TO SUM UP
IT is time to return to the point from which we started our whole enquiry, and to ask what has been gathered in the course of it towards a solution of the question with which we began. That the Cosmos in which we dwell, the world of law, order, and life, has not existed for ever, we saw to be a truth enforced by the researches of physical Science, no less than by the clear teaching of reason. It certainly had a beginning, and there must be a cause to which that beginning was due,—a cause capable of producing all which we find to have been actually produced. The material Universe and the mechanism of the heavens,—organic life with all its infinite marvels and varieties—animal sensation—human intelligence—canons of beauty, the law of good and evil—all these must have existed potentially in the First Cause, as in the Source whence alone they could be derived.
The Nature of this Cause was the object of our quest. In particular we set ourselves to examine the assertion now so loudly made that Science has found a full explanation in the forces of the Universe[{271}] itself as they come within her cognizance, that is to say, the material forces which she can directly observe, and upon which she can experiment. In particular we have studied the Law of Evolution, in its various significations, and other laws subsidiary to it, in order to determine, from the point of view of reason and Science alone, whether it can be said that the prime factor of which we are in search is thus supplied.
The result has been to make it evident that while modern discovery has immensely multiplied and magnified the marvels which have to be accounted for, it has disclosed nothing which can be supposed to account for them in a manner to satisfy our reason. So far as the forces of Nature are concerned, the mysteries that lie beyond are even darker than they were. The origin and nature of matter and force, the source of motion, of life, of sensation and consciousness, of rational intelligence and language, of Free-will, of the reign of law and order to which all Nature testifies,—all these are for Science utterly unsolved problems, which, as some amongst her teachers tell us, must remain for ever insoluble. Even less prospect, if possible, can there be that any mechanical forces will ever account for perception of the sublime and beautiful,—and above all—of the distinction between right and wrong.
Here, then, Science stops,—confessing that she can be our guide no farther, and lending no colour whatever to the unscientific pretensions which are so noisily advanced by some persons in her name.[{272}] Her domain is the world of sense, and it is evident that nothing existing within that realm can possibly furnish an explanation which will satisfy our intellectual need for causality.
Are we therefore to say that we can know nothing concerning the First Cause to which the phenomena of the Universe are due? Such is the Agnostic's position. What we have no means of knowing, he says, we must not pretend to know. It were irrational and dishonest to do so. When Science fails us, the true wisdom is to profess ignorance,—thus only can our position still be scientific.
But is such a principle itself scientific? Is it not a gratuitous and monstrous assumption that we can know nothing but that of which our senses directly tell us? That the Universe has a cause is no less certain than that the Universe exists, for of that cause it is the monument. And, as of the whole, so of every part or element which it contains, it is absolutely certain that there must be a cause, and one adequate to the production of what has actually been produced; for as the proverb says, "Nothing is to be got out of a sack but what is in it." From such conclusions there is no escape;—and since it is impossible to find the cause required within the world of material forces and sensible phenomena, it becomes no less obvious that it must lie beyond, across the frontier which nothing material can pass.
Therefore, also, we know something concerning[{273}] that Cause,—very little, perhaps, in comparison with what we cannot know,—but still something very substantial. We know that such a Cause exists. We know that it must possess every excellence which we discover in Nature,—all that she has, and more; since what she derives from it, the Cause of Nature has of itself. In it must be all power, for except as flowing from it there is no power possible. Finally, as a capable Cause of law and order in Nature, and of Intellect and Will in man, the First Cause must be supereminently endowed with Understanding, and Freedom in the exercise of its might,—or it would be inferior to its own works.
Since there must have been something from eternity, [says Bolingbroke][321] because there is something now, the eternal Being must be an intelligent Being, because there is intelligence now; for no man will venture to assert that non-entity can produce entity, or non-intelligence, intelligence. And such a Being must exist necessarily, whether things have been always as they are, or whether they have been made in time: because it is no more easy to conceive an infinite than a finite progression of effects without a cause.
It is therefore not easy to understand how we can avoid the conclusion of the distinguished men of Science whom we have heard declare that they assume "as absolutely self-evident" the existence[{274}] of a Deity who is the Creator and Upholder of all things.
It will probably be answered that this is mere Anthropomorphism; which formidable term appears by many to be considered sufficient to close the whole question, and to rule the idea of a personal God out of court. Did not Voltaire remark that if in the beginning God made man to His own image and likeness, man has well repaid Him ever since? And what can be more conclusive than that?
But what—after all—does "Anthropomorphism" mean in this connexion? Simply, that being men we have to speak in human terms, even of what is superhuman. By no possibility can we do anything else. Limited as we are by the conditions of our nature, we can find no mode of expression except such as is based upon sensible experience; and although we can convince ourselves by rational inference of the existence, and to some extent of the character, of what is beyond sense, we can frame no description of it, nor even a phantasm or image by means of imagination, except so far as we are able to draw upon the phenomena of the external world. Thus it is that artists who endeavour to represent an immaterial being, as an angel, a djinn or a sprite, though the essence of the object they would depict is that it has no body, have perforce to give it one, though they make it as little gross as possible, for otherwise they could not portray it at all. But however such images may be refined[{275}] and etherealized they are intended to be understood only as conventional figures to suggest to the mind its own concept, which is as different from them as the notes produced by a singer are from those on the score from which he sings. No one imagines that the genius of Music is a young woman holding a shell to her ear, or that the Cherubim are heads and wings and nothing more. So it is with statements of the Theistic belief concerning the First Cause, or God. To put this into words we are compelled to use the only materials within our reach, and to borrow our phraseology from that which, within our experience is the highest and noblest element found in the Universe,—namely our own intelligence and will. These beyond question must be transcendentally possessed by the Cause on which they depend. So far Anthropomorphism is sound sense; that is to say, so long as it attributes all possible excellence to the source of all. It is foolish and unscientific only when it attributes to the Absolute and Unconditioned the limitations of an inferior order of being. We may truly say that a penny is contained in a pound,—but it does not follow that a sovereign must be of copper. According to the scientific doctrine that all our familiar forms of energy are ultimately derived from the Sun, it might well be argued from observation of a farthing rushlight that Solar Energy includes heat and light; but not that it is fed on tallow. This appears to be plain and obvious enough, often as[{276}] it is forgotten or ignored. As Sir Oliver Lodge has lately put the matter:[322]
Shall we possess these things and God not possess them? Let no worthy human attribute be denied to the Deity. There are many errors, but there is one truth in Anthropomorphism. Whatever worthy attribute belongs to man, be it personality or any other, its existence in the universe is thereby admitted; we can deny it no more.
Or as Professor Baden Powell expresses the same argument:[323]
That which requires thought and reason to understand must be itself thought and reason. That which mind alone can investigate or express must be itself mind. And if the highest conception attained be but partial, then the mind and reason studied is greater than the mind and reason of the student. If the more it be studied the more vast and complex is the necessary connexion in reason disclosed, then the more evident is the vast extent and compass of the intelligence thus partially manifested, and its reality, as existing in the immutably connected order of objects examined, independently of the mind of the investigator.
The reluctance frequently manifested by scientific men to admit the force of so plain an argument, appears to be generally due to a fundamental misconception. It is constantly assumed that to introduce the element of purpose in Nature is to[{277}] deny the continuity of Natural law, and that to speak of design in regard of a process or a structure, is equivalent to saying that a non-natural agent intervenes at that particular point and takes the work out of Nature's hands. This, it may be supposed, was Professor Huxley's idea when he spoke of "the commoner and coarser forms of teleology," giving as an instance the supposition that eyes were constructed for the purpose of enabling their possessors to see. It might indeed be replied that, at any rate, it is less difficult to suppose this, than that eyes were constructed without any purpose of seeing, or knowledge of the laws of optics;—but evidently it is taken for granted that Theists imagine every purposive item in nature to be violently introduced from without, like the forms of lions or peacocks into which topiarian gardeners clip their shrubs. But, as has been said, the laws of Nature are the expression of the mind of God: it is through them that He accomplishes His design. As Professor Romanes came to see at the close of his life, it is strange what jealousy there is of admitting the Creator into Creation. "It is still assumed on both sides," he wrote,[324] "that there must be something inexplicable or miraculous about a phenomenon in order to its being divine,"—and although we must utterly demur to such a description of the position of Theists, it undoubtedly is true of their adversaries. Their objections on this head can only signify that[{278}] it is with the laws of Nature as with a railway locomotive from which the driver, having got up steam and set it going, jumps off, leaving it entirely to its own devices. But, as a legislator, if rightly interpreted, speaks by the mouth of every judge who administers the law in practice, and applies it to concrete cases,—so the Author of Nature, whose laws cannot be perverted, provides through them for all that is to be operated by the forces He has instituted.
