment, Mr. Bakewell, who had been in South Africa, informed me that we were in what would be called in that country “open bush”; but in comparison with the rest of the desert the place was a jungle.

Wadi Todhi drains the high hills about Karam Elba. In the upper part of its course it flows north-east between Karam Elba and a range of lower granite hills called Mikeriba; emerging thence on to the plain, its drainage spreads out over a tract, called Karam Hindi, covered with trees, whence part drains to the Wadi Aideib while another part goes to the sea near Suakin el Qadim.

Suakin el Qadim, is a collection of mounds close to the sea a little south of latitude 22° 20′. Bent, who visited the place in 1896, found “nothing earlier than Cufic remains, unless the graves, formed of four large blocks of madrepore sunk deep into the ground, may be looked upon as a more ancient form of sepulture.”[101] My native assistant reported there was no well at the place, nor anything of interest besides the graves.

Wadi Delowa is a small wadi entering the sea about six kilometres south-east of Suakin el Qadim. It originates in the low hill country near Mikeriba and flows north-east between the little red hill of Alafot and the low banks called Alafot Onqwab on the north and the granite hills of Kreishim and Taar Ara on the south.

Wadi Serimtai is an important drainage line, the main head of which is situated in the Sudan, probably near the great mountain of Asotriba. It enters Egypt in longitude 36° 22′, coursing northward between Gebel Hanquf and Gebel Shendodai, from which last-named mountain it receives a feeder called Wadi Um Seyal. After passing Gebel Shendodai it crosses a tract of low granite hills to the foot of Gebel O Sir Eirab, where it receives the wadi of the same name and numerous feeders from Gebel Hanquf. It then turns north-east, passing along the foot of the spurs of Elba, and north of the granite hills of O Wota and Abai Sis to reach the sea ten kilometres north-west of Halaib. About twenty-five kilometres up from its mouth, Wadi Serimtai contains a well called Bir Sararat Serimtai, which has, however, not been visited. The Wadi O Sir Eirab, an important tributary of Serimtai, drains the south flanks of Gebel Elba, coursing at first south-west and then turning sharply eastward. At the turn is a well in the wadi floor called Bir Salalat O Sir, 440 metres above sea-level, close to which is an easy pass leading into the head of Wadi O Sir Hadal, a tributary of Wadi Yoider. From its entry into Egypt to its mouth, Wadi Serimtai has a length of forty-five kilometres, and an average slope of twelve and a half metres per kilometre. It contains plenty of trees and scrub, especially in its upper parts.

Mera Kwan is a wadi draining north-eastward from Gebel Shendodai and entering the sea a little north of Halaib. It has not been surveyed in detail, but as it drains from high mountains it doubtless contains plenty of vegetation, especially in its upper parts. The lower half of its course is rather sandy, passing among low hills on to the coast-plain.

Halaib, the only permanent village on the Red Sea coast of Egypt south of Qoseir,[102] is situated in latitude 22° 13′ 25″ N., longitude 36° 38′ 56″ E.[103] The name of the place is pronounced locally Oleiyib, and though I have retained the established European spelling as given on the charts, none of the natives would recognise the name if pronounced in its Europeanised form. Its most conspicuous buildings, and the only ones composed of masonry in any form, are a fort and a block-house; there are a few rude wooden shanties, mostly built of timber which has been cast up on the beach, but the bulk of the population live in little reed huts and tents of matting. Halaib is the headquarters of a small police force under the command of a moawen, the men being lodged in the fort. The fort, which stands about forty metres from the sea on low ground, is an irregular octagon in plan, about ten metres in diameter by six and a half metres high. As its top is only eight metres above the sea and there are low banks west of it, the fort is not very conspicuous as one approaches it from the landward side, but being whitewashed and open to the sea it is a good landmark for sailors in the neighbourhood. It has two flagstaffs, from which the British and Egyptian flags are flown on Fridays. The fort is entered by a ladder, the floor forming the police quarters being about three metres above ground. Below are water tanks, and above a trap door gives access to the roof, which is carried on iron rails and plastered over with stucco. The roof vibrates too much for it to be used as a triangulation station, and observations here were taken from an eccentric point on the ground and afterwards reduced to centre. The block-house is a smaller rectangular structure, whitewashed, situated on a low bank about 400 metres south-west of the fort. A small jetty, built of coral, runs out from near the fort far enough for a small boat to get alongside.

There are five wells at Halaib, all within a few hundred metres of the fort. The water is very hard, and exerts a very strongly aperient action on those unused to it, though the Arabs of the place consider it very good. A small Government garden near the fort contains a few small date palms, but there is no other cultivation. There is a sort of bazaar, where one can buy clothes, sugar, dates, fat, etc., but the supplies are small and there was no flour to be got when I was there. Eggs can be purchased from the Arabs, who possess a few fowls, and excellent fish can be got very cheaply from the fishermen. For a daily wage of eight piastres a fisherman supplied me with as much fresh fish daily as I and my men could eat. Sheep can be got from the hills at a day’s notice, a good fat one costing L.E. 1. Firewood has to be brought in from the mountains, and any European making a stay at the place would do well to send to Bir Kansisrob or Bir Frukit for pure water at the same time. The people are very friendly, but only a few speak Arabic. There is a kuttab where boys learn to read and write Arabic under the tuition of a sheikh from Suakin, so that Arabic may perhaps be more spoken after another generation.

There are two islands a little north of Halaib, both low and sandy. The larger one, called Geziret Halaib el Kebir, is nearly triangular, with sides about three and a half kilometres long. It can be reached easily by wading across a narrow channel in low states of the sea. On it is the grave, marked by a wooden cross, of Lieut. Stewart, R.N., who lost his life in a fight with Dervishes here in 1886. The smaller island lies further north; it is called Geziret Kwolala[104] on account of its nearly circular shape.

Halaib possesses an excellent harbour, though it is sometimes difficult of access to sailing vessels owing to the direction of its entrance.[105] It is visited occasionally by Coast Guard cruisers as well as by small trading boats from Suakin. On enquiry of the local sailors, I found most of the names given on the Admiralty Charts of this district to be unknown to them. For example, Abu Dara, Sherm Alueda, Ras Abu Fatma, Elba Island, Ras Jazriyal, and Cape Elba were all unknown. Abu Dara was called by the natives Shekra el Delam, while Elba Island was called Geziret el Dibia, and Cape Elba is locally known as Ras Hadarba. I obtained the following names for the small anchorages north and south of Halaib, though I could not locate them exactly on the maps, as the sailors could not read a map sufficiently well, and the harbours themselves are mere gaps through the outer coral reef, not visible indentations of the actual coast-line. Starting from Bir Adal Deib and going southward, Mersa Abu el Qâsim is near the mouth of Wadi el Kiraf; a big tree forms a landmark for entering it. Further on is Mersa Harâba, then Mersa Abu Naam with an island opposite to it, then, after passing Ras Unbilat, comes Mersa Yoider, at the mouth of Wadi Yoider, where there is a well called Bir Nabit. Passing Abu Ramad well in Wadi Aideib, and Suakin el Qadim, one comes to Mersa Aqwetit, then to Mersa Serimtai, at the mouth of Wadi Serimtai, opposite the island of Kwolala, and then to Mersa Halaib itself. South of Halaib the principal anchorage is Mersa Shellal, at the mouth of Wadi Shellal. The cape in latitude 22° 10′ is called Ras Qubet Isa. A small anchorage south of Ras Hadarba (Cape Elba) appears to be called indifferently Mersa Hadarba (from the hills near it) or Mersa Qabatit (from the wadi and well near it); but I could not make quite sure if these are one and the same, or two separate anchorages.

Wadi Shellal heads between the high mountain masses of Gebels Shendodai and Shellal, and courses north-east for about thirty kilometres to reach the coast about four kilometres south-east of Halaib. In its lower part, where it crosses the coast-plain, it is a broad shallow drainage channel full of scrub. Its upper parts, which have not been explored, are doubtless well supplied with trees, and are stated to be the principal habitat of the Hamedorab Arabs.

Wadi Aqilhoq, which drains the eastern parts of Gebel Shellal, courses about parallel to Wadi Shellal a few kilometres further south. It contains a well, Bir Frukit, about twenty kilometres up from its mouth, near some dark conspicuous foot hills called Gebel Balatitda. This well yields a constant supply of very good water, and is the place where I sent for my water supplies in commencing my return march to Port Sudan. The position of the well as shown on the map is only approximate, but its direction having been pointed out with the alidade by guides from two plane-table stations, I believe the location is pretty nearly correct.

Wadi Aqwei drains east of north from among the foot-hills east of Gebel Shellal, and enters the sea four kilometres west of Ras Qubet Isa. Where I crossed it two kilometres from its mouth it was a broad shallow wadi with plenty of scrub, dividing round a low but conspicuous gravel bank before reaching the sea.

Kreit-reit-or is a similar wadi to that last mentioned, coursing north-eastward over the plain from among low hills, and entering the sea five kilometres south-east of Ras Qubet Isa. About two kilometres south of Kreit-reit-or, at a distance of three and a half kilometres from the coast, and thirty metres above sea-level, are the bitter wells of Ti Kureitra. These are four wells, sunk about twelve metres deep in the gypseous strata which here underlie the sand and gravel of the coast-plain. The wells are lined with slabs of selenite. The water is so strongly purgative that a number of my Arabs who drank of it were made extremely unwell, and the wells are chiefly used for watering the flocks of sheep which graze in the neighbouring valleys.

From the group of conspicuous though not very high hills called Gebel Hadarba, ten kilometres west of Ras Hadarba (Cape Elba) many drainage channels cross the coast-plain towards the sea in a direction north of east. Some of the drainage lines form the north side of the hills reach the sea east of Ti Kureitra wells; but others lose themselves in a quicksand called Kuatianai, or “the devourer,” which covers a large triangular space of about twenty square kilometres about the cape. At the actual cape, rocks are visible at the coast, and the quicksand, so far as I could judge from a distance, appears to be really a lagoon, filled with the sand washed down from the hills. The Arabs state that camels wandering on this sand get swallowed up; the colour of its surface is distinctly darker than the rest of the plain.

On either side of the 22nd parallel, near the sea are low gravel-covered banks of calcareous grit, seventy metres high in places, and through these pass several broad wadis draining from the low hill country further west. The chief of these wadis, called Wadi Qabatit, enters the sea at a well defined inlet of the coast called Mersa Qabatit. A well, Bir Qabatit, is situated in the bed of another drainage channel a little south of the main wadi, one and a half kilometres south-east of the mersa and 3·85 kilometres south of the 22nd parallel. The ground at the well is only five metres above the sea. The well is a big excavation in the wadi floor, and its water surface is about at sea-level. To me the water tasted decidedly salt, but the Arabs say it does not purge them.

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[89]Floyer’s map (Geog. Journal, 1893) gives the name Gemal as continuing further up as far as the pass into Wadi Durunkat; but my guides say this is an error.

[90]This road is said to lead via Ghuel, Um Khariga, and Dabur, to Gebel Hamrat Wogud.

[91]For a brief mention of the ruins of Berenice, see [p. 29.]

[92]Each of the three vowels in Naait is pronounced broad and separately, so that the word has three syllables.

[93]Allawi = crooked.

[94]I did not hear anything of this in 1907 when in the neighbourhood, perhaps owing to the ignorance of my Ababda guides. The information was given me further south in 1908 by several Bisharin guides, who appeared to know the place well and who all agreed on the point.

[95]The authors of “The Anglo-Egyptian Sudan,” 1905 (Vol. I, p. 87) erroneously place Bir Shalatein in Wadi Hasium instead of at the mouth of Wadi Hodein. The mistake has led to erroneous delineation of the administrative boundary between Egypt and the Sudan in existing maps (see [p. 74]).

[96]This and the other main feeders of Wadi Hodein are described in more detail in following pages.

[97]The final syllable in Silsila is hardly heard when the name is spoken by an Ababda Arab; it sounds like Silsi unless one is listening specially for the end of the word.

[98]To be distinguished from the Wadi Gemal further north mentioned on [p. 100.]

[99]Bir Madi, 12¼ kilometres north of Bir Sararat Seyet, was at this time open and giving good supplies.

[100]This and the other main Egyptian tributaries of Di-ib are described in more detail in the following pages.

[101]Geographical Journal, 1896.

[102]Qoseir is in latitude 26° 6′ north, about 400 kilometres as the crow flies from Halaib.

[103]The position given is that of the centre of the fort, as determined by my triangulation from the Nile Valley.

[104]Kwolala is the Bishari word for circle.

[105]Red Sea Pilot. 1900. p. 130.

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CHAPTER VI.

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THE MOUNTAINS AND HILLS.

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It has been already mentioned ([p. 19]) that the principal mountain masses are divisible into ten main groups as follows:—

[i.]	The Migif — Hafafit — Nugrus — Hangalia — Zabara group;
[ii.]	The Abu Hamamid — Hamata — Abu Gurdi group;
[iii.]	The Um Gunud — Dahanib — Batoga group;
[iv.]	The Abu Dahr — Orga — Um Tenebda group;
[v.]	The Faraid group;
[vi.]	The Awamtib — Abraq — Dif — Aqab el Negum — Mishbih group;
[vii.]	The Gerf — Korabkansi — Abu Hodeid group;
[viii.]	The Meisah — Adar Qaqa — Is group;
[ix.]	The mountains of the Alaqi basin west of Gebel Adar Qaqa;
[x.]	The Elba — Shendib group;

while there are numerous more or less isolated mountains and hills lying outside these principal masses. In the present chapter a more detailed account will be given of each of the main groups, taking them in order from north to south, the principal outlying hill-masses being considered along with the mountain group to which they are in greatest proximity. It may be remarked that the geographical positions of all the principal peaks are tabulated in [Chapter III.]

The Migif — Hafafit — Nugrus — Hangalia — Zabara Group.

The highest mountains of the group (see the detailed map on [Plate VI]) form a close cluster, round Gebel Nugrus (1,505 metres) as a centre, between latitudes 24° 40′ and 24° 55′, while other more or less detached masses are scattered to the north and west. A striking feature of the central cluster is the tendency to extension in a north-west and south-east direction, which is specially marked in the Hafafit and Hangalia ranges.

Gebel Nugrus, the central and highest mountain of this northerly group, is a great boss of red granite rising to a height of 1,505 metres among schists and gneisses. It is an almost isolated mass, for though the Hangalia and Hafafit ranges close in on it from either side, there are passes both east and west of it by which a circuit of the mountain can be made. In plan, it is a pear-shaped mass, about fourteen kilometres in length by six kilometres in width, having its long axis north-west and south-east. Gebel Nugrus is on the main watershed; its north parts are drained Nilewards by the Wadi Hangalia and other feeders of Wadi Gerf, while the drainage from its south portion passes by the Wadi Nugrus and Wadai el Nom to the Wadi Gemal and thence to the sea. The ascent of the mountain was made from a camp about four kilometres west of the summit, at the top of the pass leading into the stony head of Wadi Nugrus. The divide here is flat and sandy, at an altitude of 691 metres above sea-level, so that the ascent from camp to summit was 814 metres. Striking eastwards over the lower ridges which flank the main back-bone of the mountain, the summit was reached after a climb of nearly four hours. When ascended from this side, there appear to be two main peaks, of which the further one, marked by a beacon, is the triangulation point; the best way up is between the two peaks, as the passage from one to the other is very rough and steep. Though tiring, the climb is not very difficult. The top of the mountain (see [Plate VII]) is a mass of great rounded knobs of granite, on which a suitable place for setting up instruments was only found after some searching. The beacon, in latitude 24° 48′ 34″, longitude 34° 35′ 47″, is on a rounded eminence not large enough to receive an instrument, so that eccentric observations were necessary; the distance between the eccentric point of observation and the beacon had to be found by a subtense method, as the roughness of the mountain top rendered any process of chaining or taping impossible. The view from the summit is very fine. To the west, one sees the pinnacles of Migif and the nearer long range of Hafafit; to the north-east is the black cone of Atut; northward, seen over a sea of hills, is Igli; to the east is the high ridge of Hangalia, culminating to the south in Gebel Zabara.

The sea is visible to the north-east and east, but the sea horizon was obscured during the three days I spent on the summit by banks of clouds. These cloud banks simulated the sea horizon very closely, their upper surface appearing perfectly horizontal. They caused a peculiar phenomenon at sunrise, producing the optical effect of two suns rising one after the other owing to the refraction through the cloud. The first thing seen was a blood-red image of the sun rising over the true sea horizon, which was only thus discovered, the sun being seen through the cloud; about three minutes later, when a little more than half the blood-red disc had risen, the true sun rays flashed out from another and much brighter segment appearing over the top of the cloud, so that parts of two sun disks were seen at once, quite separately, one over the other.

Before descending from the mountain, I went along the ridge south-east and north-west of the highest point to get plane-table stations; in either direction progress along the top is extremely difficult. To the north-west it appeared as though the way would be easier by keeping on the east side of the ridge, but in reality this was not so, as the slope was so steep and smooth that some stretches could only be got over by wriggling along with as much as possible of one’s body in contact with the rock. The descent from the north-west end of the ridge to camp was difficult and rather dangerous in places. It is possible that a better way up the mountain could be found from the pass at the head of Wadi Hangalia, on the opposite side to where I started; that pass is 120 metres higher than the west one, so that the total climb would be lessened by that amount, and the horizontal distance is about the same.

Gebel Hafafit is a very long range, chiefly of gneiss, running in a nearly straight line south-eastward for over thirty kilometres. Its highest peaks are at its north end, where they are not very much lower than those of Gebel Nugrus; the heights decrease gradually further south. Half way down the range is a very conspicuous peak called Um Moghar, 860 metres above sea, while another well marked summit, the only one which I climbed, exists near the south end and rises to 744 metres. This last-named point is marked by a beacon, in latitude 24° 35′ 32″, longitude 34° 45′ 22″. On either side of the main back-bone of Hafafit are high flanking ridges. The drainage of Hafafit practically all flows seaward by the Wadi Gemal; the west faces are drained by Wadi Hafafit, and the east ones by Wadi Nugrus.

East of the south part of Gebel Hafafit are some remarkable bosses of granite, of which the chief, Gebel Abu Had, rises to 633 metres above sea, and is a landmark for Bir Abu Had. Another remarkable hill, closer in to Hafafit and the Wadi Gemal, is shaped like a bell with a handle on the top; this hill, which forms a good landmark, is called Gebel Um Regeba, and its summit is 571 metres above the sea.

PLATE VII.

Summit of Gebel Nugrus. (Granite).

Summit of Gebel Abu Hamamid. (Schists).

Gebel Migif is a very spiky gneiss mass situated about thirteen kilometres west of Gebel Nugrus. It has several summits of about equal height, fairly close together, but separated by deep clefts. The triangulation beacon is on the western peak, in latitude 24° 47′ 23″, longitude 34° 27′ 30″, 1,199 metres above sea-level. The foliation planes of the rock dip to the north, and the only safe means of ascent is up the resulting north slopes. The south aspect is precipitous. When ascending the mountain, I pitched my camp 2·7 kilometres north of the beacon, in a gully draining into Wadi Shait, west of another gully containing the water holes called Galt Um Karaba, at an altitude of 607 metres above sea-level. The ascent, of 592 metres, took two hours steady climbing, and was not difficult. I kept on the west side of the gorge till near the top, and this is the best way up the mountain, for I found the gorge itself to be steep and abounding in impassable precipices. The view from Gebel Migif is shut in to the east by the high masses of Gebels Hafafit and Nugrus; Gebels Atut and Igli are conspicuous to the north; to the south-east, one overlooks the great sandy basin of Wadi Hafafit; while to the south-west is more open country in which the two remarkable cones of El Nahud, the sharp peak of Gebel Abu Khrug, the ridge of Gebel Hamrat Selma, and closer in the ranges called Gebel Dweig, are striking features. On a clear day, the huge mountains of Hamata and Abu Hamamid, eighty kilometres to the south-south-east, can be discerned. The photographs on [Plate VIII] will give an idea of the views looking towards Gebels Nugrus and Dweig respectively. In the upper view Gebel Nugrus is seen behind the Hafafit range; in the lower, the masses close in are Gebel Dweig, while in the distance, to the right of the centre, is Gebel Hamrat Selma, and behind it on the horizon the spike of Gebel Abu Khrug. The precipitous nature of the south side of Gebel Migif is evident in both views.

The north and west sides of Gebel Migif are drained by the Wadi Shait, which passes the foot of the mountain; the steep south face drains into Wadi Dweig, a tributary of Shait; while the eastern face, flanked by low hills, is drained by Wadi Hafafit.

Gebel Dweig is a small group of high hills close to the south of Gebel Migif, with which it combines to form a cul-de-sac round the head of Wadi Dweig. Gebel Dweig resembles Gebel Migif in character, except that it is lower; the hill on the south side of the narrow opening by which Wadi Dweig leaves the cul-de-sac is 864 metres above sea, and this is believed to be the highest of the group. The eastern part of the mass is a curiously curved range sweeping round nearly in a semicircle.

Gebel Hamrat Selma is a high ridge rising from the plain about fifteen kilometres south-west of Gebel Migif. I did not approach it closely, but fixed the position of its highest point, which is 761 metres above sea-level, by triangulation.

El Nahud (the breasts) is the name given to two very remarkable conical hills of volcanic rock rising from the plain on the north side of Wadi Natash to the south of Gebel Hamrat Selma. The two hills are about five kilometres apart, one being south-east of the other. The north-eastern cone is the sharper of the two, but they have both the same altitude of 662 metres above the sea and rise about 130 metres above the surrounding country.

Gebel Abu Khrug is a granite hill-mass with a remarkably sharp high peak, about twenty-five kilometres south-west of Gebel Migif. The summit, which is surmounted by a triangulation beacon, in latitude 24° 38′ 57″, longitude 34° 16′ 19″, has an altitude of 870 metres above sea-level. Abu Khrug, from its striking Matterhorn-like shape and its situation in fairly open country, is a conspicuous landmark for great distances. The Arabs who were sent to erect the beacon stated that the ascent was very difficult.

