Confederation and Union.
American Government.
DURING the progress of the Revolution the civil government of the United States was in a deplorable condition. Nothing but the peril of the country had, in the first place, led to the calling of a Congress. When that body assembled, it had no constitution nor power of efficient action. The two great wants of the country were money to carry on the war, and a central authority to direct the war. Whenever Congress would attempt a firmer government, the movement would be checked by the remonstrance of the colonies.
2. Foremost of those who worked for better government was Benjamin Franklin. In 1775 he laid before Congress the plan of a perpetual confederation of the States. But the attention of that body was occupied with the war, and Franklin's measure received little notice. Congress, without any real authority, began to conduct the government, and its legislation was generally accepted by the States.
Articles of Confederation.
3. On the 11th of June, 1776, a committee was appointed by Congress to prepare a plan of confederation. After a month the work was completed and laid before the house. The debates on the subject continued at intervals until the 15th of November, 1777, when a vote was taken in Congress, and the Articles of Confederation were adopted, which were then transmitted to the State legislatures for ratification. By them the new frame of government was returned to Congress with many amendments. These having been considered, the articles were signed by the delegates of eight States on the 9th of July, 1778. Those of Georgia, North Carolina, New Jersey, and Delaware signed before February, of 1779. Maryland did not assent until March of 1781.
4. The government of the United States under the confederation was a loose union of independent commonwealths. The executive and legislative powers were vested in Congress—a body composed of not less than two nor more than seven representatives from each State. The sovereignty was reserved to the States. There was no chief magistrate and no general judiciary. The consent of nine States was necessary to complete an act of legislation. The union was declared to be perpetual.
Inadequacy of the Confederation.
5. On the 2d of March, 1781, Congress assembled under the new government. From the first, its inadequacy was manifest. Congress had no real authority. The first duty was to provide for the payment of the war debt of thirty-eight million dollars. Congress recommended a general tax. Some of the States made the levy, others refused. Robert Morris was brought to poverty in a vain effort to sustain the government.
6. In this condition of affairs, Washington advised the calling of a convention to meet at Annapolis. In September of 1786 the representatives of five States assembled. The questions of a tariff and a revision of the articles of confederation were discussed. It was finally resolved to adjourn until the following year.
The Constitution Proposed.
7. Congress invited the legislatures to appoint delegates to the convention. All of the States except Rhode Island responded; and on the second Monday in May, 1787, the representatives assembled at Philadelphia. Washington was chosen president of the convention. On the 29th Edmund Randolph introduced a resolution to adopt a new constitution. A committee was accordingly appointed to revise the articles of confederation. Early in September, the report of the committee was adopted; and that report was the Constitution of the United States.
8. On the question of adopting the Constitution the people were divided. Those who favored the new government were called Federalists; those who opposed, Anti-Federalists. The leaders of the former were Washington, Jay, Madison, and Hamilton, the latter statesman throwing his whole energies into the controversy. In the papers called The Federalist he and Madison answered every objection of the anti-Federal party. To Hamilton the Republic owes a debt of gratitude for having established on a firm basis the true principles of free government.
Provisions of the Constitution.
9. Under the Constitution the powers of government are arranged under three heads—Legislative, Executive, and Judicial. The legislative power is vested in Congress—composed of a Senate and a House of Representatives. The Senators are chosen, for a term of six years, by the legislatures of the several States. Each State is represented by two Senators. The Representatives are elected by the people; and each State is entitled to a number of representatives proportionate to its population. The members of this branch are chosen for two years.
10. The executive power of the United States is vested in a President, chosen for four years by the Electoral College. The electors composing the college are chosen by the people; and each State is entitled to a number of electors equal to the number of its representatives and senators in Congress. The duty of the President is to enforce the laws of Congress in accordance with the Constitution. He is also commander-in-chief of the armies and navies. In case of the death or resignation of the President, the Vice-president becomes chief magistrate.
11. The judicial power of the United States is vested in a Supreme Court and in inferior courts established by Congress. The highest judicial officer is the Chief-justice. The judges hold their offices during life or good behavior. The right of trial by jury is granted in all cases except the impeachment of public officers. Treason against the United States consists in levying war against them, or in giving aid to their enemies.
12. The Constitution provides that new territories maybe organized and new States admitted into the Union; that to every State shall be guaranteed a republican form of government; and that the Constitution may be altered or amended by the consent of two thirds of both houses of Congress and three fourths of the legislatures of the States. In accordance with this provision, fifteen amendments have since been made to the Constitution.
Constitution Adopted.
13. Before the end of 1788 eleven States had adopted the Constitution. The new government was to go into operation when nine States should ratify. For a while, North Carolina and Rhode Island hesitated. In accordance with an act of Congress, the first Wednesday of January, 1789, was named as the time for the election of a chief-magistrate. The people had but one voice as to the man who should be honored with that high trust. Early in April, the ballots of the electors were counted, and George Washington was unanimously chosen President and John Adams Vice-president of the United States. On the 14th of the month, Washington received notification of his election, and departed for New York. His route was a constant triumph. With this event the era of nationality in the New Republic is ushered in.