So it is that, as Professors Stewart and Tait have told us, we must conceive of Him as not the Creator only, but likewise the Upholder of all things, while Lord Kelvin declares[325] we are unmistakably shown through Nature that she depends upon one "ever-acting Creator and Ruler." It is in this omnipresence of Divine influence that Monism finds the modicum of plausibility which serves it for a foundation. It runs, indeed, into the absurdity of endeavouring to explain such Omnipresence by identifying the finite with the Infinite, and attributing to matter qualities which all experience, and very specially all scientific experience, contradicts; but, for all that, it scores a distinct point as against mere materialism, which Comte declares to be "the most illogical form of metaphysics," and the late Sir Leslie Stephen, "not so much error as sheer nonsense." Theism avoids the error of either extreme. While it teaches the essential and fundamental distinction[{279}] between the Absolute and the contingent, between the Creator and His creatures, it teaches likewise that He is ever present in His works, and that in their every operation He is manifested.
And so, in the words of Rivarol, God is the explanation of the world, and the world is the demonstration of God. The acceptance of a Self-existent, All-powerful, and intelligent Being can alone serve as a basis for any system of Cosmogony which satisfies our intellectual need of causation; while, on the other hand, the nature of this Being, as necessarily beyond the scope of our senses, can be known to us only indirectly through the effects of which He is the cause.
By no one has this conclusion been more clearly stated than by Lamarck, the real father of Organic Evolutionism, whom many would therefore represent as an atheist. His words are so much to the point that with them we may conclude.[326]
Of the Supreme Being, in a word of God, to whom all infinitude is seen to belong, man has thus conceived an idea, which, though indirect, is sound, and which necessarily follows from what he observes. In the same manner, he has formed another idea, equally solid, namely of the boundless power of this Being, suggested by the consideration of His works....
Nature not being intelligent, nor even a being, but an order of things constituting a power subject to law,[{280}] cannot therefore be God. She is the wondrous product of His Almighty will: and for us, of all created things she is the grandest and most admirable. Thus the will of God is everywhere expressed by the laws of Nature, since these laws originate from Him.
APPENDIX
A. Evolution and the lower forms of life ([p. 165]).
A SINGULARLY instructive field for the study of the mutability or stability of species should be afforded by the lower forms of life, in which organization is reduced to a minimum, they being mere masses of protoplasm without even a containing envelope, while their nourishment is of the simplest. It would therefore appear that environment should be all-potent to modify them and produce specific[{280b}] modifications, while the extreme rapidity with which they propagate their kind, and that unisexually, ought to require no vast extent of time to make such transmutations apparent.
It is found, however, on the contrary, that nowhere in organic nature does the type remain more rigidly persistent. Professor Macbride, for example, tells us,[327]
"The Myxomycetæ may be regarded as the organic group in which the forces of heredity,—whatever these forces may be—are at their maximum: they have responded as little as possible to the influence of their environment."
To the same effect speaks Professor Paulesco of Bucharest, of other elementary organisms.[328]
What is still more remarkable, these same organisms are extremely sensitive to altered conditions of environment, which have a direct and immediate influence, gravely modifying their morphological and physiological characters, changes in respect of light, minute alterations of temperature, or the introduction of a new chemical substance, even in infinitesimal quantity, frequently causing them to assume forms very different from the specific type, and profoundly modifying their nutritive processes.
Here, it was at first thought, when Pasteur revealed their history, is clear evidence of specific transformation. But he presently convinced himself and others that it is not so, for although liable to assume such polymorphic forms according to the conditions in which they find themselves, there is no alteration of specific nature, and if the original circumstances be restored, the original forms reappear—"une élasticité functionelle de la cellule lui permettant de se plier à des conditions variées d'existence sans changer d'être." (Pasteur.)
As M. Duclaux adds:[329]
"La notion d'espèce ne disparait pas pour cela. La variabilité est un caractère comme un autre, bien que plus[{281}] difficile à inscrire dans la classification, et une espèce est aussi bien définie par les sensibilités diverses qu'elle manifeste que par la petite liste des mots et de propriétés dans laquelle on croyait pouvoir autrefois enfermer toute son histoire.... La lien de l'espèce c'est la loi qui préside à ces changements, et la variété des formes et des fonctions n'est pas du tout en contradiction avec l'unité de l'espèce."
B. Note on Chap. XV. [p. 203].
Since the foregoing pages have been in type there has come to hand the New York Literary Digest of January 23, 1904, containing the following article (p. 119).
"Are the Days of Darwinism Numbered?"
The recent death of Herbert Spencer lends special timeliness to the above topic, which is being actively debated just now in German theological circles. The immediate cause of the revival of interest in the present status of the Darwinian theory is found in a lengthy article by the veteran philosopher, Edward von Hartmann, which appears in Oswald's Annalen der Naturphilosophie (vol. ii. 1903), under the title 'Der Niedergang der Darwinismus' ('The Passing of Darwinism'). That the famous 'philosopher of the unconscious' is not prejudiced in favour of biblical views has been more than clear since the publication of his Selbstzersetzung der Christentums ('Disintegration of Christianity') in 1874. Hartmann in his new article has this to say—
'In the sixties of the past century the opposition of the older group of savants to the Darwinian hypothesis was still supreme. In the seventies, the new idea began to gain ground rapidly in all cultured countries. In the eighties, Darwin's influence was at its height, and exercised an almost absolute control over technical research. In the nineties, for the first time, a few timid[{282}] expressions of doubt and opposition were heard, and these gradually swelled into a great chorus of voices, aiming at the overthrow of the Darwinian theory. In the first decade of the twentieth century it has become apparent that the days of Darwinism are numbered. Among its latest opponents are such savants as Eimer, Gustav Wolf, De Vries, Hoocke, von Wellstein, Fleischmann, Reinke, and many others.'
These facts, according to Hartmann's view, while they do not indicate that the Darwinian theory is doomed, undermine its most radical features:
'The theory of descent is safe, but Darwinism has been weighed and found wanting. Selection can in general not achieve any positive results, but only negative effects; the origin of species by minimal changes is possible, but has not been demonstrated. The pretensions of Darwinism as a pure mechanical explanation of results that show purpose are totally groundless.'
Other scholars think that Hartmann does not do full justice to the reaction that has set in, particularly in Germany, against Darwinism. This sentiment is voiced by Professor Zoeckler, of the University of Greifswald, in the Beweis des Glaubens (No. xi.), a journal which recently published a collection of anti-Darwinian views from German naturalists. He calls the article of Hartmann 'the tombstone-inscription [Grabschrift] for Darwinism,' and goes on to say:
'The claim that the hypothesis of descent is secured scientifically must most decidedly be denied. Neither Hartmann's exposition nor the authorities he cites have the force of moral conviction for the claim for purely mechanical descent. The descent of organisms is not a scientifically demonstrated proposition, although descent in an ideal sense can be made to harmonize with the biblical account of creation.'
Views of a similar kind are voiced in many quarters. The Hamburg savant, Edward Hoppe, has written a[{283}] brochure, Ist mit der Descendenz-Theorie eine religiöse Vorstellung vereinbar? [Is the Theory of Evolution reconcilable with the Religious Idea?] in which he takes issue, in the name of religion, with the purely naturalistic type of Darwinian thought. The most pronounced convert to anti-Darwinian views is Professor Fleischmann, of Erlangen, who has not only discarded the mechanical conception of the origin of being, but the whole Darwinian theory. He recently delivered a course of lectures, entitled 'Die Darwin'sche Theorie,' which have appeared in book form in Leipsic. He comes to this conclusion: 'The Darwinian theory of descent has not a single fact to confirm it in the realm of nature. It is not the result of scientific research, but purely the product of the imagination.'
From another article in the same journal (p. 116), entitled 'A Study of Creation,' the following paragraphs may be cited:
"The French have never been enthusiastic Darwinians. It is, perhaps, not surprising, therefore, to find a French geologist, M. Stanislas Meunier, arguing in the Revue Scientifique (December 19) against all schools of transformism and stoutly maintaining what is practically a doctrine of special creation. He admits that living beings form a connected series; but the connexion, he believes, is not one of physical descent, but inheres in something outside of and pre-existent to the earth. He does not name it, but he would probably not object to the inference that it is the mind of a creator.
"M. Meunier gives at some length his reasons for rejecting Darwin's, Lamarck's, and all other theories of transformism. All we can be sure of, he thinks, is that, as in the case of the various kinds of pottery, we have to do with an orderly development, although he thinks it is not a development by descent. He closes, thus:[{284}]
"'Doubtless we cannot usefully risk any hypothesis on the mechanism of the production of living things; but it is, perhaps, a step in advance only to come to the conclusion that the cause of life and its manifestations on the earth is exterior to the earth; that it is anterior to our world, just as are doubtless the laws of physics and chemistry, which govern the relations of matter and force throughout space.
"'The philosophy of science can lose nothing by the admission of points of view that, far from narrowing our subjects of study, enlarge them beyond all limits; and this is, perhaps, the occasion to show once more to persons who are turning toward metaphysics in their thirst for mystery, that they will find in pure science that wherewith they may satisfy their legitimate aspirations.'"