Gebel Sufra is a mass of rather flat-topped high hills, partly of volcanic origin, about eighteen kilometres west of Abu Khrug, on the north side of Wadi Shait. The triangulation beacon on the summit is in latitude 24° 38′ 42″, longitude 34° 4′ 13″, at a height of 690 metres above sea-level, and 340 metres above the well of Um Gubur, which is in the Wadi Shait about three kilometres to the south-east.

Gebels Nazla and Um Serg are moderately high hills lying to the south of Gebels Sufra and Abu Khrug, between the Wadis Shait and Natash.

Gorf el Natash is a syenite hill on the south side of Wadi Natash, about five kilometres south-west of Bir Masur, while Gebels Muktil (470 metres), Derera, and Um Goraf, are prominent hills lying still further south near Wadi Antar.

PLATE VIII.

View from Gebel Migif, looking east, showing the Hafafit and Nugrus Ranges.

View from Gebel Migif, looking south-west, showing Gebel and Wadi Dweig.

Gebel Ras Shait is a group of high rugged-looking reddish hills, probably of granite, at the head of Wadi Shait, near Gebels Nugrus and Migif. Its highest peak rises to 1,019 metres above sea. The west face drains directly into Shait, while the eastern and northern slopes drain into Wadi Gerf, which joins Shait far to the south-west. Between Gebels Migif and Ras Shait is a small range of hills dividing Wadi Shait from the head of Wadi Hafafit; across the south end of this range, which is composed of dark schists with white granite at its western foot, there runs a zigzag pass, fairly easy for camels, to the head of Wadi Nugrus.

Gebel Mudergeg is a high range of reddish hills, which with Gebels Ras Shait and Migif encloses the heads of Wadi Shait. Its highest point is 1,086 metres above sea. To the east of it are several other lower ranges, some of white and others of black aspect, which have not been approached closely.

Gebel Hangalia is a great mountain ridge running south-south-east for about twelve kilometres, from Gebel Ghuel to Gebel Zabara, consisting chiefly of schists. Its highest peak is 1,241 metres above sea-level. Its western faces are drained partly to the Nile by the Wadi Hangalia (a tributary of Wadi Gerf) and partly to the sea by the Wadai el Nom (a tributary of Wadi Nugrus); its eastern faces, which are flanked by high ridges, drain into the various feeders of Wadi Ghadir.

Gebel Zabara, a mountain mass rising to 1,361 metres above sea-level, forms a southward extension of the Hangalia range. The cairn on its summit is in latitude 24° 45′ 21″, longitude 34° 41′ 53″. The mountain is drained on the north and east sides by feeders of the Wadi Ghadir, while its western flanks are partly drained by the Wadai el Nom. Gebel Zabara is chiefly composed of schists of various types. The ancient emerald mines of Zabara are in the north-east part of the mountain, about two and a half kilometres from its summit. A triangulation beacon marks the highest point of the mountain, but this was only used as an intersection point. I ascended some of the flanking ridges near the old mines; these consisted of splintery schists, and though the climbing is steep and rough (see [Plate IX]), the schists give a good foothold so that the ascent to the top is probably not very difficult. The ruins in the Wadi Zabara, near the old mines, are at 514 metres above sea-level; the climb from them to the summit is thus one of 857 metres. Due south of Gebel Zabara is a high ridge, the north-west end of which is 1,104 metres above sea-level; this ridge is the most conspicuous of a mass of high hills flanking Gebel Zabara to the south, which have not been seen except from a distance, but which are probably drained by the Wadi Nugrus.

Gebel Ghuel, which forms a northward extension of Gebel Hangalia, is likewise composed of schists. Its highest point, the south end of a conspicuous high ridge, is 1,104 metres above sea. Its eastern faces are drained by the Wadis Ghuel and Fegas, both tributaries of Wadi Ghadir, while its western flanks drain into the heads of Wadi Um Khariga. High hills flank the main ridge on both sides, especially the east, and through these the drainage channels form deep gloomy gorges. Wadi Ghuel contains important water holes.

Gebel Um Khariga is the name given to several high hill ranges on either side of the Wadi Um Khariga. Two of these ranges, one on either side of the upper part of the wadi, form like Gebel Ghuel north extensions of the high ridge of Hangalia; the western range can be crossed at a gap by an easy pass, 773 metres above sea-level, which separates the heads of Wadi Gerf from those of Wadi Um Khariga. These two ranges shut in the wadi on either side for some ten kilometres of its northward course, beyond which the country becomes more open and the wadi curves round to the north-east, passing the north end of a third range of high hills which is likewise called Gebel Um Khariga. This third range extends northward for about ten kilometres from Gebel Ghuel, from which it is separated by a pass forming a good road over the head of Wadi Ghadir. Its most conspicuous feature is a twin peak at its north end, 674 metres above sea-level. The main ridge is flanked by high hills, especially on the east side. Only the north and west flanks of this range are drained by Wadi Um Khariga, the eastern side being cut up by feeders of Wadi Sukari. Besides the pass separating it from Gebel Ghuel, there are two other passes, one round its north end into Wadi Sukari, and another at its south end between Wadi Ghadir and Wadi Sukari, so that a complete circuit of this range can be made by camels. Some of the hills composing the mass consist of highly magnetic schists, and compass readings in the region may be disturbed by many degrees.

PLATE IX.

Descending Gebel Zabara. (Schists).

Gebel Igli el Iswid is a rather rugged mountain mass rising among a sea of lower hills, thirty kilometres north of Gebel Nugrus. Its highest point, marked by a triangulation beacon, in latitude 25° 4′ 6″, longitude 34° 36′ 16″, is 975 metres above sea-level. The mountain forms a tripartite watershed between the basins of Wadi Um Khariga (draining the south slopes), Wadi Dabur (draining the north and west slopes), and Wadi Igli (draining the eastern face), each of which three wadis courses separately to the sea. In occupying the triangulation station on the summit, I placed my camp in a gully draining to Wadi Um Khariga, about two kilometres south-south-west of the summit at an altitude of 605 metres above sea. The climb of 370 metres to the top from this camp was not difficult, and occupied only a little over an hour and a half. The mountain consists of very hard grey siliceous rocks, which ring under the hammer, and are probably crushed and devitrified felsites (see [p. 281]). There are galts in some of the gullies draining from this mountain, hence it is sometimes called Igli el Rayani. At the time of my visit (December 1905) there was said to be a little water in a galt on the west side of the mass; but the rock basins in the gully which I ascended were empty.

Gebel Igli el Ahmar, sometimes called El Atshani, is a lower hill mass of granite some ten kilometres north-east of Igli el Iswid.

Gebel Atut is a high black conical hill thirty kilometres north-west of Gebel Nugrus. Rising considerably above the hills which immediately surround it, Atut is visible from a great distance from the west, and its conical form renders it easy of recognition. Its summit, marked by a beacon, in latitude 25° 0′ 56″, longitude 34° 23′ 49″, is 908 metres above sea-level and 300 metres above the branches of the Rod el Atut which encircle its base. A camp can be placed close to the foot of the cone, and the ascent is easily made in about an hour. The rock of Gebel Atut is olivine gabbro (see [p. 302]), of great hardness, and the whole surface of the mountain is formed of great blocks, rounded and boulder-like below, but angular higher up. The blocks have rusty-looking surfaces, but are perfectly sound rock inside, and they ring like bells under the hammer. The upper illustration on [Plate X] shows a view of the summit of Gebel Atut, from which its blocky nature will be evident. The view from Gebel Atut is a very extensive one. To the west and north (see the lower illustration on [Plate X]) one can see the peaks of Gebels Muelih, Haggar Dungash, Iteima, Abu Diab, and Hamrat Wogud; to the south-east are the masses of Migif and Nugrus, while eastward one looks over a great expanse of hills towards Gebels Dabur and Um Khariga, with the sea beyond.

The hills of Um el Huetat, the highest of which rise over 200 metres above the wadis round them, are situated about eight kilometres due west of Gebel Atut; they are composed of schists of various types, and contain some old mines, mostly in talc schist. They are drained by the Rod el Farag, a tributary of Wadi Gerf.

On the other side of the Rod el Farag, i.e., further west of Gebel Atut, are numerous scattered hills, the higher of which bear the names of Hamrat Mastura, El Hamra, and Um Himar. These are of granite, gneiss, and schists, with some coarse gabbro and numerous quartz veins.

Still further west is the remarkable ridge called Erf el Fahid, a great quartz vein ten metres wide and two kilometres long, rising nearly one hundred metres above the Wadi Muelih. A beacon on its highest point, 579 metres above sea-level, marks the triangulation station, its position being latitude 25° 0′ 5″, longitude 34° 11′ 52″. South-east of Erf el Fahid is a line of similar but smaller ridges, also formed of great quartz veins rising through diorites and schists. Still further down the Wadi Muelih is a curious horse-shoe-shaped hill of aplite, called Marwot Rod el Ligaia, round which the hills of crushed diorite are penetrated with a network of quartz veins running in various directions.

Gebel Muelih is a great boss of white granite situated close to the north side of Wadi Muelih in longitude 34°. Its summit, marked by a beacon, in latitude 24° 52′ 44″, longitude 34° 0′ 37″, is 707 metres above sea and 350 metres above the wadi which courses round its south flank, and from which it is easily climbed. The upper view on [Plate XI] gives an idea of its appearance as seen from the base line camp in the wadi six kilometres east of it.

Gebel Hagar Dungash is a great mass of high hills situated north of Gebel Muelih. The beacon on its highest point, in latitude 24° 59′ 12″, longitude 34° 2′ 33″, is 815 metres above sea-level. In the hills which flank the main mass are numerous sharp peaks, one of the most conspicuous of which, eight and a half kilometres south-west of the beacon, is called Gebel Um Dalalil. A ridge five kilometres due east of the beacon bears the name of Erf Rod Um Rashid. The rocks of Haggar Dungash are chiefly dark schists.

PLATE X.

Summit of Gebel Atut.

View from Gebel Atut, looking north-west, showing Gebels Abu Diab and Hamrat Wogud in the distance.

PLATE XI.

View in Wadi Muelih (Base-line Camp). Gebel Muelih in the Distance.

Granite-boss of Gebel Selaia.

Gebel Iteima is a group of high granite hills rising from the plain fifteen kilometres north of Erf el Fahid. Its highest peak is 849 metres above the sea. It is drained southwards by the Wadi Muelih.

Gebel Hamrat Wogud, which is likewise of granite, is a higher mountain mass fifteen kilometres east of Iteima. Its highest point, marked by a beacon, is in latitude 25° 9′ 34″, longitude 34° 20′ 0″, and 1,103 metres above sea. It is drained southwards by the Rod Um el Farag, a tributary of Wadi Gerf.

Between Gebels Muelih and Mudergeg is a sandy plain with low hills, the more conspicuous of which bear special names; among them are Marwot Rod el Ligah, Erf Sagur, and Khusa el Faraon, the last-named being a group of small but very remarkable black hills eleven kilometres due south of Erf el Fahid. Marwot Rod el Ligah is a triangulation point; its beacon is 514 metres above sea-level.

Gebel Sukari is a very craggy high ridge of granitic rock twenty-two kilometres north of Gebel Zabara. Its highest point, which is at its north end, is 630 metres above sea-level, but the triangulation beacon was erected on a lower part of the ridge further south, in latitude 24° 56′ 50″, longitude 34° 42′ 50″, at an altitude of 476 metres, in order to be near to the extensive old mines and ruins which exist in the locality. Gebel Sukari is drained by various feeders of Wadi Sukari.

Kurdeman is the name of a low hilly district on the east side of Wadi Ghadir, thirteen kilometres north of Gebel Zabara. It is interesting as containing some ancient mines, doubtless worked for gold. A triangulation beacon has been erected on a hill just above the workings, in latitude 24° 52′ 35″, longitude 34° 41′ 35″, at an altitude of 526 metres above sea, or about fifty metres above the wadi.

Gebel Sabahia is a craggy felsite hill five kilometres south-east of Kurdeman, rising to 520 metres above sea, or about ninety metres above the wadi. It is drained by the Wadi Sabahia, a tributary of Wadi Ghadir. In the heads of the Wadi Sabahia, north-east of the hill, are some old gold mines.

Gebel Um Tundeba is a high granite hill near the head of Wadi Um Tundeba. Its summit is 550 metres above the sea. It forms a landmark for the water hole called Galt Um Tundeba, which is situated in a small gully, three kilometres west of the summit of the hill.

Gebel Amba-ut, seven kilometres south of the foregoing, is likewise believed to be of granite; the southern hill of this group is of a red colour and very conspicuous as one passes from Um Tundeba to Ghadir.

Gebel Ghadir, the summit of which, in latitude 24° 50′ 9″, longitude 34° 47′ 22″, and 636 metres above sea, is marked by a triangulation beacon, is thirteen kilometres north-east of Gebel Zabara. I ascended it from a camp 424 metres above sea-level in one of the gullies draining westward to Wadi Ghadir. The ascent is easy. The rocks are greenish serpentines and ophicalcites below, with a white quartz felsite above.

Gebel Allawi, situated on the south side of the Wadi Allawi, is a diorite hill rising to 515 metres above sea. It is best approached by ascending a small feeder of Wadi Allawi, in which a camp can be placed within a kilometre of the summit and 160 metres below it. There are some interesting old gold mines in the quartz veins just below the beacon on the summit of the hill, and a band of graphitic schist crops out near the north foot of the hill. The position of the beacon is latitude 24° 46′ 42″, longitude 34° 49′ 39″.

Gebel Lewewi is a dark craggy hill range eight kilometres east-south-east of Gebel Zabara, between Wadi Allawi and its tributary Wadi Lewewi. Its highest point, marked by a cairn, is 654 metres above sea-level. There are some old mines in the lower hills two and half kilometres south-east of Gebel Lewewi, and others a little further off in the same direction.

Gebel Sikait is a rugged ridge of schists and serpentine situated in the midst of hilly country fourteen kilometres south-east of Gebel Zabara. The triangulation beacon which marks its summit is in latitude 24° 39′ 55″, longitude 34° 48′ 5″, and 771 metres above sea-level, and 330 metres above the wadi which skirts its western foot. Gebel Sikait is of interest from the abundant ruins and old emerald mines which exist near it, as well as from the variety of minerals present in its rocks. It is the Sicily of the Eastern Desert. Beryl, tourmaline, actinolite, various micas, chlorite, talc and crystals of calcite are amongst the commoner minerals found. The serpentine which abounds in its upper parts is highly magnetic, and the compass was found to be disturbed by no less than 40° near the triangulation point. Gebel Sikait is drained from the west by the Wadi Sikait, a tributary of Wadi Nugrus, and from the east by the Wadi Um Gamil. The best place to climb it from is the Wadi Sikait, and the ascent, not a difficult one, is rendered interesting by the ruins and old mines encountered; part of the way one passes over an ancient made road, now broken in many places by the downwash from the hill.

Gebel Ras Um Gamil and Gebel Um Gamil are two high hill ranges south-east of Sikait, which have only been sketched from a distance.

Madaret Um Gamil is a conspicuous double-topped hill on the north side of the Wadi Gemal, seventeen kilometres south-east of Sikait. The beacon which marks its highest point is in latitude 24° 34′ 52″, longitude 34° 56′ 28″, and 454 metres above sea. It is best ascended by a very winding tributary of the Wadi Gemal; this gully, up which there is a road, leads past the south-west foot of the hill, and the climb is only one of some 200 metres. The rocks round Madaret Um Gamil are mostly schists, but the top of the hill is a hard gabbro like that of Gebel Atut, weathered into rusty looking blocks. A good view seawards is obtained from the summit, some very red granite forming a conspicuous feature in the low hills between it and the coast.

The Abu Hamamid — Hamata — Abu Gurdi Group.

This group of mountains is remarkable both for its extent and for the loftiness of many of its peaks, some of which are among the highest in Egypt. It is a mass of rugged ridges and peaks, covering about a quarter of a square degree of the earth’s surface between latitudes 24° 0′ and 24° 30′, in which the two dominant summits, Abu Hamamid (1,747 metres) and Hamata (1,978 metres) are the most conspicuous features in the west and east portions respectively, while Abu Gurdi (1,562 metres) forms the great terminal peak of a south-easterly extension of the mass. [Plate XII] shows two typical views in this rugged region.

Gebel Abu Hamamid is a great ridge of hard greenish schists towering above the surrounding mountains to a height of 1,747 metres above sea. Its crest is broken into a number of separate summits, which appear from most aspects of almost a sugar loaf form; the beacon is on the most northerly and highest of these, its position being latitude 24° 14′ 41″, longitude 34° 47′ 38″. The mountain is best ascended from the Wadi Um Semiuki, a tributary of Huluz, which drains its north-east face. By ascending this wadi till camels could go no higher owing to its increasingly rough and stony floor, I was able to pitch a camp at 865 metres above sea-level and two and a quarter kilometres north-east of the summit, leaving an ascent of 882 metres to be made on foot. The ascent, which occupied four hours, was free from difficulty till within about one hundred metres of the top, but the last portion was extremely steep and was only negotiated with considerable trouble; it represents pretty nearly the limit of possibility in getting instruments up difficult places. Once the top was reached, however, the magnificence of the view obtainable, and the excellence of the point as a station for triangulating the principal peaks among the thousands visible, seemed an ample recompense for the trouble of reaching it. The top of the ridge (see [Plate VII,] p. 166) is very rough and narrow, only a little over a metre wide, and it is difficult to find a spot near the summit where one can spread one’s blankets for the night with even a slight approach to comfort. The eight nights of enforced bivouacking which I was obliged to spend on the top of Abu Hamamid in February 1906, before I could complete my observations, belong to the least pleasant of my experiences in the desert. A little work only was possible the first day, owing to haze obscuring the more distant peaks. On the second day clouds enveloped us in a wet drizzle, and a bitterly cold north wind blew with great violence; a rude rubble shelter which my men built on the summit, covered with a blanket, was a very poor protection, and I found it better to throw a rubble embankment across a steep gully on the lee side, forming a small level platform where we were sheltered from the biting wind. For the next five days, we were alternately wrapped in clouds or left free under a brilliant blue sky with clouds covering all the surrounding country. It was curious on these days to look over the surface of the clouds, as over a boundless level sea, with only the highest peaks projecting sharp and black above the white surface, and to see the sun rise and set exactly as though one were on the ocean. Then at last the clouds began to disappear, and on the first clear day a very large amount of triangulation was accomplished, all the more prominent peaks within a radius of about sixty kilometres being observed. Gebel Abu Hamamid forms a culminating point on the Nile — Red Sea watershed, its eastern parts draining to Wadi Huluz and its western ones to Wadi Abu Hamamid, a tributary of Wadi Kharit.

PLATE XII.

Typical Views among the Mountains of Hamata and Abu Hamamid. (The high peak in the distance in the lower view is Gebel Hamata).

Gebel Um Semiuki is a sharp cone rising to 1,283 metres above the sea among a mass of lower hills three kilometres north-east of Gebel Abu Hamamid. It is of a reddish aspect, due to a film which covers the weathered surface of the green and grey hornfels of which it is composed. It is drained by the Wadi Um Semiuki.

Gebel Abu Argub is a very conspicuous mountain, almost conical in shape, seven and a half kilometres south-south-west of Gebel Abu Hamamid, from which it is separated by lower hills. To the south, Gebel Abu Argub overlooks the plain of Selaia. Its peak, 1,690 metres above sea-level, is a good landmark from the south and west.

Gebel Kahfa is a many-peaked mountain of granite rising abruptly to a height of 1,018 metres above sea from among lower hills of dark schists, nineteen kilometres south-west of Gebel Abu Hamamid. It is detached from the main mountain-mass, being separated from it by the heads of Wadi Um Retba. Its faces are in many places sheer precipices of several hundred metres (see [Plate XIII]), but the ascent of it from the north is not very difficult. In occupying Kahfa as a station I approached it from Bir Shadli by a well-marked track which skirts the western foot-hills and leads to the Wadi Helie. Leaving this track where it crosses Wadi Um Hargal some six kilometres from Bir Shadli, I ascended the Wadi Um Hargal and crossed the pass at its head into the head of Wadi Um Retba, where I pitched my camp at an altitude of 563 metres, at the foot of Gebel Kahfa 1·3 kilometres north-north-east of the beacon on its summit. The climb of 455 metres from this camp to the top occupied three hours. There is good bivouacking ground close east of the summit, between two ridges. The beacon which marks the triangulation point is in latitude 24° 8′ 18″, longitude 34° 38′ 55″. A walk round the top is full of interest; one can reach many points overlooking tremendous precipices, and the forms assumed by the granite peaks are very remarkable. On the west side of the mountain is a rather large open space forming the head of Wadi Helie, but elsewhere one is surrounded by low hills. The principal drainers of Kahfa are the Wadis Um Hargal and Um Retba (tributaries of Wadi el Sheikh) to the north, and Helie and Abu Hashim (tributaries of Wadi Kharit) to the south.

Gebel Medsus is a small group of high hills rising among lower ones between Gebel Abu Hamamid and Bir Shadli.

Gebel Metawit is a high granite hill rising conspicuously among much lower hills thirteen kilometres north-west of Bir Shadli. A track leading from Bir Shadli to Bir Metawit and other wells further north-west passes close east of the hill. Gebel Metawit is a good landmark for Bir Metawit, which is situated in the wadi of the same name about three kilometres north-west of it. The summit is 741 metres above sea-level or about 295 metres above the wadi floor at the well.

Gebel Hamrat Mukbud is a great red granite mass rising from the plain about twenty-five kilometres west of Bir Shadli. Its isolated character and great altitude (892 metres above the sea and about 450 metres above the surrounding country) render Hamrat Mukbud one of the finest and best known landmarks in this part of the desert. A cairn on its summit marks the triangulation point, in latitude 24° 9′ 53″, longitude 34° 23′ 17″. Its ascent is a matter of some difficulty, owing to its great steepness.

El Hamra is another red granite mass, much smaller than Hamrat Mukbud, lying about half-way between that mountain and Bir Shadli, and separating the Wadi Abu Hamamid from the Wadi el Sheikh.

Gebel Homr Akarim is a hill about thirty-three kilometres west of Gebel Hamrat Mukbud, close to the north of Wadi el Khashab. Its summit, 490 metres above sea, is marked by a triangulation cairn.

Gebel Marasan is a range of mountains north-west of Abu Hamamid. It is cut through by an important pass over the main watershed, 685 metres above sea-level, connecting the Wadis Huluz and Abu Hamamid by their respective tributaries Marasan and Marasani, which drain north-east and south-west from the pass. The highest peak of the mountains south of the pass is 1,261 metres above sea-level, while those to the north are lower. The name Gebel Marasan is, however, commonly given only to the peaks north of the pass, as they rise more abruptly from it, while those to the south are unnamed or regarded as part of Gebel Hamamid because the Wadi Abu Hamamid drains their southern flanks.

PLATE XIII.

Two Views on Gebel Kahfa. (Granite).

Gebel Khulla is a range lying a few kilometres west of Gebel Marasan from which it is quite separated. Its highest point is 978 metres above sea. It is drained by Wadi Khulla, a tributary of Wadi Abu Hamamid.

Gebel Um Sedri is a remarkable pair of twin peaks on or near the main watershed seventeen kilometres north-west of Gebel Abu Hamamid, and a little to the south of the Wadi Huluz. These peaks, which are 970 metres above sea-level and about 460 metres above the floor of Wadi Huluz, are very conspicuous from the surrounding high country, but they cannot be seen from the Wadi Huluz itself as they lie a little way back from the scarps which bound the gorge. It is the drainage from the hills round Gebel Um Sedri which feeds the water holes of Um Gerifat, in a little gorge opening to Wadi Huluz about two kilometres north-west of the peaks.

Gebel el Heda is a conspicuous hill situated ten kilometres north-north-west of Gebel Metawit, between the Wadis Antar and Khashab. Its highest point is 862 metres above sea-level.

Gebel Nukheira is a group of high hills on or near the main watershed, close to the head of Wadi Antar and about ten kilometres north-north-west of Gebel el Heda. Its highest point is 876 metres above the sea.

Gebel Ras Abu Etl is a lower hill seven kilometres north-east of Gebel Nukheira. As seen from the upper part of the Wadi Gemal it appeared to have a flat top, which is 648 metres above the sea. It is probably drained by the short Wadi Abu Etl, which joins Wadi Huluz to form the Wadi Gemal.

Gebel Um Suerab is a great high ridge of dark looking rocks, surrounded by high flanking hills, rising conspicuously in the hilly country between the Wadis Huluz and Gemal, about twenty-four kilometres north-north-west of Gebel Abu Hamamid. The top of its ridge, which appears to be nearly level for about a kilometre of its length, is 1,024 metres above sea-level. From its neighbourhood drain two wadis in opposite directions; one, called the Wadi Um Suerab lil Gemal, goes northward to join Wadi Gemal, while the other, called Wadi Um Suerab lil Huluz, is the longer and courses southward to join Wadi Huluz.

Gebel Durunkat is another apparently flat-topped hill eight kilometres south-east of Gebel Um Suerab, on the west side of the Wadi Durunkat, about thirteen kilometres above its junction with Wadi Gemal. Its summit is 924 metres above sea-level.

Gebel Abarun is a mountain range situated a short distance north-east of Gebel Abu Argub, from which it is separated by the Wadi Abarun. Its highest peak, almost due east of that of Abu Argub, from which it is separated by the Wadi Abarun, is 1,602 metres above sea, and overlooks the great plain of Selaia to the south.

Gebel Um el Tiur is a range extending south-east from Gebel Abarun, forming a southward prolongation of the mountains. Its highest peak is 1,450 metres above the sea, while the terminal peak southward is 1,080 metres. It is drained on the west by the Wadis el Shel and el Anbat (tributaries of Wadi Kharit) and on the east by the Wadi Um el Tiur (a tributary of Wadi Hilgit lil Kharit).

Gebel el Anbat is a group of lower dark coloured hills forming the south foot hills of Gebel Um el Tiur. Its highest point is 788 metres above sea, while a detached black hill a little west of it on the plain rises to 680 metres above sea, or 175 metres above the plain at its base. These hills are drained by the Wadi el Anbat and other small feeders of Wadi Kharit.

Gebel Um Usher and Um Hasidok are conspicuous peaks on the main watershed ten kilometres east, and twelve and a half kilometres east-south-east respectively of Gebel Abu Hamamid, rising to 1,487 and 1,497 metres above sea-level. They are drained to the south by the Wadi Hilgit lil Kharit, and to the north by the Wadi el Mahali, a feeder of Wadi Huluz.

Gebel el Mahali is a rather high peak of grey porphyry which forms a northerly extension of Gebel Um Usher, close south of the Wadi Huluz. Its top is 1,112 metres above sea, or 330 metres above the adjacent wadi floor.

Gebel Hamata, with one exception[106] the highest mountain in the Eastern Desert of Egypt, is situated on the meridian of 35°, in latitude 24° 12′, thirty-three kilometres from the nearest point of the coast and 213 kilometres from the nearest point of the Nile, and rises to an altitude of 1,978 metres above sea-level; the summit is marked by a triangulation beacon, the position of which is latitude 24° 12′ 17″, longitude 35° 0′ 16″. Gebel Hamata lies some five kilometres east of the main watershed, which curiously enough is not always formed by the highest peaks. It is drained principally by the Wadi Huluz, the heads of which almost encircle it. The Wadi Hamata heads in the eastern face of the high ridge which connects Gebels Hamata and Abu Ghusun, and thus only takes a small portion of the drainage of Gebel Hamata itself. Though surrounded by other high mountains, Hamata towers above them so as to be a very conspicuous feature on the sky line from great distances. Looked at from the north or south, it is like a great, rather flat, cone with a smaller cone east of it. The best way to ascend the mountain is from the head of the Wadi el Abiad, that feeder of Wadi Huluz which drains the north face of it. In proceeding up the Wadi el Abiad from Wadi Huluz, one is shut in by high hills on either side till about six kilometres from the mountain; then the wadi opens into a rough plain with low granite hills, and the imposing mass of Hamata springs suddenly into full view. My camels were coaxed on with their loads up this wadi, which becomes very steep and stony as its head is approached, to within two and a quarter kilometres of the summit, where they actually reached an altitude of 1,025 metres above the sea. The ascent of the remaining 953 metres on foot, though tiring, was fairly easy, and occupied less than four hours. The lower third of Hamata is a whitish granite; this gives place higher up to a hard quartz felsite, which rings under the hammer and weathers into rusty brown blocks. To the east of the main summit the rock changes to a green breccia, which seems to form a considerable portion of that part of the mountain. The view from the summit is a fine one in clear weather, including as it does an extensive prospect of the rugged mountains around, and a large extent of coast-line. But it was on this mountain that I had my first experience of the chronic haze which seems to hang almost perpetually over the coastal regions in the neighbourhood of the tropic, and which is the greatest enemy of the surveyor in these parts. On each of the three days which I spent on Hamata, the morning sun rose over cloud-banks to the east; clouds filled all the wadis and covered the lower country, while the highest peaks stood up clear and sharp above the sea of cloud. Towards 10 a.m., the clouds gradually melted away over the land under the increasing solar influence, but there remained a continuous haze, especially over the coast and out to sea. The explanation of the almost perpetual clouds and haze was soon seen, and is very simple. If the wind blows from the north-west, it is generally cool or even cold in winter. If this north wind is dry and persistent, the air is clear; but should it fail and warm moist breezes set in from seaward, these drop their moisture on reaching the cooler air of the mountains. If the air is still or nearly so, the moisture is evaporated in the sun’s rays during the day, only to precipitate itself again as the air cools by rapid radiation at night. As a consequence, dews on the mountains are extremely heavy, and one soon learns to seek the shelter of an overhanging rock or to improvise a rude tent from a blanket and a few sticks over one’s nightly resting-place.

Gebel Abu Ghusun is a mountain range north of Hamata, with which it is connected by a ridge of lower peaks so as to close in the small rough granite plain north-east of the latter mountain. Its highest peak, eight kilometres north-north-west of Gebel Hamata, is 1,389 metres above sea-level. It is drained on the south by the Wadi el Abiad, the same tributary of Wadi Huluz which drains the north face of Hamata, and on the north by the Wadi Abu Ghusun, which enters the sea separately.

Gebel Um Laham is a mass of lower hills a little west of Gebel Abu Ghusun, forming the side of Wadi Huluz opposite to Gebel el Mahali.

Gebel Tarfawi is a complex mountain range fourteen kilometres north-west of Gebel Hamata. Its highest point, at the north-west end of a ridge, is 1,363 metres above the sea. It is probably drained to the south by the Wadi Tarfawi, a tributary of Wadi Huluz, and to the north by feeders of Wadi Romit.

Gebel Um Heshenib is a great ridge situated twenty-two kilometres north-west of Gebel Hamata. The beacon on its highest point, in latitude 24° 20′ 49″, longitude 34° 50′ 53″, has an altitude of 1,135 metres above the sea. Its lower parts are granite, but the upper third is of dark schists, while the actual ridge on which the beacon stands is a grey porphyrite. Gebel Um Heshenib is drained to the north by the Wadi el Abiad, a tributary of Wadi Gemal, and to the south by tributaries of Wadi Huluz. I ascended it on two occasions from opposite sides. The north approach is the easier road for camels, as they can pass easily up the broad and sandy Wadi el Abiad, while to reach it from Wadi Huluz one has to journey over a rather stony pass and along narrow stony wadis. But the climb is longer from the north side, being one of 635 metres against 380 metres from the south, and the southern climb is easier as well as shorter. It is interesting to note that as the ground south of the mountain lies at an average level of 250 metres higher than that to the north, the plumb-line ought from theoretical considerations to be attracted to the south by several seconds, and this was found to be the case when the mountain was used as a latitude station (see [p. 47]) There is a very difficult pass east of the mountain from the head of Wadi el Abiad into a tributary of Wadi Huluz; I was told that loaded camels could not possibly get over the pass, and have reason to believe the statement true, as although I did not consent my men were desirous of going over it and volunteered to carry the baggage over themselves to relieve the camels.

Gebel el Abiad is the name given to two distinct ranges of high granite hills on either side of the Wadi el Abiad, north and east of Gebel Um Heshenib. The eastern of these two ranges extends in a north-westerly direction for about twelve kilometres from Gebel Tarfawi to near the place where Wadi el Abiad turns to the north-east. It has numerous peaks, of which the most conspicuous is at the south-east end of a high ridge six and a half kilometres north-east of Gebel Um Heshenib, and rises to 957 metres above sea. This eastern range is drained from the west by the Wadi el Abiad, and from the west by the Wadis Shoab and Romit. The western range is slightly lower and less extensive; one of its most conspicuous peaks, eleven kilometres north-north-east of Um Heshenib, is 892 metres above the sea, and there are numerous other peaks further south of almost equal altitude. This western range is almost entirely drained by the Wadi el Abiad, a feeder of which curves round the south end of the range, thus separating it from Gebel Um Heshenib; the drainage from the north end probably passes into the Wadi Mukhatatat, while a portion of the eastern slopes may be drained by feeders of Wadi Durunkat. It is the coarse white granitic sand resulting from the disintegration of the rocks of these hills which gives its name to the Wadi el Abiad, and the hills take their name from the wadi. The heads of the wadi near Gebel Um Heshenib are, however, blackened by hornblendic downwash from the schists which overlie the granite of that mountain.

Gebel Shoab is a very high white granite hill close to the head of Wadi Shoab, on its north side. It rises to 830 metres above the sea, or about 400 metres above the wadi floor.

Gebel Hefeiri is a very sharp granite peak a little west of the Wadi Abu Ghusun, about fifteen kilometres north of Hamata. Rising to 612 metres above the sea, or about 300 metres above the wadi near it, among lower granite hills, it is a good landmark. There is a smaller very sharp peak two and a half kilometres to the north-east, on the opposite side of the Wadi Abu Ghusun, while to the west are sugar loaf shaped hills.

Gebel Um Sueh is a conspicuous granite hill six and a half kilometres east of the Wadi el Abiad and four and a half kilometres north of the Wadi Shoab, rising to 781 metres above sea. It is probably drained from the north-east by the heads of Wadi Um el Abbas.

Gebel Um el Abbas is a very remarkable granite hill between Gebels Um Sueh and Abu Hegilig. From the north, it looks like a square block with precipitous sides, having a sheer drop of about 200 metres. Its summit is 697 metres above sea. It is drained by the Wadi Um el Abbas, which goes independently to the sea.

Gebel Abu Hegilig is another high granite hill, three and a half kilometres east of Gebel Um el Abbas and twenty-six kilometres north of Gebel Hamata. Its summit, 607 metres above sea, is marked by a beacon, the position being latitude 24° 26′ 16″, longitude 34° 58′ 32″. The hill is drained by feeders of Wadi Um el Abbas. The camp from which I ascended the hill was in one of these feeders 1,200 metres north-east of the beacon and 267 metres above sea-level; the climb of 340 metres was not difficult, and only occupied a little over an hour. The beacon is on a block not large enough to take an instrument, so that observations here were taken from an eccentric point a little way along the ridge and afterwards reduced to centre.

Gebel Sarobi is a small hill-range twenty-two kilometres north-east of Gebel Hamata and some eleven kilometres from the sea coast. The peak at its south end is 471 metres above sea-level. This range has not been closely approached nor well seen, but it must be very conspicuous to any one travelling in the low hill country near the sea.

Gebel Ras el Kharit is a mountain range forming part of the main watershed, running in a nearly east and west line a little south of Gebel Hamata. Its highest peak is extremely sharp, and rises to 1,661 metres above sea-level six kilometres south-south-east of Hamata. Of the many other peaks of the range, the chief is one three kilometres west of the highest point, and six kilometres due south of Hamata; this reaches an altitude of 1,564 metres. The northern face of the range is drained by the heads of the Wadi Huluz, while the southern is drained by the heads of Wadi Kharit, whence the name of the mountain range.

Gebel Khashir, which forms an eastward extension of Gebel Ras el Kharit, reaches an altitude of 1,565 metres above sea-level; its highest peak is nine and a half kilometres south-east of Gebel Hamata. It is drained to the sea by the Wadi Khashir, the heads of which end in the precipitous eastern faces of the mountain.

Gebel Mikbi is a long high ridge on the main watershed, seven kilometres south of Gebel Khashir. Its highest point, at the south end of the ridge, is 1,388 metres above sea-level. Gebel Mikbi is connected with Gebel Ras el Kharit by a lower ridge running north-west and forming the continuation of the watershed across the head of Wadi el Kharit. There is a pass across this ridge into the head of Wadi Mikbi, which drains Gebel Mikbi seawards, but it is a very difficult one for loaded camels owing to the great steepness of the eastern side.

Gebel Zatit is another high ridge about five kilometres east of Gebel Mikbi, on the south side of the head of Wadi Mikbi.

Gebel Egat is a high mountain close to the south-west of Gebel Mikbi, forming the continuation of the watershed. It has two principal peaks, two and a quarter kilometres apart, of which the south-west one is the higher, being 1,422 metres, while the north-east one is 1,277 metres above the sea. The western face of the mass is drained by the Wadi Egat, a tributary of Kharit, while the eastern flanks are cut up by feeders of the Wadi Sefent, a tributary of Wadi Lahami.

Gebels Um Sellim and Gumudlum are high hill ranges forming an eastward extension of the Egat and Mikbi mountains, on the north side of Wadis Sefent and Lahami. The highest point of Gebel Um Sellim is 947 metres above sea, or about 620 metres above the floor of Wadi Lahami. These ranges are flanked by lower hills through which run various small wadis such as Um Khuzuma, Um Ghobasha, and Gumudlum, all feeders of Wadi Lahami. Some of these small wadis contain rock basins or galts which retain large supplies of water for some time after rain has fallen on the hills.

Gebel Abu Gurdi is a great mountain in latitude 24° 0′, forming the terminal peak to the south of the Hamata group. The beacon on its summit, in latitude 24° 0′ 11″, longitude 35° 5′ 17″, is 1,562 metres above sea-level. Though in reality a ridge, Abu Gurdi from most points of view looks like a rather flat cone, surrounded by lower hills. It is on the main watershed, which crossing to the summit from Gebel Egat, continues south-eastward along a narrow ridge descending to the pass at the head of Wadi Lahami. The south-west parts of Abu Gurdi are drained by the Wadis Abu Gurdi and Elemikan, both tributaries of Kharit, while its southern and eastern parts drain into Wadi Lahami by various feeders, of which the chief are the Wadis Um Karaba, Um Rishan, Um Homar, and Sefent. Gebel Abu Gurdi could probably be ascended from the west by following up the Wadi Abu Gurdi, but in occupying the mountain as a triangulation station I descended the Wadi Lahami as far as the point of influx of Wadi Um Karaba and then ascended the latter wadi as far as the camels could get, pitching my camp two kilometres south of the summit at 804 metres above sea-level. The ascent of 758 metres to the beacon on foot from the camp occupied two and a quarter hours of fairly stiff climbing; it presented no serious difficulties, but the rock near the top is much broken up and one has to be careful lest blocks are dislodged under one’s foot. The view from the top of Abu Gurdi on a clear day must be extremely fine, but during the three days I remained there a thin haze spoiled the distant prospect, especially towards the coast; the remarkable shapes of the granite peaks of Gebel Faraid, sixty kilometres to the south-south-east, formed the most striking feature in the scene.

Gebel Derhib, 1,160 metres above the sea, is a mountain separating Wadi Abu Gurdi from Wadi Egat; it is really an extension of Gebel Abu Gurdi, from the beacon on which its summit is six and a half kilometres west.

Gebel Um Goradi is likewise in reality part of the Abu Gurdi mass, forming the end of a spur extending south-eastward for ten kilometres from the main peak. The Wadi Lahami curves round its foot northward, passing between it and Gebel Um Gunud.

Gebel Selaia[107] (the bald head) is a very remarkable rounded granite boss rising from the plain thirty-one kilometres south-south-west of Gebel Hamata. Owing to its peculiar shape, isolated position, and considerable height (its top is 787 metres above sea-level and about 260 metres above the plain), Selaia is a conspicuous landmark for great distances round it. The lower illustration on [Plate XI] (p. 172) gives an idea of its appearance as seen from the east; from the north or south it appears much steeper.

South-east of Gebel Selaia stretches a line of four smaller granite hills. The first of these, about a kilometre from the great boss, is interesting as having a small spring, called Megal el Selaia, at its foot. The next, one and a half kilometres further on, is larger, while the third is larger still, rising to 623 metres above sea-level. The fourth, five kilometres from Gebel Selaia, is marked by a triangulation beacon, 563 metres above sea-level and about fifty metres above the plain, in latitude 23° 55′ 30″, longitude 34° 54′ 37″.

Gebel el Homur is an isolated mass of granite hills on the plain six kilometres north-east of Selaia. Its highest point is 731 metres above sea and 230 metres above the plain at its foot. It is drained by small feeders of the Wadi Abu Gurdi, which passes north of the mass on its way across the plain to join Wadi Kharit.

Gebel Abu Derega is an isolated mass of higher granite hills thirteen kilometres south-east of Gebel Selaia. Its highest point is 831 metres above sea-level, and about 300 metres above the plain. Gebel Abu Derega is on the Nile — Red Sea watershed, which crosses the plain from east to west in this locality. The northern drainage is to the Wadi Elemikan, which runs between Gebels Abu Derega and Selaia to join Wadi Kharit, while the southern faces of the hills are drained by feeders of the Wadi el Khiua, a tributary of Wadi Um Bisilla, in the basin of Wadi Hodein.

Besides the hills above described, there are many smaller ones scattered at intervals over the great sandy plain of Selaia, but the only others calling for special notice are the three very remarkable white conical hills called Marwot Elemikan, situated twelve kilometres east of Abu Derega. These hills, though small, are conspicuous from considerable distances, owing to the dazzling appearance of the pure milk-white quartz of which they are composed. The highest and most northerly one, with a triangulation beacon on its summit, rises to 648 metres above sea, or 68 metres above the plain, in latitude 23° 54′ 14″, longitude 35° 6′ 8″. The other two lie about two kilometres south-east and south respectively, with a black hill mid-way between them.

The Um Gunud — Dahanib — Batoga Group.

The mountains of this group, occupying the country east of the watershed between Wadi Lahami and Wadi Khoda, are considerably lower than those of the preceding two groups, only a few peaks rising more than 1,000 metres above sea. The north portion of the group is formed by the line of mountain ridges which as seen from the sea near Berenice appears to connect Gebel Kalalat with Abu Gurdi, while the south part spreads further east and west and contains the highest peaks.

Gebel Um Gunud is the northernmost mountain of the range west of Berenice. It is a dark rugged ridge, surmounted by a cairn[108] 989 metres above sea-level, forming the east side of the Wadi Lahami opposite Gebel Abu Gurdi. It is drained from the west by the Wadi Um Gunud, a feeder of Wadi Lahami, and on the east by feeders of Wadi Naait. Gullies in the west flanks of the mountain contain rock basins, called Galt Um Gunud, which hold water supplies for a long time after rain has fallen, and which are fairly easy of access from Wadi Lahami.

Gebel Eidab, the next member of the range to the south, rises to 848 metres above sea. It is drained on the west by the Wadi Eidab, a tributary of Wadi Lahami, and on the east by the Wadi Abu Daba, a tributary of Wadi Mukhit; a rough and steep pass is said to exist from east to west between the heads of these two wadis near the mountain.

Gebel Um Maiat, a long high ridge stretching south-east from Gebel Eidab, has three marked summits near its ends and centre; that at the north end, which is the highest, is 928 metres, while the other two are 870 and 842 metres above sea respectively. Another broken ridge, of similar height, for which I could get no name from my guides, forms a south-eastern prolongation of Um Maiat, and extends to the Wadi Kalalat; this likewise has three well defined summits, rising in order from north to south, to 875, 821, and 627 metres respectively. These ridges are drained to the east by the Wadis Murra (tributary of Abu Daba) and Mindeit. Their western drainage has not been studied in detail, but it all reaches the sea, none of it going Nilewards; part of the drainage is probably taken by each of the Wadis Kalalat, Shut, and El Khiua.