C. Succession of Plant forms [p. 220].
Recent investigations have led to the remarkable discovery that many fern-like plants of the Carboniferous rocks, hitherto classed as Cryptogams, were in reality seed-bearers, and thus intermediate between Cryptogams and Cycads, the most primitive of existing seed-plants. They have accordingly been placed in a special group "Cycadofilices," or "Fern-Cycads," and regarded as transitional types, the view that they are the remains of a natural bridge connecting the Ferns with the Gymnosperms having received wide support,[330] and at first sight this conclusion would appear natural and obvious. But here, as in other cases, the difficulty is that the seeds which have been found are all fully developed; there are none in the intermediate stages between true spores and true seeds; we have the finished article, but no trace of seeds in the making; which upon any theory of evolution must have been exceedingly numerous. Hence Dr. Scott tells us:[331]
"The important discoveries of the seeds of the Pteridosperms[{285}] scarcely touch the question of descent, for these organs are of too advanced a type to throw light on the probable derivation of the group."
In this instance, therefore, as in others, it remains true that in no case is any trace found of rudimentary character in the earliest fossil specimens of any class.
It is undoubtedly a further puzzle that some of the Carboniferous cryptogams which did not bear real seeds, yet simulated them, a habit not easily explained on evolutionary principles.
D. The Course of Evolution.
The evidence of Professor Vines quoted in the text (pp. 202, 237) receives a remarkable confirmation from that of Dr. Smith Woodward, Keeper of Geology in the National Museum of Natural History. Speaking before the International Congress of Arts and Science, St. Louis, U.S.A., September 22nd, 1904, he thus touched upon the same question, which he illustrated especially from the history of fossil fishes, which he has made his special study.[332]
"It must be confessed that repeated discoveries have now left faint hope that exact and gradual links will ever be forthcoming between most of the families and genera. The 'imperfection of the record,' of course, may still render some of the negative evidence untrustworthy; but even approximate links would be much commoner in collections than they actually are if the doctrine of gradual evolution were correct. Palæontology, indeed, is clearly in favour of the theory of discontinuous mutation, or advance by sudden changes, which has lately received so much support from the botanical experiments of H. de Vries.
"Further results obtained from the study of fossils have a bearing even on the deepest problems of Biology, namely, those connected with the nature of life itself. For instance, it is allowable to infer, from the statements already made, that the main factor in the evolution of organisms is some inherent impulse—the 'bathmic force' of Cope—which acts with unerring certainty whatever be the conditions of the moment."[{286}]
E. Pedigree of the Horse.
Some recent evidence on this subject certainly does not clear away the difficulties set forth in the text.
From Nature, Sept. 8, 1904, p. 474.
"Professor Osborn (in a lecture before the British Association) mentioned that more than a hundred more or less complete skeletons of horses and horse-like animals had been found in North America. He thought he had established the fact that horses were polyphyletic, there being four or five contemporary series in the Miocene, but that the direct origin of the genus Equus in North America was not established with certainty."
Professor Sedgwick, Student's Text Book of Zoology, p. 599.
"Much has been written on the ancestry of the horse. It has been maintained by many authors that a continuous series of forms connecting it with the four-toed, brachyodont Hyracothoridæ of the Eocene has been discovered, and that here if anywhere a demonstrative historical proof has been obtained of the doctrine of organic evolution. Without desiring in the smallest degree to impugn that doctrine, it may be permitted us here to examine rather closely the view that the series of forms which recent palæontological research has undoubtedly brought to light constitute that historical proof which has been claimed for them."
[After an examination of the structural characters of these intermediate forms, viz., Pliohippus, Protohippus, Desmathippus, Miohippus, Mesohippus, Orohippus, and Hyracotherium, the author proceeds]:
"So far as the characters mentioned are concerned, we have here a very remarkable series of forms which at first sight seem to constitute a linear series with no cross-connections. Whether, however, they really do this is a difficult point to decide. There are flaws in the chain of evidence, which require careful and detailed consideration. For instance, the genus Equus appears in the Upper Siwalik beds, which have been ascribed to the Miocene age. It[{287}] has, however, been maintained that these beds are in reality Lower Pliocene, or even Upper Pliocene. It is clear that the decision of this question is of the utmost importance. If Equus really existed in the Upper Miocene, it was antecedent to some of its supposed ancestors. Again in the series of equine forms, Mesohippus, Miohippus, Desmathippus, Protohippus, which are generally regarded as coming into the direct line of equine descent, Scott[333] points out that each genus is, in some respect or other, less modified than its predecessor. In other words, it would appear that in this succession of North American forms the earlier genera show, in some points, closer resemblance to the modern Equus than to their immediate successors. It is possible that these difficulties and others of the same kind will be overcome with the growth of knowledge, but it is necessary to take note of them, for in the search after truth nothing is gained by ignoring such apparent discrepancies between theory and fact."
Besides the structure of limbs and teeth, another argument for the descent of the horse has been drawn from certain phenomena of colouration. Stripings are found not unfrequently to occur in the legs and withers, which Darwin took for a reversion to the character of a very remote ancestor, the common parent, in fact, of horses and asses, which he supposed to have been striped all over like a zebra. Like other such common ancestors, this hypothetical animal had never been seen, but was thought to be most nearly represented by the Kathiwar horse, with stripes on a dun ground, a specimen of which is exhibited as illustrating the hypothesis in the National Museum of Zoology.
Recently, however, Professor Ridgeway, who has devoted special attention to the problem, has satisfied himself that there is no sufficient foundation for these suppositions. He thus sums up the evidence which he has been able to collect:[334][{288}]
"Darwin's view that the original ancestor of the Equidæ was a dun-coloured animal, striped all over, was based, not merely on the occurrence of stripes in horses, but on his belief that such stripes were common in dun horses, and that there was a tendency in horses to revert to dun colour. But it must be confessed that the facts do not warrant his conclusion.... It is clear that stripes are at least as often a concomitant of dark as of dun colour. Moreover, if Darwin's hypothesis of a dun-coloured ancestor with stripes is sound, dark colours such as bay and brown must be of more recent origin, and accordingly there ought to be a great readiness on the part of a progeny of a light-coloured animal when mated with a dark to revert to the light. But Professor Ewart's zebra stallion has never been able to stamp his own peculiar pattern or his own colours on his hybrid offspring. The ground colour has been determined by the dams of the hybrids."
INDEX
Abiogenesis, [49-51]
Ætiology, [197]
Agnosticism, Huxley's first principle of, [4]
Its fundamental principle unreasonable, [272]
American Museum and the pedigree of the Horse, [248]
Amphibians, embryology, [195]
"Anthropomorphism," 2[74], [275]
Archæopteryx, [171]
Archebiosis, [53]
Argus pheasant, ornamentation, [175]
Arsinoetherium, [267]
Atlantic cable, an illustration from, of chance and purpose, [115]
Atoms, [37], [41], [88], [89], [90], [136]
Augustine, St.—on creation causaliter et seminaliter, [141], [207]
Axolotl, [195]
Baden-Powell, Prof.—on the nature of the First Cause, [276]
Bastian, Dr. H. C.—on spontaneous generation, [21], [50], [53]
Bathybius Haeckelii, [21]
Batrachians, appearance of, [225]
Bats, an evolutionary puzzle, [229], [257]
Bee, cell-making instinct, [156], [179]
Bickerton, Prof.,—on dissipation of energy, 2[7] n.
Biogenesis, [49], [50]
Blanchard, M.—on variation, [164];
on Darwinian argumentation, [181];
on fecundity as a factor in survival, [188];
on the problem of creation, [268]
Bolingbroke, Viscount,—on the nature of the first cause, [273]
Bridgman, Laura, [77]
Bunsen, Chevalier,—on animal sounds and language, [74]
Butler, Bishop,—on intelligence as a factor in cosmogony, [100]
Carruthers, Mr. W.—on specific stability of Salix polaris, [164];
on classification of plants, [214];
on the geological record, [216], [265];
on past history of plant-life, [216] seq.; on[{290}]
an assertion of Haeckel's, [221];
on the evidence supplied by fossil plants, 2[23]
Case, Prof.—on the meaning of "fortuitous," [125]
Causation, principle of, [2], [87], [94], [107]
Cause, the First. See [First Cause]
Chance, [110] seq., [151], [174]
Cicero—on the evidence for a Deity, [103]
Clerk-Maxwell, Prof.—on force and energy, [23] n;
on Molecules, [90], [104];
on evidence of design, ibid.
Clifford, Prof. W. K.—on design in Nature, [101]
Clodd, Mr. E.—on atoms, [41]
Comte, Auguste—on materialism, [278]
Consciousness, origin of, [67]
Cosmos and its Cause, [86] seq.