To the east and north-east of the Um Gunud — Eidab — Um Maiat range is a great expanse of lower hill country through which the wadis cut their way eastwards for about fifteen kilometres to the coast plain. The most conspicuous peaks in this lower hill country are Gebels Um Huk, Abu Ghalqa, and Um Hegilig, all situated in its north portion round about Wadis Lahami and Naait. Other low rugged hills fill a triangular tract south-west of the main range.

Gebel Um Huk is a sharp granite peak, surmounted by a cairn,[109] rising to 517 metres above sea-level near the south side of Wadi Lahami, fourteen kilometres north-north-east of Gebel Um Gunud.

Gebel Abu Ghalqa is another high granite hill, also marked by a cairn on its summit, seven kilometres south-south-east of Um Huk. The cairn is 561 metres above sea-level, and is in latitude 24° 1′ 7″, longitude 35° 16′ 47″.

Gebel Um Hegilig in a small rather spiky range of red granite hills situated a little to the north-east of Gebel Um Gunud, near the heads of Wadi Naait.

To the north-west of Berenice are several low hills on the coast plain, which serve as landmarks and bear special names. Grain el Rih is a conspicuous isolated low hill nearly opposite the place where Wadi Naait emerges from the hills on to the plain, thirteen and a half kilometres north-west of Berenice. Khasheib Abu Daba is the name of some low bouldery granite hills at the place where Wadi Abu Daba enters the plain. Sikeit, a landmark for Berenice, from which it lies five kilometres north-west, is a low granite hill, isolated on the plain and very conspicuous; its summit is seventy metres above sea-level, or thirty-eight metres above the plain at its foot.

The Hills on the Peninsula of Ras Benas are sharply marked off into two portions by differences of colour. The most striking are the dazzling white hills of gypseous limestone which form a narrow sinuous broken plateau nearly along the long axis of the peninsula. The highest points of these white hills are 188 metres above the sea. Deep ravines cut up the plateau and separate it into more or less detached hills. The surface of the gypseous rock is very rough, and frequently weathered into knife-like projections which cut one’s hands and boots badly in climbing. Near the tip of the peninsula the gypseous beds contain a little sulphur in places, and there are some shallow pits which seem to have been dug for exploiting that mineral. But the quantity appears far too small to be of any commercial value, and the pits were probably only exploratory trial holes.

The other hills on the peninsula are darker in colour, being chiefly diorite. They form two masses, one near to where the peninsula joins the main land, and the other on the south side of the peninsula twenty kilometres east of Berenice. The highest point of the first-named group is 276 metres, while that of the second is 197 metres, above sea-level. All the hills on the peninsula are quite separated from those of the main land by the broad sandy plain through which Wadi Mukhit courses south-eastwards to the sea.

Gebel Batoga, a granite mountain fifteen kilometres south-east of Berenice, is sharply marked off from the other mountains near it by its light colour. It is a great boss of acid granite seamed with dykes, having two main peaks. The highest (central) peak rises to 802 metres above sea-level; the southern peak, surmounted by a triangulation beacon in latitude 23° 49′ 37″, longitude 35° 21′ 9″, is seventeen metres lower. Gebel Batoga is drained from the north by feeders of the Wadi Kalalat, and from the south by the Wadi Kunserob. There is a good water source, Galt Batoga, at its north-east foot, consisting of a rock basin which holds a good supply of water for a long time after rain, situated in a small gully close to the Wadi Kalalat, the floor of which is here about 160 metres above sea-level.

Gebel Kalalat, situated about six kilometres west of Gebel Batoga, is a mass of ridges, higher and darker in colour than Batoga. Its highest point, marked by a beacon in latitude 23° 49′ 9″, longitude 35° 17′ 36″, is 1,125 metres above the sea, while another conspicuous peak one and a half kilometres north-east of the beacon, rises to 1,080 metres, and there is a third peak three and a half kilometres south-east of the beacon which attains 894 metres. In ascending Gebel Kalalat to occupy the triangulation station, I followed up the Wadi Kalalat to where the little winding Wadi Um Maiat enters it from the south, then turned up the latter wadi and pitched my camp as far up as the camels could go. The camp was three kilometres north-east of the beacon and 300 metres above sea, so that the climb to be made on foot was 825 metres. Though long and tiring, the ascent to the beacon was not dangerous. Further up the head of the wadi than my camp, I came on a line of galts (rock basins) containing rain water, but they were not easy of access to camels, being in a steep and stony gorge. Perched on the east flank of Kalalat is a very remarkable pinnacle rock, well seen in the illustration on [Plate XIV.] A very good view of the surrounding mountains is obtained from the summit in clear weather, but the top was wrapped in clouds for a great part of two out of the four days I remained on it. Gebel Kalalat is drained from the north by feeders of the Wadi Kalalat, and from the south by the Wadis Gumudlum and Kunserob. Wadi Kalalat curves round the north-west side of the mass, and it is possible that the ascent might be easier by following that wadi as far as possible and climbing up the north-west face of the mountain. A rough steep pass, impracticable for loaded camels, is said to lead from the head of Wadi Kalalat into Wadi Shut.

Gebel Dibag is a high dark ridge five kilometres south of Gebel Batoga, with a peak at each end. The north-west peak is 517 metres, and the south-east one 544 metres above sea-level. The Wadi Kunserob curves round its east and south flanks, while the Wadi Dibag lil Kunserob drains its eastern face into the same channel.

Gebel Shenshef is a mass of high dark hills between the Wadis Shenshef and Gumudlum, close to the Wadi Khoda. On one of its eastern peaks, situated in latitude 23° 44′ 5″, longitude 35° 22′ 40″, on the west side of Wadi Shenshef, and not so high as others further west, a beacon has been erected overlooking the ruins called Hitan Shenshef. There are wells in the wadi a short distance below this hill. The beacon is 290 metres above the sea and 115 metres above the wadi floor at its foot.

Gebel Dahanib is a mountain of dark coloured rocks (diorite and gabbro), situated twelve and half kilometres south-east of Gebel Kalalat and eleven kilometres north of the Wadi Khoda. Its summit, on which is a triangulation beacon, is in latitude 23° 45′ 44″, longitude 35″ 11′ 10″, and 1,270 metres above sea-level. Gebel Dahanib is surrounded by other mountains and hills, and access to it is not very easy. In order to reach it from Gebel Kalalat I had to make a journey down the Wadi Kalalat, along the coast-plain and up the Wadis Khoda and Allawi, a total distance of over eighty kilometres, although the direct distance between the two peaks is only twelve and a half kilometres. By ascending one of the heads of the Wadi Allawi until camels could get no further, I was able to pitch a camp 540 metres above sea-level and three kilometres south-west of the beacon, leaving 730 metres to be climbed on foot. The ascent, though tiring, was free from difficulties or dangers, and occupied two and a half hours. A galt, containing only a small supply of water at the time of my visit, exists a little further up the head of the wadi than where I fixed my camp. There is a good view from the summit, but in the winter months Dahanib, like all the mountains near the coast, is frequently wrapped in clouds for days together. Of seven days spent on the summit in February 1907, three were passed entirely in clouds, while only portions of the other four were free from fog or haze. It was on Gebel Dahanib that I first noticed the curious electric phenomena which may be observed at high stations when electrified clouds are passing close overhead, my attention being first drawn to them by a spark from the eye-piece of my theodolite striking me over the eye. At the same moment a rapid succession of sparks a centimetre or so long passed between my hand and the adjusting screws of the instrument, while both the theodolite and my hair hissed loudly. In this and all other cases of a like kind, I judged it best to suspend operations for a time and descend a little below the summit till the cloud had passed over.

Gebel Dahanib is drained by the Wadis Allawi, Um Tawil, and Shut, all tributaries of Wadi Khoda, which course for a considerable distance through the surrounding hills before reaching the main trunk wadi.

PLATE XIV.

Gebel Kalalat.

Summit of Gebel Faraid. (Granite).

Gebels Um Hegilig, Reyan, and Shut, are high hills situated between the Wadis Shut and Gumudlum, both tributaries of Khoda. Gebel Um Hegilig, a dark peak rising to 966 metres above sea-level, is almost exactly midway between Gebels Dahanib and Kalalat. Gebel Reyan, a little further south-east, is a group of peaks and ridges of which the highest point is 863 metres above sea. Gebel Shut, the most remarkable of the three, is a great cone rising to 930 metres above sea, about five kilometres north of the Wadi Khoda. A very large galt is said to exist among these hills, approachable from Wadi Shut; it is probably in one of the feeders draining westward from Gebel Reyan, which name signifies “the wet mountain.”

Gebel Um Bisilla is a dark mountain of gabbro rising conspicuously among lower hills twenty-two kilometres west of Gebel Dahanib. The triangulation beacon on its summit is in latitude 23° 45′ 34″, longitude 34° 57′ 39″, and 824 metres above sea-level. Gebel Um Bisilla is drained by Wadi Um Bisilla, the head of which encircles its southern half, while the northern flanks are drained by feeders of the Wadi el Khiua, which courses south-west to join Wadi Um Bisilla about ten kilometres west of the mountain. There is an easy passage for camels round the east side of the mountain from the head of Wadi Um Bisilla into a feeder of Wadi Abu Nilih, a tributary of Wadi El Khiua. In ascending the mountain I pitched my camp in one of the gullies draining from it to Wadi Um Bisilla, at an altitude of 513 metres above sea and 1,300 metres south-east of the beacon. The climb of 311 metres from this camp to the summit presented no difficulties, and occupied only an hour and a half.

Erf el Gimal is a high dark ridge surrounded by lower hills ten kilometres west-south-west of Gebel Um Bisilla. Its highest point, the west end of the ridge, is 673 metres above sea. About seven kilometres further west is a conspicuous conical hill called Gebel Abu Shigelat.

Gebel Zergat Naam, sometimes called Hagar el Fil, is a mountain mass on the main watershed thirty kilometres west of Gebel Um Bisilla. It forms a curved range round the head of the Wadi el Kreim, a tributary of Garara. Its northern part is drained partly by the Wadi Abu Had, a feeder of the Rod el Kharuf, and partly by the heads of the Wadi el Fil, which is itself the head of Wadi Naam. The highest peak of the range is a conical one near its south end, 845 metres above sea-level, but the northern peaks are more conspicuous from some points of view, and it is on the highest of these, 823 metres above sea, in latitude 23° 45′ 28″, longitude 34° 40′ 34″, that the triangulation beacon has been erected. My camp at the base was in one of the heads of Wadi el Fil, 527 metres above the sea, and about 700 metres north-east of the beacon. The ascent from here on foot to the beacon was fairly easy. Zergat Naam is a mass of syenite rising through schists, but the northern summits are formed by east and west bands of a very hard quartz felsite. From the summit, looking northwards one sees long lines of north-and-south felsite dykes forming ridges on either side of the head of Rod el Kharuf, while close south of one is the enclosed sloping plain across which run the feeders of Wadi el Kreim. To the south-south-east, a range of lower hills runs north-westward from the end of the main range, and between the two there appears to be a remarkably sudden drop into the head of Wadi Abu Seyal. The Arabs state that there is a very large galt at this point, reached by ascending the Wadi Abu Seyal; the galt is said to hold water for five months after rain. But during my occupation of the station recent rains had filled other smaller rock basins in the gullies to the north, and it was unnecessary to send far from the camp to get supplies. It is interesting to observe from the summit of Zergat Naam the disposition of the rocks forming the lower hills to the south and west; these are of sandstones with marked dips, the area being one of much disturbance by faulting along the Wadi el Kreim.

On the great sandy plain to the north and north-east of Zergat Naam are two extensive groups of low hills, which stand out remarkably owing to their dark colour. One of these groups, twenty kilometres north of Zergat Naam, is called Gebel Geneina Gharbi; it is a mass of hills composed chiefly of dioritic and gabbroid rocks (through there are some schists and granites intermingled) and is drained northward by the Rod el Geneina, a feeder of Wadi Kharit. The other group, called Gebel Geneina Sharqi, is smaller and situated fifteen kilometres further east; I did not visit it, but from its dark colour it is probable that it consists of similar rocks to those above-mentioned. The hills of both groups rise to about 550 metres above the sea, or about eighty to one hundred metres above the plain.

In the low country to the west of Zergat Naam, between the Wadi Garara and the Rod el Kharuf, the most conspicuous hills are Erf el Dubeis, a ridge twenty-six kilometres due west of the beacon, Gebel el Nikeiba, a granite hill marked by a triangulation cairn, 570 metres above sea-level and thirty-four kilometres west-north-west of Zergat Naam; Gebel Felieiti, a sandstone hill, also marked by a triangulation cairn, 500 metres above sea and sixteen kilometres south-west of Gebel Nikeiba; Erf Abu Homur, a ridge at the head of Wadi Abu Homur (a tributary of Garara), about seven kilometres north of Gebel Felieiti; Erf el Mohaib, marked by a triangulation cairn 465 metres above sea-level, about nine kilometres north-west of the last-named hill; and Gebel el Ghar, a hill on the south side of Wadi el Kharit, close to the point where the Rod el Kharuf enters it.

The Abu Dahr — Orga — Um Tenedba Group.

The mountains of this group occupy the tract between the Wadi Naam and Gebel Faraid, and are limited on the south by the Wadi Hodein.

Gebel Abu Dahr, the highest mountain of the group, is a great mass of serpentine, situated in latitude 23° 35′ and about forty kilometres from the coast. Its summit, marked by a triangulation beacon in latitude 23° 36′ 8″, longitude 35° 5′ 46″, is 1,131 metres above sea-level. Its western face is drained by the heads of Wadi Betan, its north-east flanks by those of Wadi Khoda, and its south-east parts by feeders of Wadi Rahaba. Abu Dahr is surrounded by high hills except on the west, where there is low hilly country containing the wells of Betan and the old mining ruins of Um Eleiga (see [Plate IV,] p. 30). The mountain can be most easily reached either by following up the Wadi Betan to its head, or by ascending the Wadi Salib el Azrak (a tributary of Wadi Khoda) and its feeder the Wadi Um Karaba. There is an easy pass 1,800 metres north of the beacon, between the central mass of Abu Dahr and the high hills north of it, connecting the heads of Wadi Betan and Wadi Um Karaba. A short distance to the south-west of this pass there is a galt in a spur of the mountain which holds water for some time after rain, and which furnished supplies during my stay at the place in 1907. In occupying the triangulation station, I fixed my camp in a small stony wadi draining from the north of the mountain, on the east side of the pass just referred to; the camp was 600 metres above sea-level and 1,200 metres north-north-east of the beacon. The ascent, which occupied three hours, was rather difficult and dangerous, the mountain being not only steep[110] but composed of rotten highly crushed rock which came away in tons at a mere touch. There is a very extensive view from the summit, the striking peaks of Faraid being a marked feature to the east and south-east, while to the south are the great masses of Mishbih, Niqrub and Gerf, with the sandstone plateaux of Dif, Hodein and Abraq limiting the view to the south-west. The rock of Gebel Abu Dahr is highly magnetic, and several pieces which I examined showed strong polarity. The compass needle points in all sorts of directions as one moves about the mountain.

Gebel Abu Dahr and the high hills round it, especially to the south, form an important rain-collecting area, the drainage from which feeds, wholly or in part, the wells of Betan, Rahaba, Abu Reye, Abu Beid, and Gahlia, all of which are within a radius of about fifteen kilometres of the summit of the mountain. The relative abundance of water in this area is caused by two main factors. In the first place, the situation of the mountain on the eastward side of the watershed, only about forty kilometres from the coast, and its considerable height, condition the frequent accumulation of clouds about its summit, with relatively high rainfall as a consequence. And in the second place, the steepness of the slopes, and the fact that the serpentine rocks are not only of an impermeable nature, but are so crushed that the downwash into the gullies around is chiefly composed of smooth faced blocks rather than of absorbent sand, condition a higher ratio of run off to rainfall than exists in the case of most other localities in the Eastern Desert. A similar state of things is found in the case of Gebel Gerf, which, as will be mentioned further on, likewise consists of serpentine and is the centre of a district relatively rich in good wells; while in the case of the mountains of Faraid, which are much higher and closer to the sea, but consist of granite weathering into sand, though the rainfall is probably greater, the absorption by the sand is so rapid that there are no wells known to exist in their neighbourhood.

Between Gebel Abu Dahr and Gebel Um Bisilla there are three remarkable little groups of granite hills. Gebel Abu Arta is a small range of red peaks six kilometres south of Um Bisilla; Gebel Hendusi, five kilometres further south, is a very conspicuous sharp granite peak rising to 678 metres above the sea and forming a good landmark; while Gebel Abu Husenat, four kilometres east of Hendusi, has another well-marked peak rising to 725 metres above sea-level.

Gebel Abu Sieiyil is a many-peaked hill range running north and south for about four kilometres, situated eight kilometres west of the beacon on Gebel Abu Dahr. It has the appearance of being composed of a pink gneiss, but has not been visited. Its central peak, fixed by triangulation, is 833 metres above sea. The Wadi Abu Beid el Azrak runs south-westward past the south end of the range, through a gap between it and a smaller hill range to the east.

Gebel Arais is a considerable range of gneiss peaks situated on the east side of Wadi Naam in latitude 23° 34′. One of the most conspicuous of its many summits is a pair of twin peaks near the south end of the range, rising to 613 metres above the sea. The range is cut through from east to west by the narrow and winding Wadi Arais, a tributary of Wadi Naam. The drainage from the western faces of the range passes by many feeders over a sandy plain to join the Wadi Naam directly.

Gebel Belamhandeit or Erf Um Araka is a long range of granite or gneiss hills north of Gebel Arais. It extends for a length of nine kilometres in a north-and-south direction on the meridian of 34° 50′. It is drained on the north and west by the Wadi Erf Um Araka, a tributary of Wadi Naam, and on the east by the Wadi Belamhandeit, a tributary of Wadi Arais.

To the east of Gebel Belamhandeit are several granite bosses, of which the most conspicuous is called Gebel Um Guruf; it is drained by the Wadi Um Guruf, a tributary of Wadi Arais.

Gebel Orga, eighteen kilometres south by east from Gebel Abu Dahr, is a high dark-looking range which has not been closely approached. Its highest peak, surmounted by a beacon, the position of which has been fixed by triangulation, as latitude 23° 26′ 21″, longitude 35° 8′ 17″, is 682 metres above sea-level. It is drained by the Wadi Orga (a tributary of Wadi Hodein), which contains the well called Bir Orga.

Gebel Um Tenedba is a mass of dark hills of crushed basic rocks situated thirty kilometres south by east from Gebel Abu Dahr and twelve kilometres north of the Wadi Hodein. Its highest point, marked by a triangulation beacon, is in latitude 23° 19′ 48″, longitude 35° 10′ 40″, and 654 metres above sea-level. It is drained by the Wadi Um Tenedba, a tributary of Wadi Hodein. The ascent of the hill is conveniently made in about an hour from a camp in one of the heads of Wadi Um Tenedba, about 1,200 metres south-east of the beacon and 320 metres above sea-level.

Gebel Harhagit is an isolated granite boss rising among schists ten kilometres south-south-east from Gebel Um Tenedba and five kilometres north of the Wadi Hodein. The beacon on its summit is in latitude 23° 14′ 35″, longitude 35° 12′ 52″, at an altitude of 542 metres above sea-level, or 326 metres above the wadi encircling its base. From its isolated character Gebel Harhagit is a conspicuous landmark for considerable distances round the Wadi Hodein.

Gebel el Anbat is conveniently considered here, though it lies on the south side of the Wadi Hodein. It presents a somewhat similar appearance to Gebel Harhagit, from which it lies nineteen kilometres south-east, and like it bears a beacon on its summit. The position of the beacon is latitude 23° 6′ 5″, longitude 35° 19′ 27″. El Anbat is lower than Harhagit, being only 390 metres above sea-level; it consists also of a different rock, being chiefly composed of curious brown and reddish calcareous schists. Gebel el Anbat is practically in the Wadi Hodein, the main channel of which is deviated by its foot-hills so as to pass round the east side of the hill. It is best ascended from the south, where a camp can be fixed about 600 metres south of the beacon and about 255 metres below it; the ascent is easy and occupies less than an hour.

Eastward of Gebel Abu Dahr there extends for some thirty kilometres along the south side of Wadi Khoda a mountainous tract of dark rocks, the principal masses of which, from west to east, bear the names of Gebel Hindia, Gebel Um Akra, and Gebel Um Etli. These mountains have only been seen from a distance, and little is known about them beyond the positions and altitudes of their principal peaks, which have been fixed by triangulation. Gebel Hindia, thirteen kilometres east of Abu Dahr, rises to 873 metres above sea-level, and is drained partly by the Wadi Hindia to the north, and partly by the Wadi Salib el Azrak. Gebel Um Akra, six kilometres further east, is higher, its highest peak, marked by a beacon, being 1,050 metres above the sea, while a ridge a little further south reaches 970 metres; it is drained to Wadi Khoda by the Wadi Um Akra. Gebel Um Etli, which forms the south side of the Wadi Khoda just before that wadi emerges on to the coast-plain, has three main summits, reaching respectively to 844, 795, and 764 metres above the sea. It is a rather extensive mass, drained on the north by the Wadis Buluk and Um Lassaf, tributaries of Wadi Khoda, and on the south by the Wadi Um Etli, which reaches the sea independently.

The Faraid Group.

The mountains of this group cover a tract about forty kilometres in length from north to south, between the Wadis Um Etli and Rahaba and lie closer to the sea than any other mountains in the area described, their peaks being only ten to twelve kilometres from the coast. They consist entirely of granite, weathered into a forest of peaks the forms of which render them in respect of shape the most remarkable mountains in Egypt. There are four main masses in the group, of which the three northern ones are called collectively Faraid, while the southern one, which is smaller than, and separated from, the rest, is called by the diminutive name Fereyid.

The most northern mass of Gebel Faraid is the highest, its principal peak, situated in latitude 23° 33′ 7″, longitude 35° 22′ 10″, being 1,366 metres above sea-level. As seen from the north, this mass appears somewhat like an outspread hand, its western peak seeming to overhang slightly like a thumb, while the higher eastern peaks resemble fingers. The name Mons Pentadactylus given to the mountain in antiquity, and quoted by Ptolemy, would appear to have referred only to this northern mass, and not to the Faraid group as a whole.

The second mass presents from most aspects the form of a nearly flat-topped mountain with a little peak on it and very steep sides. Its highest point, situated in latitude 23° 30′ 53″, longitude 35° 20′ 25″, is 1,259 metres above sea, and forms a main triangulation point; it is too sharp to support an instrument or even a beacon, and observations had to be taken from an auxiliary station a little distance away from the summit and reduced to centre. In ascending this peak as a survey station I approached it from the west by the Wadi el Abiad and Wadi Abu Ribian, placing my camp close under the mountain, on a sandy plain 450 metres above sea-level and one and a half kilometres north-west of the summit. The climb of 800 metres was steep, but not dangerous, and occupied about three hours. The lower illustration on [Plate XIV] (p. 192) shows the top of the mountain; the lower of the two peaks is the one occupied for triangulation.

The third mass of Faraid is a great expanse of peaks extending over eighteen kilometres north and south and some twelve kilometres east and west. Its highest peak, called “The Bodkin” by the Admiralty surveyors, has the position latitude 23° 28′ 58″, longitude 35° 20′ 35″, and rises to 1,232 metres above sea-level, dominating the rest of the mass both by its height and its singular form; it is a great sharp pinnacle, apparently unclimbable, visible from distances of over 100 kilometres in nearly all directions, and a very conspicuous landmark. South and west of “The Bodkin” are numerous other peaks, some of which have been fixed by triangulation; several of them rise to over 900 metres above the sea, and the whole forms a compact mass across which there appears to be no passage for camels.

Gebel Fereyid, the fourth and most southerly of the masses constituting the Faraid group, is a small spiky range quite detached from the rest, about seven kilometres north of the Wadi Rahaba. It has two main peaks, close together, of which the north-western one is slightly the higher and is surmounted by a beacon, 612 metres above sea-level, in latitude 23° 17′ 29″, longitude 35° 22′ 48″. In occupying this peak as a triangulation station, the camp was fixed in one of the heads of a nameless wadi draining past the north face of the mountain to the sea, at an altitude of 200 metres above sea-level and 850 metres north-north-east of the beacon. The ascent was easy till within about fifty metres of the summit, when it became difficult and rather dangerous, and there is very little room on the top. I had to remain six days on this mountain owing to almost continuous haze and clouds blocking the view.

The drainage from the western faces of the entire Faraid group is taken by the Wadi Rahaba. That from the peaks north of “The Bodkin” is collected by the Wadi el Abiad and its feeders the Rod Elbel and Wadi Abu Ribian, while the more southern parts are drained by various other tributaries of Wadi Rahaba, of which the principal are the Wadis Dagalai lil Rahaba, Abu Had, and el Marafai. The heads of Wadi el Abiad and its feeders cross a sloping sandy plain which flanks the main peaks on the west. Of the eastern drainage, less has been seen; the two principal drainers of the eastern face appear to be the Wadis el Sorubiab and Bint el Kurdum, which unite together in a small lagoon close to the coast in latitude 23° 30′. The head of the Wadi Bint el Kurdum is between “The Bodkin” and the flat-topped mountain to the north of it, and from the summit of the latter it appeared as though there might be a possible pass by it across the range into the heads of Wadi Abu Ribian; but I did not have an opportunity of testing this. The foot-hills are only some five or six kilometres from the coast near the north parts of the range, but as one goes south the width of the coast-plain increases somewhat, and is about twelve kilometres near Gebel Fereyid. Notwithstanding the height of the Faraid mountains, their proximity to the coast, and the clouds they frequently attract, there appear to be no wells in the wadis draining from them; the explanation is probably to be sought in the fact that the weathering of the granite of which they are composed produces large expanses of coarse sand round their feet, in which the rainfall is rapidly absorbed.

The Awamtib — Abraq — Dif — Aqab el Negum — Mishbih Group.

The mountains of this large and irregular group occupy the western parts of the great drainage basin of Wadi Hodein, some of the chief of them forming the main watershed separating that basin from those of the Wadis Kharit and Alaqi. The northern mountains of the group are high broken sandstone plateaux, while the southern ones consist largely of granite. The sandstone ranges of Abraq, Hodein, and Dif are remarkable for the numerous springs at their bases, which render this district (see the large scale map on [Plate XV]) one of great importance to travellers.

Gebel Awamtib is the highest peak of a great mass of high sandstone hills forming the main watershed between latitudes 23° 20′ and 23° 30′ and extending for some eight or ten kilometres on either side of the meridian of 34° 30′. The highest peaks of the mass are mostly well to the west of the actual watershed, and the principal drainage channels run westward, those to the east, the feeders of Wadi Muegil, being shorter. Gebel Awamtib is near to the south-east corner of this mass, and is itself situated about six kilometres west of the watershed. It is nearly separated from the surrounding hills by wadis, and forms a conspicuous peak from the west; but the neighbouring hills approach it so nearly in height that it is not so easily distinguished from the east. It may, however, be picked out by the triangulation beacon which marks its summit, 793 metres above sea-level, in latitude 23° 20′ 59″, longitude 34° 26′ 39″. Gebel Awamtib is drained westward by the Wadi Awamtib (a tributary of Wadi Timsah), the heads of which nearly surround it. In occupying the station I pitched my camp in a small feeder of the Wadi Awamtib, two and a quarter kilometres south-west of the summit and 456 metres above sea-level. The climb from this place was easy enough, but rather long, and on reaching the top I found it would have been better to have approached the mountain by another feeder almost due west of the beacon, as by this means a camp could have been placed much closer and the ascent would not have been more difficult. It is inadvisable to ascend from the east face of the mountain, for although one of the wadi heads passes close east of the beacon, the slope on that side is extremely steep and probably unscalable. The top of the mountain is formed of large sandstone blocks under which one can get good shelter from dews, though with little head-room. The view from it is shut in to the east by the peaks of Gebel Shebakhit, only two kilometres distant; but the peaks of Gebels Um Harba and Zergat Naam can be seen to the north, while to the south and south-east one looks out over high sandstone hills in the foreground to the granite peaks of Gebels Shigigat, Aqab el Negum, Etresia, Um Reit and Saalek. The most striking thing round Awamtib itself is the strong westward dip of the sandstone beds of which it is composed, which has conditioned the drainage and the steep eastern face.

Gebel Shebakhit is a group of high sandstone hills a few kilometres north of Awamtib. It is drained north-westward by the broad Wadi Shebakhit, a tributary of Wadi Timsah.

Gebel Dagalai, the next member of the sandstone hill-mass to the north, has numerous peaks ranging from 670 to 712 metres above sea. It is drained north-westward by the Wadi Dagalai, in which it is said that water can sometimes be obtained.

MAP OF THE
DISTRICT OF ABRAQ & ABU SAAFA

Ball. Geography & Geology of South-Eastern Egypt.

PLATE XV.

Photo-Metal-Process. Survey Dept. Cairo 1910. (60-190)

Gebel Um Khafur is a group of high sandstone ridges overlooking the sandy plain of Um Harba to the north. One of its higher ridges, 560 metres above sea-level, bears a triangulation station, marked by a beacon, in latitude 23° 29′ 54″, longitude 34° 29′ 19″. A remarkable feature of Gebel Um Khafur is the north-north-easterly dip of its sandstone beds at an angle of about 13°, almost constant over a large area, with probably step-faulting parallel to the strike of the beds; owing to these features there are developed a series of long ridges, with a flat dip slope northward and a steeper drop to the south, while the drainage channels run along the lines of strike and only break across the ridges at a few points. The drainage from these channels, the chief of which is called the Wadi Um Khafur, meanders northward over the plain to join a feeder of Wadi Garara.

Gebel Um Harba is a conspicuous sandstone peak marked by a triangulation beacon in latitude 23° 36′ 56″, longitude 34° 30′ 38″. Rising to a height of 688 metres above sea-level, it forms the highest and central point of a long range running north-north-west and south-south-east from the Wadi el Garara past the Galt el Aguz. The north end of this range is forked, the east and west arms being separated by a broad high valley, filled with blown sand, draining from near the peak of Gebel Um Harba northwards to Garara. A marked feature of the range is the almost constant north-easterly dip of the sandstone beds of which it is composed; the ridges follow the strike of the beds, and present gentle dip slopes to the east with steep basset edges to the west. Gebel Um Harba overlooks to the west a great sandy plain, so that it is a good landmark for travellers coming from that direction. In occupying it as a station, I approached it by the broad sandy valley above-mentioned, and fixed the camp at 487 metres above sea-level and 800 metres north of the summit; the hill can also be reached from the west, though the climb from the plain is about one hundred metres more. The ascent becomes rather steep near the top of the hill, but presents no great difficulty. For a short time after rain, water can be found in pools in the gullies close to the east of the hill, but owing to the porosity of the rock these never last long. The Galt el Aguz, nine and a half kilometres south-south-east of Gebel Um Harba, in a gully on the east side of the road to Bir Abu Saafa, lasts longer than other pools in the neighbourhood, but even it only yields supplies within a few months at most after rain, for the same reason.

Gebel Um Sididad is a mass of high sandstone hills on the north side of Wadi Silsila, thirty kilometres east-south-east of Gebel Um Harba and overlooking the broad and sandy Wadi Naam to the east. The hill I ascended, one of the highest, was 623 metres above sea-level and nearly 300 metres above the plain at its foot. High sandstone hills extend north-westwards from Gebel Um Sididad to Gebel Zergat Naam, forming the western side of Wadi Naam.

Gebel Abraq is a great high sandstone plateau cut up by gullies into more or less separate hills, outlined by the Wadis Silsila on the north, Hodein on the south, Arned on the west, and Abraq on the east. The highest hills of the mass are probably two peaks close together on its east side, midway between Bir Abraq and the Wadi Hodein, which rise to 705 and 699 metres above the sea. The principal interest of Gebel Abraq lies in its forming a collecting ground for the important springs of Abraq and Abu Saafa, which occur along its eastern and southern feet. These springs yield constant supplies of excellent water, due to slow percolation through almost pure siliceous rocks, and are of great value both to the local Arabs and to the passing travellers. There are two beacons on Gebel Abraq, one near Bir Abraq and the other near Abu Saafa springs. The former, a main triangulation point, is 667 metres above sea-level on a conspicuous ridge in latitude 23° 25′ 19″, longitude 34° 46′ 48″; while the latter is on the eastern edge of the plateau, in latitude 23° 18′ 40″, longitude 34° 48′ 30″, and 639 metres above the sea. The eastern and southern slopes of the plateau are very steep, becoming almost precipices at many points, and are the home of many conies and rock partridges, but one can ascend by taking advantage of the frequent gullies which cut up the mass. The climb to either beacon from the plain is about 330 metres, and free from serious difficulty.

Gebel Hodein is a high sandstone plateau forming the south-east continuation of the Abraq mass, from which it is separated by the ravine of Wadi Hodein. To the south it is cut off by Wadi Dif. A triangulation beacon near the north-east point of the plateau in latitude 23° 16′ 20″, longitude 34° 53′ 25″, is 695 metres above sea-level, but further west the summits are rather higher. An extremely steep pass, practicable only on foot, exists to the south of the mass, leading from the Wadi Gihab into Wadi Dif, and forming a short cut from Abu Saafa Springs to Bir Dif, but camels have to go round the east spurs of the mountain.

Gebel Dif and Gebel Anfeib together form a still further continuation south-eastward of the same great sandstone plateau, being separated from Gebel Hodein by the deep winding gorge of Wadi Dif. The sandstone beds here dip to the north-east, and the highest points are near the west edge of the mass, where they are flanked by lines of lower hills, formed of schists cropping out from under the sandstone. A triangulation beacon in latitude 23° 8′ 24″, longitude 34° 59′ 19″, marks the south end of the high plateau of Gebel Anfeib; it is 705 metres above sea-level, and very conspicuous from the east, but it is generally invisible from the west side of the mass, owing to the ridges north-west of it being slightly higher. In occupying the point as a station, I approached it from Bir Dif, following up the Wadi Abu Hashim to its head, then down the Rod Mukrayib round Gebel Lilowit, the south tip of the schist range, and turning north across various small wadis to a camp in one of the heads of Wadi Edunqul, at 315 metres above sea-level and 1,200 metres south-east of the beacon. This camp could also have been reached from Bir Abu Saafa via the Wadis Hodein and Anfeib. The climb to the beacon, of 400 metres, is steep, but not difficult, and occupies less than two hours.

Gebel Tibatib is a conspicuous dark conical peak among the low dark hills which extend from Gebel Anfeib to Wadi Hodein. Its summit is 396 metres above sea-level.

Gebel Butitelib is a steep-sided little hill mass of grey felsite close west of the easy pass which leads from the head of Wadi Abu Hashim into the Rod Mukrayib, near the south end of Gebel Anfeib. It rises to 485 metres above sea, or eighty metres above the sandy pass.

Gebel Lilowit, the south end of the schist range which flanks Gebel Anfeib on the west, is 485 metres above the sea.

Gebel Niqrub el Tahtani is a conspicuous isolated jagged mountain south of the Rod Mukrayib (which drains its northern face), and west of Wadi Madi. The beacon on it is in latitude 23° 0′ 39″, longitude 35° 0′ 53″, 829 metres above sea-level and about 500 metres above the Rod Mukrayib. A conspicuous pinnacle close north-east of the beacon has practically the same altitude.

Gebel Niqrub el Foqani is a mountain of granite and felsite rising to a height of 1,078 metres above the sea, from among the low hill country which separates Wadis Madi and Gemal, in latitude 23° 52′. Its great height and isolated position render it a conspicuous object in the landscape from great distances. It is drained by myriads of small wadis radiating in all directions, but which all eventually join Wadi Madi on the east or Wadi Gemal on the west. It is best ascended from the west side, where a camp can be got 1,500 metres due east of the beacon on the summit and 496 metres above sea-level, in one of the stony heads of the channels draining towards Wadi Gemal. The ascent from this camp occupied a little over two hours, and was not very difficult; but an attempt from any other direction would most likely have failed, as the slopes to the south and east are extremely steep and in places precipitous. The top of the mountain is a very rugged ridge, so broken that it is an hour’s hard work to get along its 700 metres of length. The main ridge is surrounded by lower flanking peaks on the north, east and south, while from the west there runs off a long ridge, curving round to the south and enclosing a small sandy plain south-west of the summit. This curved ridge is cut through from east to west by a rather steep pass, 490 metres above sea-level. The view from the summit of Gebel Niqrub el Foqani is very extensive, as will be seen from the panorama drawn to scale from theodolite measurements on [Plate XVI], but in the winter months the mountain is frequently wrapped in clouds for days together; I had to remain eight days on the summit in December 1907, before I could complete my observations, most of the time being spent in a cold wet mist which blotted out the landscape. The beacon on Gebel Niqrub el Foqani, in latitude 22° 51′ 29″, longitude 34° 56′ 49″, marks a point on the administrative boundary between Egypt and the Sudan, the limit proceeding east-south-east to Bir Meneiga, and south-south-west to Gebel Um el Tiur el Foqani.

The low hill country between Gebel Niqrub and Wadi Madi consists chiefly of east and west ridges formed by dykes. A rather high granite hill about ten kilometres to the south-east, close to Wadi Madi, is marked by a beacon and overlooks the well called Bir Madi; the beacon is 556 metres above sea-level, or eighty metres above the well.

To the south-west of Gebel Hodein the sandstone runs off in a mass of very high hills called Gebel Kala, leaving a much lower area of schist hills in between, through which the Wadi Feqoh pursues its sandy barren course. Gebel Kala has not been closely approached, but its principal peaks have been fixed by triangulation, and the highest is 846 metres above sea-level. The scarps of these hills are very steep, and the mass appears to be much cut up by wadis draining to Feqoh. The sandstone ceases just beyond Gebel Kala, and its place is taken by granite, which forms the mountains of the watershed further south-west.

MEASURED PANORAMAS FROM THE SUMMITS OF GEBELS NIQRUB & GERF.
(Plotted to scale from theodolite-observations & telescopic sketches.)

Ball. Geography & Geology of South-Eastern Egypt.

PLATE XVI.

Photo-Metal-Process. Survey Dept. Cairo 1910. (60-190)

Gebel Um Reit is a conspicuous granite mountain rising to 857 metres above sea, seventeen kilometres south-east of Gebel Awamtib, on the east side of the watershed. It can be approached either from the west by ascending the tributaries of Wadi Timsah and crossing the watershed (which is here flat and sandy) into Wadi el Dreb, or from the east by ascending the Wadi Um Reit. The best place from which to ascend the mountain is in one of the heads of Wadi Um Reit, which drains the west side of the mass. By following this up, a camp can be placed about a kilometre north-west of the beacon and 520 metres above sea-level. The climb of 337 metres from the camp is fairly easy, and only occupies about an hour. From the beacon (latitude 23° 15′ 4″, longitude 34° 34′ 17″), a good view is obtainable of the granite peaks to the south, which forms a complex mass with Aqab el Negum as the highest point; to the eastward the outlook is mostly over high broken sandstone plateaux.

Extending south-west from Um Reit is a complex of granite mountains, which has not been surveyed in detail. The principal peaks have, however, been fixed by triangulation, and their positions will be found tabulated in the list of points given in [Chapter III.] The chief peaks are Gebels Etresia (1,037 metres), Um Markha, Shigigat (1,023 metres), Hamrat el Feg, Aqab el Negum (1,148 metres), Etus (997 metres), and Natetiai (1,164 metres). An important pass is said to cross the watershed at Aqab el Negum, though quite practicable for camels, it is a very high pass, whence the name of the mountain, which signifies “Pass of the Stars.” To the north of Gebel Shigigat there is a sandy plain from which two conspicuous isolated hills rise to heights of 901 and 703 metres respectively above sea-level; these hills appear, however, not to bear any distinctive names.

Further south along the watershed, in latitude 22° 50′, are two conspicuous peaks of nearly equal height and not far apart, which from the east look like two hop-kilns. These are called Gebel Sheyenit. The southern one is the higher, rising to 887 metres above sea-level, while the northern one attains 853 metres.

Gebel Mishbih is a huge bristling mass of granite peaks a little east of the main watershed, rising from the plain west of Wadi Feqoh in latitude 22° 44′. Being much higher than any other mountain in the neighbourhood, it is a very remarkable feature for long distances. Though it has not been surveyed in detail, its chief peaks have been triangulated and the general shape of its eastern parts is tolerably known by observations from Niqrub and Korabkansi. The highest of its many peaks, near the south-west end of the mass, reaches 1,353 metres, while the north-east peak, marked by a beacon in latitude 22° 44′ 18″, longitude 34° 41′ 20″, is 1,316 metres above the sea. The mountain is believed to be almost entirely drained by feeders of the Wadi Feqoh.

Gebel Shweib is a smaller hill-mass a little to the south-east of Gebel Mishbih. Its highest peak, which is at the north-east end, is 914 metres above sea-level.

Gebel Shabih is a very remarkable granite mountain rising abruptly from the sandy plain traversed by Wadi Feqoh in latitude 22° 45′, about twelve kilometres east of Gebel Mishbih. From the north, it looks like a very perfect cone, but as one passes it going south it is seen to be slightly elongated meridionally, and to have two distinct peaks, of which the northern and higher one rises to 1,117 metres, or about 650 metres above the plain. Its sides are very steep, and an ascent would probably be a matter of some difficulty. The Wadi Feqoh passes close west of the mountain.

Gebel Um el Kalala is a small range of granite peaks close to the east side of Wadi Feqoh in latitude 22° 50′. The peaks at its north and south ends, nearly two kilometres apart, rise to 672 and 655 metres above sea respectively. In the low hilly country further north there are three conspicuous little peaks of dark aspect rising above the general level. Gebel Mismih, the highest of these, rises to 599 metres above the sea; it is a nearly perfect cone twelve kilometres north of Um el Kalala, and about six kilometres east of Wadi Feqoh. Gebel Waqif, nine kilometres west-north-west of Um el Kalala, is less sharp, and reaches 556 metres above the sea; while the third hill, which is unnamed, lies nearly between the last two, on the west side of Wadi Feqoh, and attains only 504 metres.

To the west of the Um Harba and Awamtib ranges there is open country, formed by a great sandy plain, over which the Wadis Ghadrib and Timsah pursue their northward courses to join Garara, and the monotony of which is broken at intervals by extensive masses of moderately high sandstone hills. The principal of these hill masses are Gebels Nuggur, Mulgata, Ziraga, and the Abu Hashim Hills. Gebel Nuggur, marked by a cairn, lies seventeen kilometres west of Um Harba, and a little east of the Wadi Timsah; it forms a detached north-westerly extension of Gebel Dagalai. Gebel Mulgata (545 metres) and Gebel Ziraga (553 metres), both marked by triangulation cairns, are the chief members of a long line of sandstone hills separating the Wadis Timsah and Ghadrib. The Abu Hashim Hills extend for great distances south and west of Bir Abu Hashim; the triangulation beacon on the hill west of the well in latitude 23° 41′ 44″, longitude 34° 3′ 33″, is 386 metres above sea, and sixty-six metres above the wadi floor, but other hills of the group further south attain higher levels.

Gebel Mowisat, seventeen kilometres south of Gebel Ziraga and a few kilometres west of the Wadi Timsah, is a granite hill capped by sandstone. It is drained by the Wadi Mowisat. A track from Aswân to Bir Um Reit passes a little north of this hill.

Round the heads of the Wadi Ghadrib, about the parallel of 23° north and the meridian of 34° east, are numerous higher hills, of which the principal are Gebels Abu Rahia (835 metres), Romit, Baid el Khuruf, Reietit (825 metres), Um Rewat, Um Ghalqa, and Um Gotto, while between these and Gebel Mowisat are the Hamiskul Hills. These hills are all composed of granite, gneiss, and schists, the higher ones, such as Abu Rahia and Reietit, having sandstone capping the igneous and metamorphic rocks which build up the main masses. Gebel Um Rewat forms the divide between the basins of Wadi Kharit and Wadi Alaqi, its northern parts being drained by the Wadi Reietit, a tributary of Ghadrib, while the south flanks drain into the Wadi Um Ghalqa, a feeder of Wadi Seiga.