Croll, Mr.—on force and its determination, 9[4-96]
Crookes, Sir W.—on renovation of energy, [26];
on radium and radio-activity, [42], [43]
Cryptogamous plants, fossil history, [219]
Crystallization, [63], [64]
Darwin, Mr.—on the "law of continuity," [57];
on spontaneous generation, [58];
on the mental gulf between man and brute, [71];
on the origin of language, [79], [178];
on "creation," [91];
on the structure of the eye, [91];
on chance as a factor of the world, [116];
on pain and suffering as an objection to design, [119];
disclaims achievements attributed to him, [150];
his system, [153] seq. (see Darwinism);
his mode of arguing, [178];
dogmatism, [179];
pleads lack of knowledge as an argument, [182];
on single origin of every species, [210], [254];
on genealogy of the Horse, [259];
on the imperfection of the geological record, [264]
Darwinism, [149] seq.;
false representations of, [149-151];
sketch of system, [151-157];
facts favouring, [158-160];
difficulties of, [160] seq.;
explains no origins, [161];
ignores the prime factor, ibid.;
improbabilities, [166], [173];
does not explain initial developments, [170] seq.;
nor artistic ornamentation, [175];
specious arguments too easily forthcoming, [177];
does not account for organic progression, [187];
scientific opinions concerning, [198] seq., [281]
Dawson, Sir J. W.—on the first origin of life, [208];
on the history of animal life, [223]; on genealogy of the Equidæ, [247];
of the Cetacea, [257];
of bats,[{291}]
[258];
on lack of palæontological evidence for evolution, [260]
Design, evidence of, in Nature, [90], [97] seq.;
Kant on the necessity of, [150]
Determination of force, its necessity, [94-96], [114]
Determinism of the will, [81] seq.
Development of organic types, [146]
Dicotyledons, appearance of, [220]
Diderot—on evidence of intelligence in Nature, [125]
Dinotherium, classification of, [259] n
Dogs, their vocal expression of emotions, [73]
Du Bois-Reymond, Herr,—on the "Seven Enigmas," [31-33];
on the progress of human development, [68], [69];
on Haeckel's genealogies, [264]
Dysteleology, [190]
Ear, structure of, [93]
Electrons, [42]
Elephant and Tortoise of Hindu astronomy, [107]
Embryology and Evolution, [158-160], [192] seq.
"Energy," [23]; conservation of, ibid.;
dissipation of, [24] seq.;
renovation of, [26-28]
"Enigmas, the Seven," [32]
Entropy, [25]
Equidæ. See [Horse]
Ether, a constituent of the universe, [36]
Evil, Origin of, the darkest of mysteries, [120]
"Evolution," different meanings of term, [8];
as an operative law, [10-14];
eternal, [11];
as a philosophy, [22] seq.;
formula of, [145]
As a process, [45] seq.
Organic, [142] seq.;
essential characters of theory, [147], [206];
nature of evidence required, [208] seq.;
history of in vegetable and animal kingdoms, [216] seq.
Eye, origin of, [91], [154]
Helmholtz, on defects of, [91] n.;
structure of, [155] n.;
evolution of, [168]
Fabre, M.—on Darwin's facts, [200] n.;
on our ignorance of Nature, [203]
Faraday, Prof.—on gravitation, [125]
Final causality (Teleology), [98] seq.
First Cause, the object of inference, [96], [97];
nature of as shown by reason, [270] seq.
Fish, appearance of, [225];
problems presented by, [233]
Flight, problem of, [93]
Flower, Sir W.—on the extinct American horse, [254]
Force, nature of, [23]
Free-will, Prof. Haeckel on, [33], [81];
Dr. Johnson on, [84]
Fuegians, mental likeness to ourselves, [72]
Garnett, Prof.—on force, 23[{292}]
Gaudry, M.—on ancestry of whales, [257];
of bats, [258];
of proboscidians, [259]
Genera and species, [244] n.
Generatio aequivoca, [65]
Generation, mysteries of, [123] seq.
Geological formations, succession of, [213]
Geological record, [216], [264], seq.
Giraffe, evolution of, [154]
Glass, fortuitously discovered, [115]
Goethe—on "iron law," [14]
Gore, Dr. G.—on machinery as excluding idea of design, [118]
"Grand Question," the, [96]
Grimthorpe, Lord (Sir E. Beckett)—on matter, [37]; on the problem of flight, [93];
on evidences of purpose, [94];
on generation, [124];
on the structure of the eye, [155] n.
Gymnosperms, appearance of, [219]
Haeckel, Prof. E.—on "rational view of the world," [10-14];
on the "magic word evolution," [16];
on scientific method, [18], [20];
on the law of substance, [13], [23];
on the conservation of energy, [23], [24], [26];
on the "Seven Enigmas," [33];
on the nature and properties of matter, [35], [39];
on the artificial manufacture of protoplasm, [59];
on free-will and determinism, [81];
on design in Nature, [90], [150];
on chance, [117];
on Monism, [128];
on annihilation as a desirable end, [130];
on the ultimate reality, [135];
unfounded claims on behalf of Darwin, [150];
bases arguments on lack of knowledge, [183];
on rudimentary organs and "Dysteleology," [190];
on single origin of every species, [210];
on the appearance of the Apetalæ, [221];
invents geological "ante-periods," [236];
and intermediate forms, [261];
his pedigree of man, [261];
his method of solving the riddles of Nature, [264]
Heredity, [83], [99]
Herschel, Sir J.—on molecules as manufactured articles, [89];
on evidence of mind in Nature, [100];
on gravitation, [125]
Hesperornis, [171]
Heurtin, Marie, [77]
Hippops, [246], [252]
Hird, Mr. D.—on the omnipotence of Evolution, [14];
on transformations of force, [129]
Holland, Sir H.—on structure of ear, [93]
Homer, a "half-savage Greek," [69] n.
Homo alalus, and sapiens, [81]
Horse, structure of, [94], [240]
Genealogy of, [236], [241] seq.
Hudson, Dr.—on neglect of[{293}]
study of present life in favour of evolutionary speculations, [185]
Humboldt, W. von—on human speech, [76]
Hutton, F. W.—on finite duration of the world, [2];
and of the universe, [28];
on dissipation of energy, [27] n.
Huxley, Prof.—on finite duration of the world, [1];
on the nature of science, [5];
on "Laws of Nature," [16-18];
on Evolution as a philosophy, [21], [22];
on matter, [38];
on the beginning of life, [46];
on faith and verification, [47];
on the fundamental principle of Evolution, [48];
on spontaneous generation, [50-54];
on protoplasm, [59], [60];
on structure of the Horse, [93];
on theism and creation, [100];
on teleology, [102];
on theism and chance, [103];
on the non-existence of chance, [111];
on seeming waste in nature, [121];
on mind and matter, [133];
on Saurian birds, [172];
on Dysteleology, [191];
on embryology and ætiology, [197];
on the Darwinian theory, [200], [201];
on facts as the only sound basis of theory, [204];
on the fundamental doctrine of organic evolution, [206];
on evolutionary evidence, [235];
on Haeckel's "Ante-periods," [236];
claims palæontological evidence as demonstrative of Evolution, [239], [261];
his pedigree of the Horse, [236], [242] seq.;
discussed, [244] seq.
Hydra, structure of, [146]
Icthyornis, [171]
Inertia, a property of matter, [39]
Inference, [5] n.; [96], [272]
Insects, insular, as an argument for Natural Selection, [154], [167]
Invertebrate life, history of, [225]
Johnson, Dr.—on free-will, [84]
Julius Cæsar, his polydactyle charger, [241]
Kant—on necessity of design, [150]
Keller, Miss [77]
Kelvin, Lord (Sir W. Thomson),—on the dissipation of energy, [25], [26];
his Law of Parsimony, [98];
on science and theism, [104], [278]
Laing, Mr. S.—on matter and motion, [35]
Lamarck—on Nature's witness to God, [279]
Language, our "Rubicon," [73];
distinctively human, [73-78];
essential character, [74];
theories as to origin, [79]
Lankester, Prof. Ray—on evolution of Proboscideae, [259]
Laws of Nature—what? [16],[{294}]
[17], [86];
expressions of creative intelligence, [123], [277]
Lewes, Mr.—on Laws of Nature, [86]
Liddon, Canon—on Laws of Nature, [16]
Life had a beginning, [46];
origin of, [46-66];
laws of, [90]
Link forms wanting in Nature, [208] seq., [228] seq.
Lodge, Sir O.—on non-purposive Evolution, [202];
on anthropomorphism and the First Cause, [276]
Lydekker, Mr. R.—on pedigree of the Horse, [248]
Lyell, Sir C.—on the need of creation, [269]
Mallock, Mr. W.—on human conduct, [139]
Mammals, appearance of, [226];
problems suggested by, [255]
Man, faculties, [71] seq.;
appearance of, [227]
Marsh, Prof.—on Evolution, [47];
on Hippops, [252]
Marshall, Prof. Milnes—on the teachings of Evolution, [15];
on embryology, [159];
on Haeckel's treatment of the same, [195]
Marsupials, first appearance, [226]
Materia Prima, [42] n
Matter, [35];
indestructibility, [13], [23];
properties, [36] seq.;
constitution, [37], [41] seq., [135];
and motion, [39];
dissolution of, [43];
and mind, [131] seq.
Max Müller, Prof.—on language, [73], [75]
Mendeléeff's Periodic Law, [88]
Mind and matter, connexion of, [131] seq.
Mivart, Mr. St. G.—on the gulf between man and brute, [72];
on the essence of language, [74];
on theories as to its origin, [79];
on the ease with which Darwinian arguments can be found, [177];
on embryology of Salamander, [193];
on incompatibility of geological evidence with theory of Evolution by minute and gradual modification, [228], [230];
on evolution of the Horse, [255];
on the failure of apparent links, [267]
Mole, evolution of, [181]
Molecules, [88];
"manufactured articles," [89];
Clerk-Maxwell on, [90], [104]
Monism, [126] seq., [278];
and morality, [137];
and Truth, [138]
Monocotyledons, appearance of, [219]
Motion, as a property of matter, [39]
Myriadism, a better term for Monism, [136]
"Natural Selection," what it is, [152] seq.;
its powers discussed, [165] seq.;
can produce nothing, [168];
a misnomer, [174]. See [Darwinism].
"Nature," 6[{295}]
Nebular hypothesis, [11], [45], [48]
Newman, Cardinal—on the nature of laws, [17];
on law and causality, [99]
Newton, Sir I., his laws of motion, [39];
on evidence for theism, [103]
North British Reviewer—on the limits of variation, [162];
on the facility with which Darwinian arguments can be found, [177];
on Darwinism and geographical distribution, [184];
on the "maybe's" of Darwinism, ibid.;
on incompatibility of geological evidence with evolutionary theory, [228]
Obrecht, Martha, [77]
Ontogeny, [83] n.
Organic progression—and Darwinism, [186];
not evidenced by palæontology, [234]
Organs, vestigial or rudimentary as an argument for evolution, [158], [189]
Origin of Species, appearance of, [151]
Owen, Sir R.—on the Archæopteryx, [172]
Pain and suffering, as an objection to Design, [119], [121]
Palæontology—the only sound basis for evolutionary theory, [204];
its evidence adverse to progressive developments, [234]
Paley—his "watch argument" disproved by machine-made watches, [118]
Pasteur, M.—on spontaneous generation, [50];
on initial temperature of life, [57] n.
Peacock's feathers and Natural Selection, [155] n., [175]
Perrier, M. E.—on the evidence for Evolution, [237]
Pettigrew, Mr.—on wings of birds, [93]
Phylogeny, [83] n.
Prothyle, [42]
Protoplasm, [59-63]
Purpose and natural laws, [122]
Quatrefages, M. de—on life and non-life, [63];
on crystallization, [64];
on variation in Nature, [162];
on Darwinian argumentation, [180], [182], [183];
on embryology, [194];
on absence of intermediate forms in Nature, [212], [229]
Quinton, M.—new doctrine of life development, [57] n.
Rana opisthodon—embryology, [195]
Rayleigh, Lord—on atheistic science, [105];
on scientific authority, [109]
Reason generates speech, not vice versa, [76]
Reptiles, age of, [226]
Reptilian birds, [171]
Rivarol—on God and the world, [279]
Robin, M. Ch.—on Darwinism, [198]
Romanes, Prof.—on continuity and universality of natural causation, [29], [30];[{296}]
on origin of language, [79];
on Monism, [129];
on the inadequacy of Natural Selection, [201];
on jealousy of admitting the Creator into creation, [277]
Roscoe, Sir H.—on artificial production of protoplasm, [62]
Salamander, embryological features, [193]
Salix polaris, its specific stability, [164], [222]
Saporta, Comte de—on parallel development of animal and vegetable life, [228];
on the problem of Creation, [268]
Schoolmen, the—on relation of soul and body, [132]
Scorpion, maternal and unfilial instincts, [122]
Selous, Mr. E.—exemplifies Monistic doctrines, [139] n.
Sensation and consciousness,—origin of, [67]
Snakes, embryological features, [194]
Species, on evolutionary principles must each derive from a single origin, [210];
isolation of, [211];
and genera, [244] n.
Specific stability in Nature, [164]
Spencer, Mr. Herbert—on the beginning of life, [56];
his "Formula of Evolution," [145];
on the process of organic evolution, [147]
Spontaneous Generation. See [Life, origin of]
Stephen, Sir L.—on materialism, [78]
Stewart, Prof. Balfour—on finite duration of the world, [1];
on dissipation of energy, [25].
See also Stewart and Tait
Stewart and Tait—on self-evidence of theism, [104], [273]
Stirling, Mr.—on protoplasm, [59], [61]
Stokes, Sir G. G.—on evidence for design, [104]
Suarez—on creative power and natural law, [207]
Substance, law of, [13], [14], [22], [23], [33], [41], [118]
Survival of the fittest, and organic progression, [186]
Tait, Prof. P.—On the scope of science, [18], [20];
on force and energy, [23] n.;
on the properties of matter, [39];
on "pseudoscience," [40];
on scientific methods, [47];
on mechanical theories of life, [65].
See also [Stewart and Tait].
Teleology—[98] seq.
Theism, [97] seq., [277]
Thiselton-Dyer, Sir W.—on protoplasm, [60-62]
Thyroid gland—its lesson, [191] n.
Time, as a factor in Evolution, [80], [169]
Transformism, [142], etc.
See [Evolution, organic]
Triton alpestris, 195[{297}]
Tyndall, Prof.—on the material origin of life, [38];
on the beginning of life, [46];
on scientific method, [47];
on spontaneous generation, [54-56];
on the potentialities of matter, [54];
on mind and matter, [133]
Ungulates, structure of limbs, [241]
Variation, the basis of Darwin's calculations, [162];
its limitations, ibid.;
minute at each stage, [165]
Verbum mentale, [76]
Vines, Prof. S. H.—on speculations and facts, [185];
on the present status of the Darwinian theory, [202];
on our present knowledge, [237]
Virchow, Prof.—on the beginning of life, [46];
on spontaneous generation, [65]
Vogt, Carl—on embryology, [194];
on Haeckel's genealogies, [264]
Wallace, Mr. A. R.—on breaches of natural causation, [64];
on the origin of life, ibid.;
on the origin of animal life, [69], [70]
Weismann, Prof.—on our intellectual need for causality, [101]
Weldon, Prof.—on Huxley's scientific method, [21], [197]
Whales, appearance of, [257]
Whitney, Prof.—on origin of language, [79]
Will, the only cause known to us, [99], [100].
See also [Free-will]
Williamson, Prof. W. C.—on missing links, [231];
on an unrecognized factor in life-developments, [232];
on the geological history of fishes, [233];
on genealogy of the equidæ, [251];
on lack of palæontological support for the Evolution theory, [260]
Wings, as machines, [93]
Wollaston, Mr.—on "Nature" as an agent, [108]
World, beginning of, [1]
Zeuglodon, [257]
A LIST OF WORKS
MAINLY BY
ROMAN CATHOLIC
WRITERS
TABLE OF CONTENTS
| PAGE | |
| The Westminster Library | [2] |
| The Catholic Church | [3] |
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| Biography | [6] |
| History | [8] |
| The Beginnings of the Church | [8] |
| Educational | [9] |
| Stonyhurst Philosophical Series | [10] |
| Poetry, Fiction, etc. | [10] |
| Novels by M. E. Francis (Mrs. Francis Blundell) | [11] |
| Works by the Very Rev. Canon Sheehan, D.D. | [11] |
| Works by Cardinal Newman | [12] |
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FOOTNOTES:
[1] Collected Essays, i. 35.
[2] Lectures on Evolution, Cheap Edition, p. 16.
[3] Conservation of Energy, § 210, p. 153.
[4] F. W. Hutton, F.R.S., The Lesson of Evolution (1902), pp. 9-11.
[5] Nineteenth Century, February, 1889. p. 173.
[6] This term is now applied almost exclusively to physical science, or that whose province is the observation of phenomena and inferences directly deducible from them. To avoid confusion, this sense of the word "Science" will be here adopted: it is nevertheless objectionable inasmuch as it implies that—as Professor Huxley following Hume would have it—sound knowledge is restricted, outside the field of mathematics, to "experimental reasoning concerning matter of fact and existence." But although all premisses or data of inference come to us first through the gates of sense, there is much, beyond the limits within which sensible experience is confined, to a knowledge of which inference can lead us, and of which we become certain before experience can verify what we have thus learnt. Thus a chipped flint or a fragment of pottery is universally recognized as evidencing the work of man: a single page of Virgil would suffice—apart from all other information—to prove its author to have been both a poet and a scholar: the shipwrecked mariner cast on an unknown shore argued soundly from the sight of a gibbet that he had reached a civilized land ruled by law. But more than this, Science herself proceeds on this principle to the recognition not only of forces, the character of which is known by previous experience, but of others concerning which she knows nothing at all, except through the very effects from which she argues. Thus, as all bodies left free are found to draw towards one another in a certain mode, it is concluded with absolute confidence that there is a force making them do so, although this is in itself utterly imperceptible, and is known only by the way in which bodies behave under what must be its influence. Yet, who questions the existence of Gravitation? In like manner, the phenomena of light force us to admit the existence of the Ether, as the medium through which its waves are transmitted. Yet, we are compelled to attribute to this medium qualities apparently so incompatible that, as the late Lord Salisbury said, Ether remains, "a half discovered entity." But little as we can realize its nature, we have no doubt that such a medium exists.