To the west of Gebel Mishbih there is hilly country, in which many of the peaks reach considerable heights. The principal hill-masses in this part are Gebel el Naga, a range about four kilometres long running north-west and south-east, twenty-two kilometres west of Gebel Mishbih, with several peaks, of which the highest is 827 metres above sea; Gebel Seiga, a high hill (905 metres) about twenty kilometres further west, surmounted by a triangulation beacon and drained by the Wadi Seiga; Gebel Nesheb Hasan and Gebel Abgeya, two hills west and south-west of Gebel Seiga, between Wadis Seiga and Abu Had; Gebel Um Krush, between Wadis Abu Had and Um Ghalqa; Gebels Ribdab, el Deheis, and Abu Brush (810 metres), to the west of Wadi Um Ghalqa; and Gebel Kulyeit, a conspicuous cone about fifteen kilometres south of Gebel Seiga, rising to 724 metres above sea. Most of these hills are of schists, though Gebels Abu Brush and Ribdab are of granite.

The Gerf — Korabkansi — Abu Hodeid Group.

The central mountains of the Gerf — Korabkansi — Abu Hodeid group form a compact cluster to the east of the main watershed between the great eastward draining Wadis Hodein and Ibib. The most considerable mass in extent is Gebel Gerf, an extremely rugged mountain tract some twenty kilometres in diameter, having its highest point 1,419 metres above sea-level. The Abu Hodeid range, forming a southward extension of the Gerf mass, attains the somewhat higher level of 1,488 metres; while the detached mass of Korabkansi on the west rises to 1,230 metres. Besides these main masses, from which I have named the group, there are numerous outlying ranges of lesser height, the principal being the Beida range to the north, and the Hamra Dom range to the east. The main characteristics of the central group are its extreme ruggedness, the presence of great masses of serpentine among its constituent rocks, and a relative abundance of good water supplies. The wells and springs in the wadis draining from this group of mountains are among the best and most permanent of the water sources of the Eastern Desert of Egypt.

Gebel Gerf (see map on [Plate XVII]) is a mass of rugged mountains, roughly circular in plan, some twenty kilometres in diameter, extending between latitudes 22° 35′ and 22° 50′, and between longitudes 35° 8′ and 35° 20′. Its highest point, marked by a beacon 1,419 metres above sea-level, is somewhat north of the centre of the mass, being situated in latitude 22° 42′ 6″ N., longitude 35° 12′ 16″ E. Approached from any side, Gerf blocks out the entire view ahead. The central parts of the mass are entirely impassable for camels. There is no possible track across it from north to south, nor is there any east to west pass across it north of the Sherefa Pass (which skirts its south end) except by the heads of Wadi Shellal. The northern part of the mass, which is semi-detached by the passes in the heads of Wadi Shellal above-mentioned, is sometimes called Gebel Meneiga or Gebel Korbiai after the important water sources of the same name in the wadis draining from it; and the north-eastern peaks are sometimes called Gebel Muqur from the spring Bir Muqur. But these names are, I am told, quite local, and the entire mass is usually known to the Arabs as Gebel Gerf. This application of a single name to an entire group of mountains, with scores of separate peaks, extending over about 500 square kilometres, is very unusual, especially when, as in this case, it is drained by wadis containing good wells and plenty of vegetation. The explanation given to me by the guides was quite comprehensible; they stated that Gerf was the only mountain mass in that part of the desert which was so extensive in every direction as to prevent them getting a clear idea of its true shape in their wanderings over it. They can get all round it only by a rough journey of several days, and any endeavour to cross its main portion met with failure, so that they had perforce to regard it as a single great mass, of the true structure of which they could form no satisfactory notion. The immense interest which the guides took in the mapping of this particular mountain tract fully confirmed the explanation given. The mapping was accomplished by making an entire circuit of the mass, and ascending a few of the principal summits.

MAP OF THE DISTRICT OF GEBEL GERF.

Ball. Geography & Geology of South-Eastern Egypt.

PLATE XVII.

Photo-Metal-Process. Survey Dept. Cairo 1910. (60-190)

The highest point of Gebel Gerf had been singled out as a triangulation station from far to the north, while approaching the mass from the Wadi Hodein. It was eventually reached from the west side after leaving Gebel Korabkansi, the approach being made by ascending the Wadi Eirahimib, and going over the pass at its head (830 metres) into one of the heads of Wadi Um Reddam, turning round a spur and ascending another of the heads of the same wadi. The camp, placed as high up the wadi as possible, lay about 1,500 metres west of the beacon, at an altitude of 820 metres. The climb of nearly 600 metres to the summit occupied three and a quarter hours, and was free from serious difficulty, though involving some tiresome traversing of connecting ridges. The summit of Gebel Gerf is often wrapped in clouds for weeks together in winter, and cold northerly gales are prevalent. I found it necessary to remain on the summit for no less than twenty-one days and nights in January 1907, in order to obtain the observations necessary, and the discomfort due to enforced inaction and piercingly cold winds was considerable. The top of the mountain is a narrow ridge on which there is barely standing room for an instrument, but about 100 metres southward along the ridge from the beacon there is a slight broadening where a small tent may be pitched by hitching the ropes round rocks instead of tent-pegs.

On a clear day, the view from the summit of Gerf is a magnificent one. The numberless rugged ridges and peaks of the Gerf mass itself stretch for miles around, and out beyond, in every direction except to the east, one can see the more distant mountains. In the north, the most striking features are the distant spikes of Gebel Faraid, and still further off one may discern the blunter forms of Gebels Abu Gurdi, Hamata, and Abu Hamamid, 180 kilometres away. To the east is the coast-plain, with the granite peaks of Gebel Hamra Dom breaking the monotony. To the south-east one may see the great peaks of the Elba and Shendib mountains, 130 kilometres away, though these are often hidden by mist when everything else is clear. To the south, one looks out, over the gneiss boss of Gebel Um Rasein, to the mountains, rising rank behind rank, of Medarai, Abu Hodeid, Adar Qaqa, and Is; while a little to the left of the last-named one may see the double-headed granite mass of Gebel Obkeik in the Sudan, more than 100 kilometres distant, towering above the intervening Egyptian mountains. The panorama visible to the south and south-east is shown drawn to scale from theodolite measurements in the lower figure on [Plate XVI] (p. 206). To the south-west, one can make out the principal mountains of the Alaqi basin, while to the west the mountains of Korabkansi, Shabih, and Mishbih are conspicuous features.

The north portion of the Gerf mass, sometimes called Gebel Meneiga, is drained by the Wadi Kreiga, which is a tributary of Wadi Hodein. One of the principal feeders of Wadi Kreiga is the stony Wadi Meneiga, important as containing perennial springs of good water, easily accessible to camels. The eastern and southern parts of the mass are drained by various feeders of Wadi Shab, the principal of these feeders being Wadi Shellal el Sharqi, Wadi Muqur, Wadi Baaneit, Wadi Diqdib, and Wadi Sherefa el Sharqi. The Wadis Muqur, Baaneit, and Diqdib, all contain wells or springs, that in Wadi Diqdib being right in the heart of the mountain mass, while the others are nearer to its periphery. The western flanks of the Gerf mass are drained by the feeders of Wadis Feqoh and Madi, the principal being the Wadis Sherefa el Gharbi, Eirahimib, Shellal el Gharbi, and Korbiai. The Wadi Sherefa el Gharbi is important as leading to the Sherefa Pass (907 metres) which forms a direct road from Bir Sararat Seyet to the well of Um Rasein, while Wadi Korbiai contains an excellent well at its head, easily reached by camels.

Gebel Dreb is a many-peaked mass of mountains covering some sixty square kilometres, situated south-west of the Gerf mass, from which it is separated by the Sherefa Pass. Its highest peak is 1,293 metres above sea, but there are numerous other peaks of but little inferior altitude. Its south-western portion looks on to the plain at the head of Wadi Feqoh, while to the south-east it is separated from Gebel Medarai by an easy pass leading from the head of Kwat Hewah westwards into the head of Wadi Kreim, a tributary of Wadi Feqoh. Another pass is said to exist leading from Wadi Sherefa el Sharqi into the head of Wadi Dreb, where there is a well called Bir Bint el Dreb.

Gebel Medarai, the next mountain mass to the south-east, is separated from Gebel Dreb by the pass into Wadi Kreim above referred to, while at its south faces it is separated from Gebel Abu Hireiq by another pass leading from one of the heads of Wadi Medarai westwards into the Wadi Kirwau, a tributary of Wadi Feqoh. The highest point of Gebel Medarai, marked by a large cairn, is in latitude 22° 30′ 58″, longitude 35° 12′ 5″, and rises to 1,299 metres above sea-level. The north faces of the mass are drained by Kwat Hewah, a tributary of Wadi Shab; the eastern flanks by Wadi Medarai, a tributary of Wadi Ibib, while the western faces drain by various feeders into Wadi Feqoh.

Gebel Abu Hireiq, the mountain-mass next south of Medarai, extends eastwards, as a broad tract of many high ridges, almost to the gneiss-boss of Um Rasein, while to the south it is united with Gebel Abu Hodeid. The highest point of Abu Hireiq is 1,319 metres above sea. Its eastern flanks are drained by tributaries of Wadi Ibib, while the western parts drain into Wadi Feqoh.

Gebel Abu Hodeid, which forms a higher southward extension of Gebel Abu Hireiq, is really two ranges with the Wadi Abu Hodeid draining between them. The western range is the higher, its summit, marked by a beacon in latitude 22° 23′ 18″, longitude 35° 14′ 9″, being 1,482 metres above sea. The highest point of the eastern range is 1,256 metres above sea. The south termination of this eastern range is a very conspicuous rounded peak of granite, 992 metres above sea, called Abu Hodeid Ogla, which forms a good landmark for travellers in making the wells of Abu Hodeid; the wells lie west of this peak. The south parts of the Abu Hodeid mountains are drained by the Wadis Shinai, Delawet, and Abu Hodeid, all feeders of Wadi Hasium, and all leading to important water sources. The eastern faces are drained by Wadis Abu Hireiq and Tikraneib, which are likewise feeders of Hasium, while the western flanks are drained by feeders of Wadi Feqoh. The broad opening where Wadi Hasium passes to the south of the range makes a natural division separating the mountains of Abu Hodeid from those of the Adar Qaqa group.

Gebel Mansur Diab, a dark mountain, 1,091 metres high, lying six kilometres west of Gebel Abu Hodeid, is not often visible from the east, being hidden by the higher ranges in front of it; but it forms a conspicuous landmark to any one approaching from the west.

To the south of Gebel Mansur Diab, between the heads of Wadi Feqoh and Wadi Hasium, are some other mountains of considerable height, the positions of whose summits were fixed by triangulation, but which were not closely approached. These are Gebel Hadal Derqa (1,108 metres), which as seen from the north appeared like a hog-backed dark ridge with a conical semi-detached hill at its south-east end; and Gebel Hilwit Hasium, which appeared to consist of two separate peaks some three and a half kilometres apart, the higher or north-east one rising to 1,037 metres, the south-west one to 952 metres above sea.

Gebel Korabkansi is a rugged mass of dark serpentine peaks and ridges occupying a nearly isolated position some twenty kilometres west of Gebel Gerf. Its highest point, marked by a triangulation beacon, is situated in latitude 22° 39′ 16″, longitude 34° 59′ 55″, and rises to 1,230 metres above sea. The main mass is flanked by lower hills to the north and south, but is more open to the east and west. It is drained entirely by feeders of Wadi Feqoh, the most important of these being the Wadi Gemal. The upper portion of Wadi Gemal is called Wadi Seyet, and is important as containing a well, Bir Sararat Seyet; the well is about five kilometres north-east of the main peak, at a place where the wadi cuts through the flanking hill range. For the ascent of the mountain, it is best to turn westward from near the well, and follow up one of the tributaries of Wadi Seyet which leads right into the heart of the mountain; here a camp can be pitched at 765 metres above sea-level, and the ascent of 465 metres to the summit, from which there is a grand view, can be accomplished in less than two hours. The ascent and descent require some care, owing to the steepness of the slopes (the observed depression angle from summit to camp was 29¼°) and the rottenness of the rock, which comes away in lumps at a touch. The accumulated debris, consisting of small fragments of serpentine, sets at just the angle of repose, so that in coming down one can stick one’s feet firmly in the mass and slide down with it for a hundred metres or more without exertion, taking care only not to be shot over a sudden drop of the face. The rocks are highly magnetic, and the compass is much disturbed anywhere on or about the mountain. The mass of high hills which forms the southward extension of Korabkansi, with peaks and ridges rising to over 900 metres above sea-level, is called Gebel Wadhait. It is drained on the north by Wadi Wadhait, a tributary of Wadi Seyet, and on the west by the Wadi Kamoyib, a tributary of Wadi Feqoh.

Gebel Um Rasein is a triple-headed gneiss boss rising up boldly among schists to the east of Gebel Medarai. Its remarkable form and light colour render it a conspicuous feature to a traveller approaching it from the north-east, and it is an important landmark for the well, Bir Um Rasein, which exists in a small wadi at its north foot. The highest peak of the three, marked by a triangulation beacon in latitude 22° 28′ 12″, longitude 35° 20′ 19″, is 909 metres above sea-level. For ascending the mountain, it is best to follow up the Wadi Merdiyeb for a short distance on the west side of the range, and a camp can be placed at 386 metres above the sea in a small tributary gully which drains from the main mountain. The climb of 523 metres to the beacon is steep in places, but can be accomplished in two hours without difficulty by any one used to negotiating smooth steep rocks. The top of the mountain is more convenient for observation than most others in this region, and there is a good view from it. The beacon is on a smooth hard granite surface, with plenty of room to walk round an instrument, while a little to the west there is a good place to pitch a small tent, and a convenient cave for servants to sleep in.

Kilia Arib, another isolated granite mass about six kilometres further east, rises to 647 metres above sea, and is a landmark for the mouth of Wadi Diqdib, which contains a well.

To the east and south of Kilia Arib are some smaller granite hills called Tibashoi. Though rising only some fifty or sixty metres above the plain, these hills are conspicuous landmarks from their isolated position. The northern, central, and southern ones are called respectively Tibashoi Dumat, Tibashoi Tumalhoi, and Tibashoi Tomakolat. Another hill of similar size and character, five kilometres north-north-east of Kilia Arib, is called Tuquqî.

Qrein Salama is a little group of diorite hills rising from the coast-plain to the east of Gebel Gerf. The highest hill of the group, 354 metres above sea, forms a conspicuous landmark which is visible for long distances.

Berget Abu Sarib is a tract of low dark hills, with much drifted sand, lying a few kilometres north-east of Qrein Salama.

Gimeida, a small but conspicuous black conical hill, rising to sixty metres above the coast-plain, or 123 metres above sea-level, is important as a landmark for ships entering Mersa Shab. A triangulation beacon has been erected on the summit, the position of which is latitude 22° 46′ 29″, longitude 35° 37′ 49″. The azimuth from the beacon to the big tree at Mersa Shab is N. 62½° E. A much lower dolerite ridge, two kilometres east of Gimeida, is called Umarawi.

Gebel Hamra Dom is a range of remarkable red granite hills rising abruptly from the coast-plain near latitude 22° 40′ and longitude 35° 40′. The range has a total length from north to south of about eleven kilometres, the highest peak being near the centre of the range. A beacon on this highest peak has the position latitude 22° 39′ 6″, longitude 35° 38′ 42″, altitude 389 metres above sea. Care is necessary in sighting this peak, for there are two others near it of nearly equal height; the beacon is on the southernmost one of the three peaks near the centre of the range. A pass leads across the range a kilometre south of the beacon. Gebel Hamra Dom is a locality well known to the Arabs, in consequence of its being occasionally favoured with some rainfall. In January 1907 the district round the mountain was covered with grass after a recent fall of rain, but the hundreds of camels and other animals which the Arabs took to graze at the place had eaten it all up when I arrived there in February. At times of rainfall there is water to be got in the sandy bed of a little wadi to the north of the beacon, at a place called Ti Dabei Hamra Dom; but it does not last long after rain. Gebel Hamra Dom is drained almost entirely by feeders of Wadi Ibib.

There are numerous smaller hills to the west of Gebel Hamra Dom, but only the largest of them, Tibansi Tikam Ankwei, bears a special name. This is a granite hill rising to 345 metres above sea-level, situated eleven kilometres due west of the beacon on Gebel Hamra Dom.

Gebel Khashab and Gebel Beidâ together form a complex range of high hills mostly composed of schists to the north of Gebel Gerf. The range has its long axis north-west and south-east, with a length of some twenty-five kilometres and an average breadth of about eight kilometres. The highest point of the range is marked by a triangulation beacon on Gebel Beidâ, 715 metres above sea-level, in latitude 23° 0′ 14″, longitude 35° 16′ 54″. The north-west part of the range is drained by the heads of Wadi Khashab, a tributary of Wadi Hodein. The eastern faces are drained by the Wadi Beidâ and various other feeders of Wadi Hodein, while the south and south-west portions of the mass are drained by small tributaries of Wadi Kreiga, itself a tributary of Wadi Hodein. So far as I know, the range can only be crossed by camels at one place, near the centre of its length, where it is cut through by the Wadi Beidâ; coming from the west, one must make for the pass (395 metres above sea, stony but not steep) which separates the heads of Wadi Khashab and Wadi Beidâ; the road is well known as leading to the well called Bir Beidâ.

Gebel Humariai is an isolated hill, 563 metres above sea, a few kilometres to the west of Gebel Beidâ.

Gebel Kolaiqo is a small hill-mass lying off the south-eastern extremity of the Khashab — Beidâ range, from which it is separated by the Wadi Kreiga. Its highest point, marked by a triangulation beacon, is in latitude 22° 54′ 13″, longitude 35° 24′ 34″, at an altitude of 320 metres above sea-level. The drainage is mostly into Wadi Kreiga, but the south-eastern parts of the hills drain into Wadi Kolaiqo, a very shallow ill-defined drainage line coursing independently to sea across the sandy coast-plain. To the north of Gebel Kolaiqo there are two long lines of low hills forming low outliers of Nubian sandstone.

Ti Qireira is the name given to two low hills rising from the coast-plain about half-way between Gebel Kolaiqo and the black conical hill of Gemeida. These hills, four kilometres apart, rise only some fifty or sixty metres above the plain, but they are conspicuous landmarks, and hence bear a name.

The Meisah — Adar Qaqa — Is Group.

The Meisah — Adar Qaqa — Is group of mountains extends northwards from the Sudan frontier in longitude 35½°. It is separated from the Gerf — Abu Hodeid masses to the north by the Wadi Hasium; on the east, the great Wadi Di-ib divides it from the mountains of the Elba group; while to the west it is not sharply marked off from the rather lower mountainous tract of the upper Alaqi basin. Gebels Adar Qaqa (1,469 metres) and Is (1,736 metres) are on the main watershed, while Hadal Aweib Meisah (1,224 metres) forms the highest point of a huge rugged spur running northwards on the east side of the watershed. To the east of the main mountains of the group, between them and the Wadi Di-ib, are a number of detached mountain and hill-masses, of which the principal are Gebels O Shakafa, Um Ein, Qara Saba, Warabeit, Adar Aweib, and Shiab.

Hadal Aweib Meisah is a conspicuous double-topped mountain of a somewhat conical shape. Its summit, marked by a triangulation beacon, is 1,224 metres above sea-level, and has the position latitude 22° 16′ 39″, longitude 35° 31′ 55″. In plan it is almost circular, three-fourths of the circumference of its base being formed by the Wadis Awitla and Lasewid (feeders of Wadi Meisah), while the remaining fourth forms a connexion by which the mountain is joined to the long ridge of Gebel Qidmib. The ascent of the mountain was made from a camp one and three-quarter kilometres due east of the summit, in a small feeder of Wadi Lasewid, close to the spring called Megwel Um Edwa. Camels cannot get quite up to the spring, but a camp can be placed a little way further down the gully at an altitude of 596 metres above sea, and the climb of 628 metres to the top of the mountain is easily accomplished on foot in about two hours. The mountain is composed of dark gabbroid rock, the summit being composed of great blocks, weathered to a rusty brown on their surfaces; the rock is highly magnetic, and the compass points several degrees east of north at the beacon owing to local attraction.

MAP OF THE DISTRICT OF MEISAH & WADI DI-IB.

Ball. Geography & Geology of South-Eastern Egypt.

PLATE XVIII.

Photo-Metal-Process. Survey Dept. Cairo 1910. (60-190)

Iarih Meisah is the name given to a tract of low granite hills with sandy interspaces, which lies to the south of Hadal Aweib Meisah. It forms the head of Wadi Baueiwai.

About three kilometres west of Hadal Aweib Meisah, a high ridge, over 1,000 metres in height, courses north and south for over fourteen kilometres. The north end of this ridge bifurcates to form Gebel Qidmib; the Wadi Qidmib, draining northwards to Wadi Ibib, has its head between the two branches of the ridge, where there is a well called Bir Qidmib.

O Shakafa is a very remarkable hill seven kilometres north-east of Hadal Aweib Meisah. O Shakafa derives its name, which signifies “the barrier,” from the fact that it appears to block the way to the traveller ascending the Wadi Meisah. Its crest, formed by a ridge of hard jaspery quartzite, rises precipitously from among a mass of softer rocks, some of which show remarkably brilliant colours due to iron staining. The cairn on the summit is in latitude 22° 19′ 44″, longitude 35° 34′ 42″, and 751 metres above sea-level. There is barely standing room on the top of the ridge, which needs careful climbing owing to its precipitous nature. O Shakafa is a good landmark for Bir Meisah, which lies in the wadi about three kilometres north-east of the summit; and for the easy pass of Sarob Kwan, which lies four kilometres to the south-east.