[7] "Value of the Natural History Sciences" (Lay Sermons), p. 75.
[8] Italics his.
[9] Confession of Faith of a Man of Science, English translation, 1903, Preface, p. vii.
[10] Riddle of the Universe, Cheap English Edition, p. 2.
[11] ibid., p. 85.
[12] And also, it should be added, travelling bodily through space with a movement of "translation."
[13] Ibid.
[14] Ibid., p. 2.
[15] The 15th Chapter of Haeckel's Natural History of Creation is devoted to this point.
[16] Confession of Faith of a Man of Science, p. 32.
[17] Riddle of the Universe, p. 5.
[18] Ibid., p. 78.
[19] Ibid., p. 86.
[20] Ibid., 134.
[21] An Easy Outline of Evolution, by Dennis Hird, M.A., Principal of Ruskin Hall, Oxford, p. 230.
[22] Presidential Address, Section D, Zoology, Leeds, 1890.
[23] Riddle of the Universe, p. 2.
[24] Ibid., p. 83.
[25] "Pseudo-Scientific Realism," Collected Essays, i, 68, 74-78.
[26] Newman, Grammar of Assent, p. 72. A "Law of Nature," as has already been said, is simply a statement of what de facto has always been found to occur under certain conditions, and may consequently be expected again. It is obvious however that such expectation is implicitly based on the existence of some cause capable of ensuring the result.
[27] "The Teaching of Natural Philosophy," Contemporary Review, Jan., 1878.
[28] Lay Sermons, p. 83.
[29] Riddle of the Universe, p. 6.
[30] See Wasmann "Gedanken zur Entwicklungslehre," Stimmen aus Maria-Laach, vol. 63, p. 298.
[31] Contemporary Review, ut sup., p. 301.
[32] Professor Weldon, F.R.S., in the Dictionary of National Biography.
[33] Collected Essays, v. 41.
[34] Riddle of the Universe, p. 75.
[35] Professor Garnett in the Encyclopaedia Britannica. By "Force" is understood "any cause which tends to alter a body's natural state of rest, or of uniform motion in a straight line." Of the nature of such causes science professes to know very little, and as Clerk-Maxwell, who knew as much as most men, sang apropos of a lecture of Professor Tait's:
| ... Tait writes in lucid symbols clear one small equation; |
| And Force becomes of Energy a mere space-variation. |
[36] Balfour Stewart, Conservation of Energy, § 115; by Clerk-Maxwell, apud Garnett, ut sup.
[37] Tyndall, Fragments of Science, 5th Edition, p. 23.
[38] Conservation of Energy, § 209.
[39] Sir William Thomson, now Lord Kelvin.
[40] March 29, 1888.
[41] So of another effort in the same direction Capt. Hutton tells us: "The last champion in the field is Professor A. W. Bickerton, who thinks he has found a way in which this dismal conclusion, as he considers it, may be averted. But he is not very sure about it, and has to assume: first, that space contains now and always will contain, a large quantity of cosmic dust scattered through it with some approach to uniformity; and secondly, that the Universe consists of an infinite number of what he calls 'cosmic systems,' travelling through space, constantly throwing off dust in all directions and occasionally colliding. As all this is pure assumption and highly improbable, I cannot think that Professor Bickerton has brought forward any serious objection to the theory of the dissipation of energy, and his hypothesis must be added to the list of failures." (Lesson of Evolution, p. 14, n.)
[42] Lesson of Evolution, p. 14.
[43] Darwin and after Darwin, p. 17.
[44] Riddle of the Universe, p. 64.
[45] Über die Grenzen der Naturerkennens: Die Sieben Welträthsel, Leipzic, 1882.
[46] Riddle of the Universe, p. 64.
[47] Du Bois-Reymond does not say that they are soluble, but only that he cannot pronounce them "transcendental."
[48] Samuel Laing, Modern Science and Modern Thought, Cheap Edition, p. 19.
[49] Riddle of the Universe, p. 86.
[50] Ibid.
[51] P. 78.
[52] P. 64.
[53] Origin of the Laws of Nature, p. 23.
[54] Belfast Address, 1874.
[55] Lay Sermons. "On the Physical Basis of Life," p. 143.
[56] Professor Tait, Properties of Matter, § 108.
[57] Contemporary Review, January, 1878, p. 301.
[58] Story of Creation, p. 11.
[59] Edinburgh Review, October, 1903, p. 399.
[60] Or "primal stuff." This looks remarkably like the old Materia Prima of the Schoolmen translated into Greek.
[61] Ibid. The Revelations of Radium.
[62] Ibid., p. 398.
{Note.—It is often assumed that the composite character of the atom—if fully established—must upset the Atomic Theory. This is not so; all that the new hypothesis does is to go further back in accounting for the Atomic Theory, and for all practical purposes things remain exactly as they were; except, indeed, that the dissolution of matter does away with what was held as one of the most assured conclusions of science.}
[63] The Nebular Hypothesis itself is, of course, far from being an established certainty, and is not devoid of grave difficulties. Into these, however, it is not necessary now to enter.
[64] Apud Gaynor, The New Materialism, p. 83.
[65] Encyclopaedia Britannica, "Biology."
[66] Apud Gaynor, p. 84.
[67] Professor Marsh.
[68] Professor Dewar at Belfast, 1902.
[69] Recent Advances in Physical Science, 3rd Edition, p. 6.
[70] Gaynor, p. 102.
[71] Lay Sermons, p. 18.
[72] Critiques and Addresses, p. 305.
[73] Being the year in which this passage was written.
[74] Viz. that of the derivation of life from life alone, as opposed to Abiogenesis, or its production from lifeless matter.
[75] See Fragments of Science, "Spontaneous Generation," for a full account.
[76] March 18, 1863. Life and Letters, i. 352.
[77] April 30, 1870. Ibid. ii. 17.
[78] Critiques and Addresses, p. 238.
[79] Lay Sermons, p. 18.
[80] Evolution and the Origin of Life, 1874, p. 23.
[81] Encyclopaedia Britannica, "Biology."
[82] Fragments of Science. "Rev. James Martineau and Belfast Address."
[83] Ibid. "Scientific use of the imagination."
[84] Fragments of Science, "Spontaneous Generation."
[85] Ibid. "Rev. James Martineau and Belfast Address."
[86] Ibid. "Vitality."
[87] Nineteenth Century, May, 1886, p. 769.
[88] Italics mine.
[89] It has been established by Pasteur and others that the highest temperature at which organic life is possible is 45° Centigrade (113° Fahrenheit). When the globe had cooled to this point from its primitive molten condition, the epoch of terrestrial life commenced.
According to what is perhaps the latest theory, that of M. Quinton, the temperature immediately below this, 44° Centigrade, remains always the best for living things, and those creatures are highest in the scale of life, and consequently the most developed, which have contrived means of keeping their internal heat at, or about, this level, despite the refrigeration of their surroundings. In their blood-heat M. Quinton therefore finds an absolute rule for fixing the relative rank of organic forms, and the date of their appearance; those whose blood is warmest being the most recently evolved. The results of this new system are sufficiently startling. Birds are to be classed as the highest and newest of all; while man, with the other Primates, has to take a much lower place, the ungulates, including the horse and donkey, and the carnivora, as dogs and cats, being his superiors. (La Revue des Idées, January 15, 1904, pp. 29 seq.)
[90] To D. Mackintosh, February 28, 1882.
[91] To Sir J. D. Hooker, March 29, 1863.
[92] To V. Carus, November 21, 1866.
[93] To D. Mackintosh, February 28, 1882.
[94] Riddle of the Universe, p. 6.
[95] As regards Protoplasm, p. 21.
[96] Encyclopaedia Britannica, "Biology."
[97] Printed in Lay Sermons.
[98] Nature, June 5, 1902, p. 121.
[99] Id. ibid.
[100] Op. cit. p. 27.
[101] Presidential Address, British Association, 1887.
[102] Les Emules de Darwin, ii. 66.
[103] Op. cit. ii. 63.
[104] Darwinism, p. 474.
[105] The other stages presenting similar difficulties are the 5th and 6th of Du Bois-Reymond's Enigmas, viz. the introduction of sensation or consciousness (animal life), and of rational thought and speech.
[106] Contemporary Review, January, 1878, p. 298.
[107] Die sieben Welträthsel, D. 82.
[108] Professor Huxley, it must be remarked, speaks of Homer as a "half savage Greek" (Lay Sermons, p. 12), and intimates a mild wonder that such a being could share our feelings in presence of nature to so large an extent as his poems testify. This is undoubtedly a fine example of the good conceit of ourselves which the pursuit of science is rather apt to produce.
[109] Darwinism, p. 475.
[110] Descent of Man, c. ii.
[111] Ibid. 54.
[112] In his paper read before the British Association at Oxford in 1847.
[113] Lessons from Nature, p. 89.
[114] See Mivart, Origin of Human Reason, p. 166.
[115] See Louis Arnould, Une âme en prison, and article "An imprisoned Soul," by the Ctesse. de Courson, The Month, January, 1902, p. 82.
[116] Descent of Man, i. 57.
[117] i.e. ape-like.
[118] Quoted by Romanes, Mental Evolution in Man.
[119] Ibid., p. 371.
[120] Origin of Human Reason, p. 385.
[121] Op. cit. p. 379.
[122] Riddle of the Universe, p. 46.
[123] "Ontogeny" signifies the genesis of the individual, "Phylogeny" that of the race. Accordingly, when rendered into ordinary language, declarations such as these, unsupported as they are by any evidence, are found to mean that the development of the individual, tells us all about the development of the individual, and the development of the race all about that of the race. Is it really supposed, as it would seem to be, that such points are scientifically settled by translating terms into Greek?
[124] Lavengro, passim.
[125] Preliminary Discourse on the Study of Natural Philosophy, p. 38.
[126] British Association Lecture, 1873.
[127] Riddle of the Universe, p. 93.
[128] Origin of Species (5th Edition), p. 226.
[129] Afterwards (April 17, 1863) Mr. Darwin wrote to Sir J. D. Hooker, "I have long regretted that I truckled to public opinion, and used the Pentateuchal term of creation, by which I really meant 'appeared' by some wholly unknown process."
[130] At a later period Mr. Darwin modified his views as to what he still termed "that wondrous organ the human eye," writing thus (Descent of Man, ii. 166): "We know what Helmholtz, the highest authority in Europe on the subject, has said about the human eye: that if an optician had sold him an instrument so carelessly made, he would have thought himself fully justified in returning it."
It is perfectly true that Helmholtz so expressed himself (Vorträge und Reden, i. 253, etc., English Edition, "Popular Scientific Lectures," pp. 219, etc.), adding that "the eye has every possible defect that can be found in an optical instrument, and some which are peculiar to itself." These utterances are frequently quoted, but Helmholtz says a good deal more of which we do not usually hear. He observes, in the first place, that in speaking as above he did so "from the narrow but legitimate point of view of an optician." Having then enumerated all the defects in question, he continues—"In an artificial camera, all these irregularities would be exceedingly troublesome. In the eye they are not so, so little troublesome, indeed, that it was occasionally a matter of extreme difficulty to detect them." He adds that men in general not only are unaware of the existence of such defects, but can hardly be induced to credit it. Also that they "almost always affect those portions of the field of vision to which at the moment we are not directing our attention." What is still more to the point, he observes, that the defects noted are all theoretical, while the purpose of the eye is practical, and that if theoretically more perfect as an optical instrument, it would be practically less serviceable. To complain that the eye is not adapted for the special purposes of a microscope or telescope is like condemning the boats of a sea-going ship because they lack some of the qualities found in racing outriggers or Rob Roy canoes. "As concerns the adaptation of the eye to its functions, [adds Helmholtz,] this is most thorough, and is manifest in the very limitations set to its defects.... A man of any sense would not chop firewood with a razor, and we may assume that any elaboration of the optical structure of the eye would have rendered it more liable to injury and slower in its development." Helmholtz therefore concludes that the eye is a product which "the wisest Wisdom may have pre-designed."
It thus comes very much to Pope's solution:
| Why has not man a microscopic eye? |
| For this plain reason: man is not a fly,— |
and in view of his subsequent admissions, Helmholtz's flourish about returning the eye to its maker looks very like theatrical clap-trap, unworthy of such a man.
[131] Life of C. Darwin, ii. 234. Erasmus Darwin to C. Darwin, November 23, 1859.
[132] Animal Locomotion (International Scientific Series), p. 180.
[133] Origin of Laws of Nature, p. 69.
[134] Lectures on Evolution (Cheap Edition), p. 37.
[135] Philosophical Basis of Evolution, passim.
[136] By a Final Cause is meant the predetermined result or end, towards which a work of intelligence is directed, the end being the ultimate cause of the whole act. Thus the obtaining a light is the Final Cause of striking a match: while the striking of the match is the Efficient Cause producing the light.
[137] Grammar of Assent, p. 69.
[138] Familiar Lectures, p. 458.
[139] "On the Reception of the 'Origin of Species,':" Life of C. Darwin, ii. p. 187.
[140] Nineteenth Century, No. 2. Reprinted in Lectures and Essays, p. 388 (2nd Edition).
[141] Studies in the Theory of Descent, vol. ii. p. 710; vid. Edinburgh Review, October, 1902, The Rise and Influence of Darwinism.
[142] Ut sup. p. 201.
[143] Sic. The sense evidently requires either that the "not" should be deleted, or "prove" be substituted for "disprove" in the preceding line. This erroneous reading occurs not only in the text from which I quote, but likewise in the Critiques and Addresses, p. 307, where this passage forms part of the Professor's review of Haeckel's Natural History of Creation, under the title of The Genealogy of Animals.
[144] Life and Letters, ii. 195.
[145] Ibid., p. 467.
[146] De Natura Deorum, ii. 4.
[147] Principia, Schol. Gen.
[148] Unseen Universe, p. 47.
[149] Burnett Lectures, p. 327.
[150] See report of his words emended by himself, Nineteenth Century and After, June, 1903.
[151] Bradford, 1873.
[152] Montreal, 1884.
[153] Annals and Magazine of Natural History, 3rd Series, vol. v. p. 138.
[154] "Reception of 'Origin of Species,'" ubi sup. p. 199.
[155] November 26, 1860.
[156] May 22, 1860.
[157] Riddle of the Universe, p. 92.
[158] The Scientific Basis of Morality, by George Gore, LL.D., F.R.S., p. 31.
[159] May 22, 1860.
[160] Bain, De vi physica, p. 76.
[161] Origin of Laws of Nature, p. 61.
[162] Lord Grimthorpe, op. cit. 85.
[163] Letter to the Times, June 2, 1903
[164] The term Monism, invented by Wolf, originally bore a different meaning from that in which Haeckel employs it. It was used to signify equally the materialistic denial of the substantiality of mind, and the idealistic denial of the substantiality of matter. Professor Haeckel, as will be seen, maintains that mind and matter are but two names for one thing.
[165] Confession of Faith of a Man of Science (English translation), p. 60.
[166] Ibid., p. 10.
[167] Ibid., p. 3.
[168] Mind and Motion.
[169] An Easy Outline of Evolution, by Dennis Hird, M.A., Principal of Ruskin Hall, Oxford, p. 184.
[170] Ibid., p. 74.
[171] Confession of Faith of a Man of Science, p. 51.
[172] Presidential Address, Section A, British Association, Norwich, 1868.
[173] "Mr. Darwin's Critics." (Critiques and Addresses, p. 283.)
[174] Confession of Faith of a Man of Science, p. 19.
[175] To what extremes such doctrines must logically lead is illustrated by Mr. Edmund Selous in his very interesting Bird Watching, where he casually observes, as a matter of course, that the "life-part" of a tom-tit is as important in the sum of things as Napoleon's (p. 248), and declares elsewhere, more formally (p. 335)—"Surely, a beautiful butterfly, that, for all time, charms—and raises by charming—some number of those who see it, does more good on this earth than any single man or woman, who, 'departing,' leaves no 'foot-prints on the sands of time.' Homer, for instance, has left his Iliad and Odyssey, and these have been, and still are, mighty in their effects. But let them once perish, and Homer will be caught up and overtaken by almost any bird or butterfly—even a brown one."
[176] First Principles.
[177] Riddle of the Universe, p. 92.
[178] As to the term "Chance" which he frequently used, Mr. Darwin wrote in one place (Origin of Species, Opening passage of c. v.): "I have hitherto sometimes spoken as if the variations—so common and multiform with organic beings under domestication, and in a lesser degree with those in a state of nature—had been due to chance. This, of course, is a wholly incorrect expression, but it serves to acknowledge plainly our ignorance of the cause of each particular variation." It is obvious, however, that this explanation only serves to show that, as we have heard him confess, Mr. Darwin was anything but a clear thinker, for it is absolutely meaningless if applied to his mention of "Chance" quoted in the text above. He could not possibly mean that the mind refuses to regard the world as the outcome of a cause whereof we know nothing, for that is just what he thinks it is. Mr. Darwin, in fact, instinctively recognized, as every man of common-sense must do, that if not due to purpose, the order of Nature is due to chance, according to the true and legitimate use of the word, and thus he commonly employed it. Occasionally however he endeavoured, following Huxley and others, to defend himself against the reproach of relying upon such a factor.—Vid. sup., c. xii.
[179] Although at first Mr. Darwin appeared to restrict his system to species, very soon, as was but natural, it was extended to the production of new genera, and even of divisions of the organic kingdoms yet wider asunder. Thus—apart from the most famous instance of all, treated by Darwin himself in his Descent of Man—it is now a cardinal point with Evolutionists generally that all the higher forms of life are descended from the lowest, and that even far up the line of development, creatures apparently the most diverse have sprung from one identical ancestor. Thus amongst vertebrates it is considered certain that Birds and Reptiles are branches of the same stock,—and, still farther on, that at least all placental mammals—bats and whales, elephants and mice—trace their pedigree to some common progenitor.