To the north of O Shakafa there extends a great tract of high hills, divided into two portions by the northward-coursing Wadi Orgem. The western portion of this hill-tract culminates in Gebel Orgem, the two peaks of which rise respectively to 779 and 775 metres above the sea, while its northern end forms the high sand-swathed hill called Baqari Daba. The eastern portion of the tract, containing the important wells Bir Um Bishtit and Bir Meisah, as well as the galts of Meis-heit-ar, is rather more complex, and is cut into two parts by the Wadi Um Bishtit. Its northern part ends in a conspicuous gneiss hill called Adar Aweib Um Bishtit, while the hills immediately north of O Shakafa are called Gebel Meis-heit-ar.

Gebel Adar Qaqa is a very conspicuous granite mountain about twenty-three kilometres west of Hadal Aweib Meisah. Its highest peak is in latitude 22° 13′ 47″, longitude 35° 19′ 0″, and rises rather precipitously to 1,606 metres above sea-level. Adar Qaqa is drained principally by the Wadi Hasium, which courses northward past the western side of the mountain.

Gebel Soaorib is a rather long mountain range which adjoins the south part of Adar Qaqa and sweeps round to the south-east, forming the main watershed. Its highest point is 1,469 metres above sea-level. Its north-western face is drained by Wadi Mantil Hasium, which forms one of the heads of Wadi Hasium. The north-eastern flanks are drained by the Wadi Haiyo and other feeders of Wadi Soaorib, while the south-west faces drain into the Wadi Kirir and the Miti-Kwan, tributaries of Wadi Alaqi.

Gebel Leqaq (1,192 metres) and Gebel Um Seleim (1,098 metres) are two mountains, both with long northward spurs, lying north-east of Adar Qaqa, between that mountain and the Wadi Soaorib. They are drained by various feeders of the Wadis Hasium and Soaorib, the principal being the Rod Anut Berer, which runs northward from between two mountains to join Wadi Hasium, and the Wadi Hankuk, which rises to the south of Gebel Leqaq and courses round the south-east flanks to join Wadi Soaorib.

To the north of Gebels Leqaq and Um Seleim there stretches a sandy plain, over which the Wadis Hasium, Ibib, and Soaorib pursue their northward course. Low hills rise here and there from this plain, the most conspicuous being Gebel Hamra Tit, a double-peaked granite hill, rising to 642 metres above the sea; Kulet Meigrum and Kulet Tinasal are two somewhat smaller hills situated respectively six kilometres north-north-east and six kilometres east-north-east from Gebel Hamra Tit.

Gebel Is, the next great mountain to the south, forms the main watershed just north of the Sudan frontier, the triangulation cairn on its summit having the position latitude 22° 2′ 36″, longitude 35° 28′ 4″, altitude 1,736 metres above sea. As seen from the north, Gebel Is is a somewhat flat-topped mountain of dark aspect; but judging by analogy the apparent flat top is probably only a narrow ridge seen broadside on. From the main mass a long spur of flanking mountains runs westward, and a high ridge, more or less detached, rises to 1,474 metres six kilometres south-east of the main summit. The northern and western faces of Gebel Is are drained by feeders of Wadi Alaqi, while its eastern and southern parts are drained by various heads of Wadi Is.

Between Hadal Aweib Meisah and Gebel Is there stretches a mass of mountains with many peaks over 1,200 metres high; these appear to bear no special names. My guides stated that there are two passes over the main watershed in this region. The first, called Adar Ameit, is a high pass practicable for camels; it lies about four kilometres to the north of the beacon on Gebel Is, and connects the two Wadis Adar Ameit el Sharqi and Adar Ameit el Gharbi which lie on opposite sides of the watershed. The second pass, said to be a difficult one, crosses the watershed some five kilometres further north, forming a connexion between the heads of Miti Kwan and Wadi Soaorib.

Gebel Miatit (1,257 metres) and Gebel Suruk (1,377 metres), are mountain masses a little east of, and semi-detached from, the main Is group. Gebel Miatit sends out a long spur north-eastward, ending in a rather conspicuous hill at the foot of which there is said to be a water source called Megwel Aqwem.

Gebel Shiab is a collection of peaks rising from a rugged country of lower hills about twenty-eight kilometres east of Gebel Is. Its highest point is 987 metres above sea-level. Gebel Shiab appears to form the main head of Wadi el Qurat, an important feeder of Wadi Di-ib.

Eqrun (the horns) is a conspicuous group of schist hills lying between the Wadis Meisah and Ibib. It has two principal peaks; the higher one, surmounted by a triangulation beacon, has the position latitude 22° 30′ 10″, longitude 35° 37′ 9″, and is 473 metres above sea-level; the other is about 400 metres south-east of the beacon, and is only five metres lower. Eqrun itself is an isolated hill group, but close to the north-east of it there is another hill-mass of greater extent and of but little inferior height.

The country south of Eqrun forms an extensive tract of low hills with much blown sand. Two conspicuous hills in this tract rise above the rest and bear special names; these are Tahaqayet (432 metres) and Titailibab (593 metres).

Kolmanab and Einiwai are two small but very conspicuous black hills eleven kilometres apart, rising from the sandy coast-plain between the Wadis Meisah and Di-ib. Both are surmounted by triangulation beacons, that on Kolmanab being in latitude 22° 32′ 26″, longitude 35° 53′ 36″, 137 metres above sea, and that on Einiwai being in latitude 22° 27′ 50″, longitude 35° 57′ 59″, 138 metres above sea. North-west of Kolmanab are some low banks called Tinadei, while about mid-way between Kolmanab and Einiwai is an isolated low hill called Ankalidot.

Osnei is a small but conspicuous red granite hill, rising to 251 metres above sea, thirteen kilometres west-south-west from Einiwai. It contains a galt, which yields water for some little time after rain has fallen locally.

Ti Keferiai is a conspicuous little isolated group of dark hills of no very great height, situated in the fork where the Wadis Didaut and Baueiwai join to form the Wad el Qireira. There are heavy accumulations of blown sand round the north-east flanks of the mass. The triangulation beacon on the summit has the position latitude 22° 21′ 0″, longitude 35° 49′ 47″, and is 494 metres above sea-level. Ti Keferiai forms a good landmark for the old mines of Romit, which are situated in some lower hills five kilometres south-west of the beacon. There are numerous excavations here in veins of smoky quartz with calcite and chalybite, which penetrate the country rock of highly crushed and decomposed diorite; a number of ancient grinding mills of diorite lie scattered about the place.

Four kilometres north of Ti Keferiai, on the opposite side of Wadi Didaut, is a conspicuous hill of very red granite called Adatalob Adara, 385 metres above sea-level. Four kilometres further north-west is another hill, of nearly equal height, but of black aspect, called Adatalob Hadal. West of Ti Keferiai, at distances of five and a half and nine and a half kilometres respectively, are two conspicuous little hills rising from the plain, one on either side of the Wadi Didaut; these are called Kikeiyet Sharqi and Kikeiyet Gharbi.

East of Ti Keferiai is a great sandy tract stretching to the Wadi Di-ib, from which low hills rise half swathed in blown sand; the principal hill groups bear the names of Gebels Tishushi and Tishushi Tiboki.

Qara Saba is a high and steep hill mass of dark aspect, rising conspicuously to 788 metres above sea, between the Wadis Didaut and Baueiwai, some sixteen kilometres south-west of Ti Keferiai. The tract between Qara Saba and Ti Keferiai is a waste of blown sand through which low hills protrude in places.

Adar Aqdeib, a granite hill 736 metres high on the north side of the Wadi Didaut, about half-way between Qara Saba and O Shakafa, is a landmark for two small water sources and a pass. The first of these water sources, Megwel Adar Aqdeib, is on the east side of the hill, in a little tributary of Wadi Didaut. The second, Megwel Didaut, is at the head of Wadi Didaut itself, in a separate rugged hill tract south of Adar Aqdeib. The west faces of Adar Aqdeib are drained by the Sarob Kwan, half of which courses south-east to Wadi Didaut, and half north-west to Wadi Meisah, and the divide forms a well known easy pass.

Gebel Um Ein is a huge hill-mass of dark rocks, rising to 901 metres above sea-level, nine kilometres south-south-west of Qara Saba. The beacon which marks the summit is in latitude 22° 11′ 52″, longitude 35° 39′ 4″. Gebel Um Ein is mainly drained by the Wadi Baueiwai, which curves round the south half of its circumference. A small water source, Megwel Um Ein, is said to exist on the north-east side of the hill, in a small wadi which forms a tributary of Wadi Baueiwai.

A great tract of high hills lies between the Wadis Baueiwai and Di-ib. The northern part of the tract, which is cut off from the rest by the Wadi Warabeit, and is called Gebel Geror, has several peaks rising to over 500 metres; on the north it is flanked by huge accumulations of blown sand, while its southern faces are drained by fairly well-wooded wadis, tributaries of Wadi Warabeit. The part of the hill tract south of the Wadi Baueiwai is much cut up by wadis into masses which bear separate names. Gebel Hamida, which with Gebel Nubitra forms the westernmost hill-mass of the group, is a series of high steep schist ridges rising in places over 700 metres above sea-level. The highest point, 754 metres above sea, is best reached by following up the Wadi Hamida till one comes due west of the hill, and then striking up eastwards on foot; it can also be reached from the east side via the tiny trickling salt spring of Megwel Hamida, but I found this a long and wearisome climb. To the north-east of Gebel Hamida is the pass called Bani Sana, which is important both as a pass and as being the boundary between the territories of the Kurbeilab and Hamedorab Arabs. Gebel Warabeit, the part of the tract which forms the head of the Wadi Warabeit, lies south-east of Gebel Hamida, being connected with Gebel Hamida on the one side and Gebel Mashushenai on the other; its highest point is 794 metres above sea-level. Gebel Mashushenai (634 metres) lies a little to the east of Gebel Warabeit; its north parts are drained by the Wadi Hashimaiyib, while the south portions are drained by Wadi Mashushenai, in the head of which is a well, Bir Mashushenai. All the drainage from hereabouts ultimately reaches Wadi Di-ib by way of Wadi el Qurat. Adar Aweib, a conspicuous and extensive granite hill-mass lying east of the foregoing, from which it is entirely separated by wadis, rises to 620 metres above sea; its summit is marked by a triangulation beacon in latitude 22° 10′ 50″, longitude 35° 54′ 0″. In occupying Adar Aweib as a station, it was approached from the Bani Sana pass by following down the Wadi Warabeit and then turning up the Wadi Wieqwer, which leads to the eastern foot of the mountain. The camp was placed about a kilometre north-west of the beacon, at an altitude of 284 metres above sea, and the climb of 336 metres to the top took only an hour and a half. A great variety of flowers could be gathered in the lower part of the ascent; the upper portion was slippery, the slopes consisting of debris of decomposed granite resting just at the angle of repose. In descending from the mountain, I went northwards on foot, whence a steep pass led down to Bir Meheriqa, in the Wadi Di-ib; but the camels had to go round the south end of the mountain by Wadi el Qurat, as the pass was too steep for them.

To the south of the group of hills just described, there is a rugged tract of low hills stretching away south to Gebel Shiab. Eastwards this tract becomes lower and more sandy, terminating in a sandy plain with low rocky ridges, over which the Wadi Di-ib pursues its northward course, becoming closed in again by hills abreast of Adar Aweib.

The Mountains of the Alaqi Basin West of Adar Qaqa.

The mountains of this group, which are scattered over an area of some 5,000 square kilometres between latitudes 22° 0′ and 22° 22′, and longitudes 34° 0′ and 35° 20′, are comparatively little known. The positions and heights of all the principal peaks have been fixed by triangulation from considerable distances; but with the single exception of Gebel Muqsim, which was occupied by Mr. Villiers Stuart as his terminal point, none of the area has yet been officially surveyed.

The positions determined for the principal peaks will be found included in the list on [pp. 51] to 64, and a general idea of the relative positions of the mountains and drainage lines will be obtained from the orographical map on [Plate I.] A brief reference only to the principal mountains is possible here.

Gebel Anweiyib (921 metres) and Eir Arib (1,112 metres) are on the main watershed. As seen from the north, the former appeared as a long dark range, the latter as a light-coloured high short ridge with a peak at its western end.

Gebels Duag (1,328 metres) and Himeitra (1,231 metres) are connected with the watershed range of Adar Qaqa and Is by westward-running spurs. Gebel Himeitra is a landmark for a well, Bir Himeitra, which is situated a little south of the mountain, and also for the ruins of Darahib, which lie in the Wadi Alaqi some twelve kilometres south-south-west of it.

Gebel Heianai (1,256 metres) is a long range of mountains between the Wadis Bint el Feqoh and Defeit.

Gebel Heleikonti (1,151 metres) appeared from the north as a short high steep ridge with a little peak at its western end.

Gebel Egat, one of the best known and most remarkable of the mountains of the group, is a high steep cone rising to 1,145 metres above sea on the north side of the Wadi Alaqi in latitude 22° 5′ 39″, longitude 34° 52′ 15″. It is a landmark for Bir Egat, which lies about five kilometres to the east, and for the mines of Alfawi, which lie some ten kilometres south-east of the peak.

Gebel Shanaiyet (907 metres) and Gebel Hamida lie south of the Wadi Defeit, between that wadi and the Wadi Egat.

Gebel Hateib or Suhin (854 metres) forms the main collecting ground for the Wadis Hateib and Suhin, which are tributaries of Alaqi.

Gebel Um el Tiur el Foqani is a group of very high steep hills on the south side of Wadi Defeit. It has a well-marked peak as its summit, in latitude 22° 17′ 56″, longitude 34° 41′ 14″, 946 metres above sea-level. This peak forms a point on the administrative boundary between Egypt and the Sudan.

Gebel Um el Tiur el Tahtani, situated some twelve kilometres west-north-west of the foregoing, and on the opposite side of the Wadi Defeit, is a somewhat similar but lower group of hills, its highest point rising to 783 metres above sea.

Gebel el Adraq (770 metres) and Gebel Guqub are two other hill-groups south of Gebel Um el Tiur el Tahtani, lying between the Wadis Defeit and Alaqi. Gebel el Adraq is a landmark for some old mines called Betan, while Gebel Guqub is the collecting ground, the drainage of which supplies the important well of Bir Guqub.

Gebel Muqsim is a conspicuous mountain on the south side of the Wadi Alaqi near the meridian of 34°. The triangulation cairn on its summit is in latitude 22° 10′ 11″, longitude 34° 1′ 12″, at an altitude of 825 metres above sea-level. Gebel Muqsim forms a point on the administrative boundary between Egypt and the Sudan.

The Elba-Shendib Group.

This group of granite mountains is situated near the sea in the extreme south-east corner of Egypt, between longitudes 36° and 37°, on and about the parallel of 22° of north latitude. Part of the group, including the highest peak (Asotriba, 2,216 metres) is in the Sudan, and we shall here consider only the northern parts, which fall within Egypt proper. The principal mountains of the group are Gebels Elba (1,428 metres), Shendib (1,912 metres), Hanquf (1,465 metres), Shendodai (1,529 metres), and Shellal (1,409 metres). Besides these, which form a cluster of high rugged ridges and bristling peaks, there are some outlying hills to the east and west, and it is convenient to consider all the hills east of Wadi Di-ib as belonging to the group. The principal of these outlying hills are Gebels Balatitda, Sul Hamid (572 metres), Qash Amir (724 metres), and Sela (560 metres) on the west, and Karam Elba (586 metres) and Gebel Hadarba (217 metres) on the east of the main masses. The general relations of the Elba district will be seen from the orographical map on [Plate I,] while the large scale map on [Plate XIX] shows the detailed features on a larger scale.

Towering to great heights from the coast-plain, the mountains of the Elba group are very conspicuous from long distances either on sea or on land when the air is clear. But often for weeks together they are so shrouded in mist as to be invisible even when one is fairly near to them. These very mists, which so often hinder the view being obtained, are the cause of much added beauty to the scene when the air is clear; for the moisture produces a rich vegetation, not only in the wadis, but along all clefts right up to the tops of the mountains, and furnishes in addition the largest and most important water sources in the Eastern Desert. So abundant is the vegetation in all the wadis draining from Elba, that it is impossible to approach the mountains very closely with loaded camels, owing to the closeness of the trees. Richest in water supply and in vegetation of all tracts in the Eastern Desert of Egypt, it is natural that the Elba district should also be the greatest centre of desert population, and there are considerable settlements of Bisharin Arabs round the feet of the mountains.

MAP OF THE DISTRICT OF ELBA & HALAIB.

Ball. Geography & Geology of South-Eastern Egypt.

PLATE XIX.

Photo-Metal-Process. Survey Dept. Cairo 1910. (60-190)

Gebel Elba,[111] the most northerly mountain of the main group, is cut off from the mountains to the south by the Wadis O Sir Hadal and Serimtai; there is a pass between the heads of these wadis, so that a complete circuit of the mountain can be made, although from almost any aspect Elba appears to be joined on to the other mountains of the group. In plan, Gebel Elba is nearly a square of about fifteen kilometres sides, with its diagonal in the meridian. It is a bristling mass of light-coloured granite peaks, flanked on the south and west by rugged hills of darker rocks. The highest point, the “high peak” of the Admiralty Chart, is in latitude 22° 10′ 3″, longitude 36° 21′ 52″, and 1,435 metres above sea; another peak, slightly lower, but more conspicuous and nearer the centre of the mass, was chosen for the site of the triangulation station. The beacon on this latter peak is 1,428 metres above sea, and has the position latitude 22° 11′ 27″, longitude 36° 20′ 52″. The peak which bears the triangulation station forms a centre from which drainage lines radiate in all directions. The principal of these drainage lines, which are all well wooded, are the Wadi Yahameib, which with its feeders Wadis Akau and Kansisrob drains the north faces of the mountain, and unites with Wadi Aideib, which drains the north-east flanks; Wadi Serimtai, which by its feeder the Wadi O Sir Eirab drains the south part of the mass and then curves round north-eastwards to the sea; and the Wadi Yoider, which drains the western parts of the mountain by its three main heads called respectively Wadi Akwamtra, Wadi Qeirat, and Wadi O Sir Hadal, and then courses northward to reach the sea.

The approach to Gebel Elba by the coast-plain from the north-west is said to be difficult, on account of having to cross an extensive tract of sand dunes, called I Hubal, which lies to the north and north-east of Gebel Sul Hamid. The survey expedition reached the mountain by marching eastward from Bir Meheriqa in the Wadi Di-ib. On this road the sand was not found a serious hindrance, though progress was rather slow through O Harbub, a sand-choked wadi which was entered on turning eastwards just after leaving Bir Meheriqa. Skirting the south side of Gebel Sul Hamid over a sandy plain, we continued eastward with a slight northerly bend till the jagged mass of Qash Amir came into view; then striking due east again we entered some low hills and dropped by an easy pass into Wadi Siamtit, a little feeder of Wadi Yoider; crossing the main channel of Yoider, we continued our course eastward across very sandy minor wadis, and turning a little southward we reached Bir Akwamtra, where we found a fairly large Bisharin camp, in a stony wadi full of trees.

I had hoped to ascend the mountain by way of Wadi Akwamtra, which heads right under the peak selected for the triangulation station. But on arriving at the well we were still more than six kilometres from the head of the wadi, and further progress for camels was very difficult owing to the closeness of the trees, and the bouldery nature of the wadi floor. Guides sent out to reconnoitre having reported that the ascent could be made with less difficulty from the Wadi Yahameib, we followed a very winding track leading over the Asut Duk pass into Yahameib, and then made our way southward over the sloping bouldery plain, thick with trees and scrub, until the camels could get no farther. The camp was pitched in a slight clearing at the foot of the mountain, three and a quarter kilometres north-west of the beacon, at an altitude of 343 metres above sea, or 1,085 metres below the beacon.

The climb to the summit was a long and tiring one, but very interesting. Starting at 6.30 a.m. on April 25, 1908, we first followed up the Wadi Yahameib to its head in a sort of neck between two peaks; this neck, which we reached at 10 a.m., is 1,093 metres above sea. About half way up to the neck, among some large granite blocks, there is a small spring of very pure water; it forms a pool holding about a gallon and a half, which fills as fast as it is emptied. Passing over the neck, we dropped down to a level of 984 metres in crossing the head of Wadi Akwamtra, and then, climbing up the opposite side, we reached the beacon (1,428 metres) at noon. Except the last 150 metres to the summit, which was bare steep granite, the whole climb was through a thick growth of trees, very green and fresh, with a tangled undergrowth of flowering shrubs and some mosses and lichens. The trees grow very near to the summit and give plenty of shady resting-places. Acacia (sellim) trees cease about 350 metres above sea, and new forms take their place. The most remarkable is a large tree called Hohait by my Arabs; this tree, which I have not seen elsewhere in Egypt, grows in fair abundance to ten metres or more high, with thick woody looking trunk and branches, the foliage being great bunches of aloe-like leaves on the ends of the branches; according to my Arabs, it bears an edible fruit, of which they showed me the stone—a nearly spherical red one, about as big as a pea, very hard.[112]

The top of the mountain is narrow and very rough, but narrow sleeping places can be found on ledges. The view from the summit in clear weather is very fine and extensive; the subjoined figure is from a careful sketch which I made of the outlook southwards from the beacon. But, as already remarked, the mountain is frequently shrouded in cloud, and of the ten days I remained on the summit in April and May 1908 only three were clear.

Fig. 3.—View from the summit of Gebel Elba.

The phenomenon of “glories,” or rainbow-coloured rings round the shadow of one’s head cast on to clouds below when the summit was clear, was well observed in the mornings. Three rings were specially distinct and vividly coloured on April 26, and I was able to measure the diameters with an improvised subtense apparatus; measuring to the middle of the yellow in each case, I found the diameters of the rings to be 4½°, 8¾°, and 13°, so that the diameters increase in arithmetical progression. The shadow cast by one’s head and body was most distinct when the cloud-bank was most opaque; the rings, on the other hand, were most brilliant when there was only a thin film of cloud.

The temperatures experienced on the summit were remarkable for their range. On April 25, 26, and 27, 1908, the air was still and full of wet mist, and the days were oppressively hot, while the nights were also warm and damp. On April 28, a cold north-west wind set in, which soon cleared the air; but with the clearness came such a chilling of the air that it was impossible to stand up to the instruments for observations for more than a few minutes at a time; one was glad to take shelter behind rocks from the biting blast, and though we were well within the tropics and the spring was far advanced, we sat shivering with blankets round us even in the sunniest and most sheltered spots we could find. The cold lasted till May 4, when we descended the mountain to be half roasted in the plains below.

As already remarked, Gebel Elba is well supplied with water sources. The two chief are Bir Akwamtra and Bir Kansisrob, both situated on the north side of the mountain. Between them is a small spring called Megwel Akau. On the south side of the mountain are two other wells called Bir Salalat O Sir, and Bir Sararat Serimtai. In times of rainfall there must be scores of rock pools along every drainage line.

Karam Elba is a granite hill rising to 586 metres above sea, close to the north-east foot of Gebel Elba, from which it is separated by a narrow wadi. Close north of Karam Elba are some low granite hills called Takrat Riba, while on the south side is another small granite hill called Mikeriba.

To the east of Karam Elba are some granite hills which, though of no great height, are conspicuous owing to their position on the coast-plain, and being used as landmarks by the local Arabs they bear special names. These are: Alafot, Taar Ara, Kreishim, Abai Sis, and O Wota, the last-named being the largest of them all. Some low banks north of Alafot are called Alafot Onqwab.

Qash Amir (“Scragged Hill” of the Admiralty Charts) is an isolated hill rising abruptly from a sandy plain at the head of Wadi Eikwan, about fifteen kilometres west-north-west of Gebel Elba. Qash Amir well deserves the title given to it by the Admiralty surveyors, for it is a mass of sharp granite spikes which my best guides, skilled climbers though they were, could only ascend with the greatest difficulty. Its top, marked by a beacon, is 724 metres above sea-level and has the position latitude 22° 14′ 31″, longitude 36° 12′ 20″. I had intended to occupy the summit as a main station, but the guides who were sent to erect the beacon reported that the summit was so sharp a spike that there was barely room for a beacon to be built, and that it would be impossible to set up a theodolite tripod on it, while there was not even a narrow ledge where one could sleep within several hundred metres of the summit.

Gebel el Sela is a straggling group of high rugged granite hills rising from the sandy plain to the north-east of Qash Amir. The highest of its peaks reaches to 560 metres above sea-level.

Gebel Sul Hamid is an extensive tract of low dark hills, covering some hundred square kilometres or so to the west of Qash Amir. Its highest peak is 572 metres above sea. The north part of the tract is drained by the Wadi Di-it, the eastern part by the Wadi Eikwan, while the southern drainages pass into a very shallow channel which courses westward over a sandy plain towards Wadi Di-ib, but becomes choked with sand at O Harbub before reaching that great trunk wadi.

Gebel Balatitda is a group of high hills lying between Gebel Sul Hamid and the Wadi Di-ib. Its highest point is 592 metres above sea-level. Bir Meheriqa is situated at the south-west of the mass, on the east side of Wadi Di-ib. The north flanks of Gebel Balatitda are swathed in blown sand.

Gebel O Sir Eirab is really the south part of Gebel Elba; its highest point is 842 metres above sea. Though its name Eirab means “white,” the mountain is composed of dark-coloured rocks. The explanation is that the Arabs always give the names to the wadis first, and the adjacent Wadi O Sir Eirab has a white sandy floor because it drains from the granite mass of Elba; the mountain is called after the wadi near it.

Gebel Hanquf is a range of mountains some twenty kilometres in length, stretching in a south-easterly direction to the south of Gebel Elba and separating that mountain from Gebel Shendib. Its south-eastern portion, containing the highest peaks, is of granite, while the north-western portion consists of dark rocks. Its highest point is the northerly one of two remarkable peaks near the south end of the range, and rises to 1,465 metres, while another summit near the middle of the range reaches 1,397 metres. The northern part of Gebel Hanquf is drained by the Wadi O Sir Hadal, a tributary of Wadi Yoider; its eastern flanks by the Wadi Serimtai; while the western drainage is to the Wadi Hareitra, which courses from between Gebel Hanquf and Gebel Shendib westwards to join the Wadi Di-ib.

Gebel Shendib, which lies close south-west of Gebel Hanquf, is a great mass of very high light-coloured peaks flanked on the west by a tract of moderately high hills of dark colour. The beacon which marks the highest point, 1,912 metres above sea, is in latitude 22° 0′ 48″, longitude 36° 16′ 30″. Shendib is the third highest mountain in Egypt proper, being surpassed in altitude only by El Shayeb and Hamata. Besides the main peak, there are numerous others exceeding 1,600 metres in height; one of these, some two kilometres south-east of the principal summit, reaches to 1,863 metres and marks very nearly the Sudan frontier; its latitude is 21° 59′ 56″, so that it is only some 120 metres south of the 22nd parallel.

The north portion of Shendib is drained by the Wadi Hareitra, the south part by Wadi Shendib, both these being tributaries of Wadi Di-ib.

Gebel Shendodai (“Castle Hill” of the Admiralty Charts) is a high mountain mass lying east of Gebel Hanquf, from which it is separated by the Wadi Serimtai. Its highest point, a well-marked peak, is in latitude 22° 3′ 1″, longitude 36° 25′ 31″, and rises to 1,529 metres above sea-level. Gebel Shendodai is drained by the Wadis Um Seyal (a tributary of Wadi Serimtai), Mera Kwan, and Shellal.

Gebel Shellal, situated close south-east of Gebel Shendodai on the Sudan frontier, is a group of mountains of slightly lower altitude than the foregoing, its highest peak being 1,409 metres above sea-level. Gebel Shellal is drained by the Wadis Shellal and Aqilhoq, the latter containing a good well, called Bir Frukit. A tract of low foot-hills, some twelve kilometres broad, fronts Gebels Shendodai and Shellal seawards, leaving a breadth of some twelve kilometres of gently sloping coast-plain between them and the shore. One of the foot-hills of Gebel Shellal, a conspicuous high dark-coloured ridge near Bir Frukit, bears the name of Gebel Balatitda. (It will be noticed that another hill group west of Gebel Elba bears the same name).

Gebel Hadarba is a little range of felsite hills with many peaks rising from the coast-plain close to Ras Hadarba (Cape Elba of the Admiralty Charts). A triangulation beacon on one of the highest points is in latitude 22° 2′ 53″, longitude 36° 47′ 23″, at an altitude of 217 metres above sea. Gebel Hadarba is drained by a number of small wadis, most of which empty themselves into the quicksands of Kuatianai which cover the projection of Cape Elba. A high hill at the south-west end of the Hadarba range bears the special name of Wiekorei, while a tract of low red hills on the Sudan frontier a few kilometres south of the Hadarba range, is called Timaiakwaia; this latter tract is chiefly drained by the Wadi Qabatit.

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[106]The exception is El Shayeb, in latitude 26° 58′, which attains a height of 2,184 metres. See Barron and Hume, Topog. and Geology of the Eastern Desert of Egypt (Central Portion). Cairo, 1902. p. 40.

[107]Each of the last three vowels is pronounced separately, so that the word has four syllables, with the accent on the penultimate.

[108]The position of this cairn is latitude 23° 57′ 46″, longitude 35° 12′ 10″.

[109]The position of the cairn is latitude 24° 4′ 41″, longitude 35° 15′ 34″.

[110]By measurement with the theodolite I found the average slopes of the mountain to be 35°, and many parts have double this inclination. The vertical angle from my camp to the summit was over 23°.

[111]The word Elba (Bishari) means “white mountain.” The designation “Gebel” is thus strictly speaking superfluous, but is convenient as the Bishari tongue is so little known.

[112]Prof. Schweinfurth informs me that the tree is the dragon’s-blood tree, Dracaena ombet v. Heuglin; he himself did not see it in the Elba neighbourhood, and its occurrence has not hitherto been recorded further north than the Erkowit district of the Sudan (latitude about 19°), where the native name for the tree is to-omba or t’ombet. See Bollettino della Società Africana d’Italia: Naples, 1891.

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CHAPTER VII.

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WATER SUPPLIES.[113]

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The sources of water in South-Eastern Egypt, as in the Egyptian deserts generally, may be divided into three main classes:—

[(1)] Springs;

[(2)] Wells;

[(3)] Rock basins.

Springs.

As springs are classified those water sources where water issues naturally from the rocks, either above or near ground level, without the aid of artificial excavation. As will be seen on looking through the list of water sources on [pp. 244] to 250, springs are less common than wells and rock basins, but some of the best known water sources, such as those of Abraq, Abu Saafa, Abu Hodeid, and Meneiga, belong to this class. The Arabic word for spring is Ain, but the Bedouin seldom use this word, calling springs and wells alike Bir, which properly signifies a well. Small springs are called Megal by the Ababda, and Megwel by the Bisharin tribes.

Springs may occur in any kind of rock, but the rock must be either of a porous nature or must contain fissures. Thus the springs of Abu Saafa and Abraq occur in sandstone, which is itself porous and permits the passage of water through the body of the rock, while the springs of Meneiga occur in a crushed serpentine, which, though not itself a porous rock, is full of fissures and crush-planes, and thus is capable of holding and giving passage to underground waters. It is in consequence of the non-porosity and the comparative fewness of fissures in granitic rocks that springs are seldom seen to issue from rocks of this class.

The collecting areas of the Eastern Desert springs are mostly in the immediate neighbourhood of the springs themselves. Thus, for instance, the springs of Abu Saafa and Abraq are fed by the rainfall on the great sandstone plateaux which surround them, while those of Meneiga are supplied by the rainfall on the mountain mass of Gebel Gerf. In consequence of the fact that the waters do not travel very far underground before they issue from the springs, the water is generally cool. The yield of the springs is usually small, rarely exceeding ten litres a minute from any individual spring, but it is wonderfully constant; the rocks of the collecting area form a huge reservoir which only parts slowly with its water contents, and thus springs may go on yielding supplies when, after a succession of three or four nearly rainless years, many of the wells and rock basins are quite dry.

As a rule, spring waters are very clear and potable. The purest are those which pass through siliceous rocks such as sandstone; where the rocks are rich in lime and magnesia, as serpentines and gabbros, the salt-content of the spring may be fairly considerable, but there is no known spring in this part of Egypt of which the water is so salt as to be disagreable to the taste.[114] It is their constancy combined with the purity of their water that makes the springs the most highly prized of desert water sources.

Springs are mostly on or near the main camel roads, for the roads are naturally selected so as to utilise these constant water supplies. Frequently, however, the spring is situated up a lateral valley some little distance from the main track, and is more or less difficult of access. The springs of Abu Saafa are on a main road, where the Wadi Hodein cuts cleanly through the sandstone plateau; but those of Meneiga, being at the head of a cul-de-sac, are only approachable by a branch track. At large springs the Arabs generally dig out a series of basins into which the water flows, so that these are always full of water ready for the camels of a caravan to drink. At megals there is usually no pool, or only a very small one, in sand or detritus; this sand is scooped out and the water is baled from the hole with a tin can. The absence of a pool is probably due to a desire to check evaporation. The flow at a megal is frequently so small that only a few litres per hour can be obtained; the small trickling spring of Sikait, for instance, was yielding only twenty gallons of water per diem in 1906, but even this small supply was highly prized by the miners working there, on account of its purity as a drinking water.

Megals are more likely to run dry than the larger springs, owing to their smaller collecting area. Any attempt to increase the flow of springs by blasting or excavation would probably only give an increase in yield at the expense of constancy; the throttling of the efflux is doubtless in many cases the chief reason for the perennial character of the yield of a spring, the rainfall being insufficient to maintain greater supplies than the springs yield at present.

Wells.

The wells of South-Eastern Egypt are mostly shallow excavations in the alluvia of the wadi floors, tapping the drainage waters which slowly percolate underground Nilewards and seawards from the mountain ranges. They are naturally more frequent in the districts near to the mountain ranges than in the lower reaches of the wadis, and the best wells are usually in well-defined trunk wadis which collect the drainage from myriads of smaller valleys. The wells sunk in the wadis at points remote from the mountain ranges are of immense importance to travellers crossing from the Nile, forming as they do the only supplies in an otherwise waterless journey of several days.

On an average, water is reached at a depth of eight to ten metres; occasionally, where the wadi is crossed underground by a rocky bar, the natural damming enables water to be reached at very shallow depths. The shafts dug by the Arabs are generally wide and very crooked, in order to permit of a man descending to fill a water-skin. Usually a “well” consists of three or four such shafts sunk in proximity. Occasionally, especially in the Bisharin country, the shafts are lined with rubble masonry, and rough timbers may be stretched across the mouth to facilitate hoisting by ropes. There is never any hoisting gear except at mines; rope is too much prized by the Arabs for it to be possible to leave ropes unguarded at a well, so each caravan uses its own rope and skins. Occasionally, the shaft is so cranked that the water cannot be seen from above. The reason for this is chiefly laziness in excavation; it is easier to deepen a well by driving out laterally a short distance and then sinking a narrow pit, throwing out the excavated material into the larger main shaft, than to hoist all to the surface. Near the wells one usually finds hods, or mud basins, into which the Arabs pour the hoisted water for their animals to drink. Frequently there are high hods for camels and low ones for sheep and goats.

After every considerable rainfall the wells become filled up with stony downwash, and have to be dug out afresh. There is no protective wall to prevent infilling; and, contrary to what might at first be thought, it is not laziness which conditions this circumstance. To the Arab, wells are a last resource. After rain, all the galts (rock basins) are full of good water. The Arab knows that the supplies in these galts will evaporate, while those in the wells, covered in by alluvium, are safe from loss by this cause. He therefore draws his supplies from galts as long as he can, and only when these are empty does he open the wells. The main wells never fail except after unusually prolonged drought, and then the condition of the Arab is sore indeed. The Bisharin do not drink much water, preferring to nourish themselves on the milk of their flocks and herds; but in times of drought the milk supply falls off because there is not sufficient moist vegetation for the animals to feed on.

The quality of water from the wells varies enormously with their situation and at different times. When water is abundant, it is generally good; but as the supply falls off and the wells have to be deepened, the slow infiltration carries abundance of sodium, calcium, and magnesium salts from the rocks, and the water is then often very unpleasant. The following analyses by Mr. Lucas of water-samples from some of the wells in 1906 will give a good general idea of the salts present; the figures give milligrammes per litre (parts per million):—

	Sikait Well.	Bir Masur.	Bir Metawit.	Bir Abu Hamamid.	Bir Shadli[115]		Bir Helie.
					I.	II.
Total solid matter in solution	7,360	880	4,020	1,720	2,380	2,980	4,040
Cl	1,263	57	1,027	225	555	749	323
SO3	2,530	263	1,042	318	540	776	1,447
CaO	[116]	200	350	330	310	[116]	610
MgO	[116]	29	116	87	69	[116]	211
Equivalent of Cl as NaCl	2,075	94	1,687	370	912	1,231	530
Equivalent of SO3 asNa2SO4	1,850	1,377	466	550	960	1,377	2,569
Alkalinity to methyl orange calculated asNaHCO3	500	222	550	848	298	260	651

All the above waters were quite drinkable, though that of the Sikait well was rather disagreably salty.

An analysis of the water of one of the Halaib wells in 1895 is given by Dr. Natterer,[117] who found (in parts per million):—

Cl	336
SO4	449
CO3	48

Dr. Natterer records that the sample, which was clear, tasted slightly alkaline, and contained very distinct traces of nitrites and nitrates, free carbon dioxide, free ammonia, and organic matter. During my stay of four days at Halaib in May 1908, I drank regularly of the local well-water; I found it very hard, and though the Arabs seemed to like it, its action on myself was so strongly aperient that I sent into the mountains to Bir Frukit for purer supplies for use on the long march to Port Sudan.

As a rule, it is the magnesium salts which are the most harmful constituents, the sulphate giving a strong purgative character to the water. Such salts are naturally present in greatest quantity where the rocks are gypseous, as for instance along the coast to the south of Halaib, where the wells of Ti Kureitra, sunk in gypsum and lined with blocks of selenite, yield water of so purgative a character that all my Arabs who drank of it became violently ill. In districts where the rocks are of very basic igneous types, such as gabbros and serpentines, the salt-content may also be fairly high. Water from diorite country is somewhat better, that from granite better still, and that from sandstone best of all. There are practically no wells in clayey strata within the region here treated of, but Bir Qoleib, which is on the road from Daraw at about two days’ journey east of the Nile, is sunk at the foot of a clayey scarp, and the water, when I partook of it in 1907, was clouded with clayey matter so finely divided as to be unfilterable through a Berkefeld filter even under strong pressure, while the physiological action of the water was to produce very marked constipation. Wells near the sea coast are liable to be very salty from infiltration of sea water. As a rule, the very salt wells, such as Bir Murra, Bir Muelih, Bir Shalatein, and Ti Kureitra, are used only by camels and sheep. When the Arabs have to drink purgative water for lack of other supplies, they often mix milk with it, and I have found it wise to imitate them in this respect, with liberal addition of brandy in some cases.

Wells are generally named after the wadi in which they occur, e.g., Bir Abu Hashim is the well in Wadi Abu Hashim. A bitter well is often called Bir Murra.[118] A deep well is called Sararat by the Bisharin, e.g., Bir Sararat Seyet is the deep well in Wadi Seyet.

Questions are often asked as to whether it is not possible to increase the available water supplies by sinking fresh wells. Where it is a question of sinking a new well in the middle of a long waterless stretch, or where the object is to sink a fresh well near an existing salty one in order to obtain a drinkable quality of water (and these are the two most usual cases), success cannot be predicted with any certainty, even in the most likely looking spots. We must remember that though the present Arabs may be lazy, the older tenants of the desert were more active. We have only to look at the old mining centres to see this. The probability is that the old miners were just as much worried by the scarcity of water as we are to-day, and with the cheap convict labour then available we may rest assured that every attempt was made to increase the supply. And it is not probable that the Arabs will have allowed to fall into disuse any existing well on an otherwise waterless road, so that it is likely that most of the wells in the wadis remote from the mountains are at spots specially favourable which have been discovered by a laborious process of trial and error. Confirmation of this view is supplied by the failure of new wells sunk at considerable cost in likely-looking places, as for instance at Abu Rahal, where a well carried down to over sixty metres’ depth failed to find water. Where modern wells have obtained water, they have usually been sunk near to or on the site of existing wells, as for instance near the temple of Seti I and at the different mining centres; in these cases it has sometimes been found possible to increase the supply by going deeper. And with regard to obtaining sweet water by sinking new wells near to old salty ones, no success can be hoped for if the saltiness is due to a general salt-content in the surrounding rocks; the Mines Department well in Wadi Mellaha[119] yielded no better water than the Arab well in the same wadi, because the alluvium everywhere in the wadi contains abundance of salt. In some cases, it may be, the promotion of a more rapid flow would lead to a slight lessening in the salinity; but if a well becomes salt merely by evaporation resulting from stagnation, that very fact shows that it is not much used by the ordinary traveller; and moreover the rate of flow of the underground water is not as a rule sufficiently rapid to yield large supplies, even from wide excavations.

In the south parts of the country, where the rainfall is greater, it is possible, nay, even likely, that many new wells could be sunk with success; but in these localities existing wells are more abundant and the necessity for new wells does not arise.

Rock Basins (Galts).

The typical rock basin, called a galt[120] by the Arabs, is a smooth-sided cavity in the rocky floor of a steep gorge draining a large mass of high hills. Galts are generally difficult of access, being situated in the higher parts of very stony wadis, so that one has to tramp often over miles of steeply rising stony ground to reach them. Galts abound in all high mountain-masses in South-Eastern Egypt, and furnish the greater portion of the water supply of the population. The capacity of galts varies very much; some hold millions of litres. Often there is a chain of successive galts at intervals along the length of a gorge, and after rain the whole series is filled, while much overflows and runs to waste. The origin of the rocky basins is generally due to pot-holing action on a large scale. Galts may occur in rocks of any hard type, but are most commonly met with in eruptive rocks. Sandstone galts never remain long full, owing to the permeable nature of the rocks. The large Galt el Aguz near Gebel Um Harba, which from the inscriptions near it was evidently known and used in Ptolemaic times, is in sandstone, receiving in fact the superficial run-off from the same high mass of sandstone hills as furnish the collecting area for feeding by percolation and underground flow the adjacent springs of Bir Abraq and Abu Saafa; but the galt is seldom full for more than a month or two, while the springs are constant.

The water supply of galts depends firstly on the rainfall of the district; secondly, on the existing drainage system; thirdly, on the presence and size of eroded basins along the lines of drainage; fourthly, on the nature of the rocks forming the basin, and, lastly, on the degree of exposure to evaporation. The rainfall in the Eastern Desert is often very local. A series of galts full one year may be dry the next, while those of another area may show a reverse state of things. The drainage system most favourable to galts is one formed by the union of long narrow steep-sided gullies into a single gorge. The presence of basins is conditioned by the steepness of the drainage and the hardness of the rocky floor; if the rocks are soft or much crushed, galts are very unlikely to occur. Again, if the basin is formed of permeable though hard rock, there will be rapid loss by infiltration. Evaporation is generally far less rapid at galts than in open country, because being in narrow gorges galts only receive the sun’s rays for a few hours of the day, and are, moreover, sheltered from winds.

The quality of galt water varies very much with the interval since rainfall and with the nature of the rocks. Sandstone galts are very pure, because of their short life and the siliceous nature of the rock. Serpentine and diorite galts contain magnesium and other salts, and as the loss by evaporation continues the water may become somewhat bitter and purgative by concentration of these saline constituents, though galts never suffer to the extent that some wells do in this respect.

A galt is frequently accompanied by a small spring (megal or megwel); the galt represents the run-off, while the spring receives the percolating water. Thus for months after a galt is empty it may in some cases be possible to obtain water in small quantity by scooping out sand-filled rock cavities close to the basin.

Galts are generally named after the mountain in which they occur, though when large and well known they may have special names given to them, as in the case of the Galt el Aguz mentioned above.