[180] Origin of Species, v.
[181] Ibid., c. vii.
[182] Ibid., c. vi.
[183] "I remember well the time when the thought of the eye made me cold all over, but I have got over this stage of the complaint, and now some small trifling particulars of structure often make me feel very uncomfortable. The sight of a feather in a peacock's tail, whenever I gaze at it, makes me sick." (C. Darwin to Asa Gray, April 3, 1860.)
[184] It will help to understand the nature of the task thus imposed upon Natural Selection, to consider what Lord Grimthorpe writes on this subject (Origin of the Laws of Nature, p. 103):
"We take pieces of glass of different kinds and grind them to particular shapes and set them in a frame and make a telescope, which refracts rays of light so as to produce an 'image' of a very distant object near our eye, and that appears much larger when seen through another glass of proper shape. But we have never yet been able to make one that can bring all the rays from a single distant point exactly to another point without confusion. Yet there are many millions of apparently self-made machines in the world that do it perfectly; and when we cut up one of them and examine it we find that instead of our large lumps of glass melted together into a coarse kind of uniformity, this machine has been built up of an innumerable quantity of particles arranged in peculiar and complicated ways, some of which have objects that we can understand, though we cannot imitate them, and others that we do not. Moreover they are persistently alike in every machine of the same class, and again some of them persistently unlike those belonging to any other class of animals. For a long time the retina of the eye used to be called a membrane, or a kind of thin sheet. Then it was found to be a kind of brush of which the hairs vibrate under the vibration of the rays of light; and now these hairs are found by further magnification to be divided into so many parts lengthwise that a picture of them has to be as long as the picture of a striped or spotted animal to distinguish them; and instead of being simply set fast by one end like hairs in a brush, they pass through several frames or membranes; and of the use of all these pieces we know nothing. Such is the 'simplicity of nature' in that organ which next to a stomach is the commonest in all living creatures; and such is our ignorance of nature yet."
[185] Ibid., c. vii.
[186] Although, as bee-keepers soon discover, Mr. Darwin supposed the workmanship of bees' cells to be considerably more exact and accurate than usually is the case,—there remains quite enough of architectural merit to justify his remarks. It may even be said to increase the mystery that the insects should thus appear to strive towards an ideal, which they frequently fail to satisfy.
[187] Ranunculus ficaria. It is remarkable that in the season of 1904 this plant has ripened fruit profusely in various districts in which such fruit had for many years been practically undiscoverable.
[188] Origin of Species, c. xiv.
[189] Descent of Man, Part I, c. i.
[190] Biological Lectures and Addresses, p. 202.
[191] Charles Darwin et ses précurseurs Français (1870), p. 120.
[192] North British Review, June, 1867. Professor Huxley likewise declared this criticism to be of "real and permanent value." (Critiques and Addresses, 252.)
[193] La vie des êtres animés, p. 102.
[194] Presidential Address Geologists' Association (Proceedings, vol. v. 1875-6). Partly reprinted in Contemporary Review, February, 1877, under the title "Evolution and the Vegetable Kingdom."
[195] See Appendix A. [p. 280a].
[196] Variation in Animals and Plants, p. 343. By H. M. Verney (International Scientific Series, 88).
[197] J. W. Barclay, New Theory of Organic Evolution, p. 90.
[198] Huxley, Lectures and Essays (Popular Edition), pp. 28, seq.
[199] Since Professor Huxley wrote the idea has been completely discarded that these birds occupy such a place as he assigned them. The wing of Hesperornis, for example, is now declared to be an instance of degeneration from one capable of flight. None of these fowls can be considered as the progenitors of any now existing, but all as the descendants of flying ancestors of arboreal habits, whereof no trace has yet been discovered. (See Pycraft's Story of Bird Life, p. 190.)
[200] Philosophical Transactions Royal Society, 1863, p. 36.
[201] This point is well handled by M. Paul Janet, Final Causes, 2nd English Edition, p. 245.
[202] Descent of Man, ii. 156.
[203] Tablet, May 26, 1888, p. 837.
[204] Lessons from Nature, p. 297.
[205] Descent of Man, i. p. 57.
[206] In later editions (e.g. that of 1888, i. 133) the suggestion is put in form of a question: "May not some unusually wise ape-like animal ...?"
[207] Origin of Species, c. vi.
[208] Ibid., c. viii.
[209] It is a grave aggravation of the problem, which need only be mentioned here, that the bees which make cells are neuters and have no descendants, while the queens and drones which are the progenitors of the whole race never do a stroke of work in the course of their existence.
[210] Descent of Man (1st Edition), ii. 385.
[211] Ibid., i. 107.
[212] Ibid., ii. 386.
[213] Charles Darwin et ses précurseurs Français, p. 151
[214] Ibid., p. 167.
[215] La vie des êtres animés, p. 161.
[216] Saint-Hilaire.
[217] Les Emules de Darwin, ii. p. 82.
[218] North British Review, July, 1867, p. 316.
[219] P. 313.
[220] November 5, 1903, Journal of Botany, January, 1904, p. 32.
[221] Dr. Hudson, see Nature, February 20, 1890, p. 375.
[222] Origin of Species, c. xi.
[223] Op. cit. p. 59.
[224] History of Creation, English Edition, ii. 353.
[225] The Genealogy of Animals: a Review of Haeckel's "Natürliche Schöpfungs-Geschichte." The Academy, 1869. Reprinted in Critiques and Addresses, and Darwiniana (Collected Works).
[226] The Thyroid gland in the throat, the function of which is unknown, was supposed to be absolutely without use. It is found, however, that its removal entails myxoedema, a condition closely allied to cretinism.
[227] "Geological Contemporaneity." (Lay Sermons, p. 206.)
[228] Mr. Mivart, Types of Animal Life, p. 113.
[229] Les Emules de Darwin, ii. 13.
[230] Mr. Mivart, Tablet, April 21, 1888.
[231] The Mexican Axolotl, the Triton Alpestris, and probably others.
[232] Nature, March 24, 1892.
[233] i.e. the Science of Causes.
[234] Dictionnaire encyclopédique des sciences médicales.
[235] Thus having described in detail a series of experiments as to the effects of an alteration of diet supplied to the larvæ of various hymenoptera, M. Fabre writes:
"Tout cela est bien autrement grave que les petits riens invoqués par Darwin." (Souvenirs entomologiques, 3rd Series, p. 330.)
[236] Journal of Linnean Society, vol. xix.
[237] Hibbert Journal, January, 1903, p. 218.
[238] Revue de Philosophie, April 1, 1904.
[239] Souvenirs entomologiques, 3rd Series, p. 317.
[240] For some further testimonies on this head see Appendix.
[241] Nature, September 10, 1891.
[242] Coming of Age of the Origin of Species.
[243] De opere sex dierum, ii. 10, n. 12.
[244] Modern Idea of Evolution, p. 97.
[245] Darwin (Origin of Species, p. 274, 6th Edition) considers it "incredible" that the same identical species should originate twice even under the very same conditions. In the following passage, Haeckel affirms such unity of origin in respect of a most remarkable species of wide-reaching affinities.
"All morphologists arrive at the firm conviction that all vertebrata, from the Amphioxus upwards to man himself, all fishes, amphibia, reptiles, birds, and mammals, descend originally from a single vertebrate ancestor, for we cannot imagine that all the different and highly complicated conditions of life which, through a long series of processes or stages of development, led to the typical formation of a vertebrate, have accidentally happened together more than once in the course of the earth's history." (Address to Munich meeting of German Association, vid. Nature, October 4, 1877.)
[246] Origin of Species (6th Edition), p. 265.
[247] Les Emules de Darwin, ii., 76.
[248] History of Plant Life and its bearings on Theory of Evolution (1898).
[249] Harebell.
[250] According to the most recent system of classification, the Monopetalæ, now re-christened Sympetalae, are ranked above the Polypetalæ, the family of the Compositae being highest of all.
[251] Proceedings, vol. v., p. 17, etc. (1875-6). The substance of this address appeared as an article in the Contemporary Review, February, 1877, entitled, "Evolution and the Vegetable Kingdom."
[252] See Appendix B. p. 284.
[253] Modern Ideas of Evolution (6th Edition), pp. 107, seq.
[254] These first mammals, which were exceedingly small, are supposed by most naturalists to have been Marsupials. They would appear presently to have become extinct, no traces of them having been found in the chalk, a formation so rich in other organic remains. As Professor Marsh tells us on this subject (Nature, September 27, 1877, p. 471):
"Of the existence of Mammals before the Trias we have no evidence, either in the New or the Old World, and it is a significant fact that at essentially the same horizon in each hemisphere similar low forms of Mammals make their appearance. Although only a few incomplete specimens have been discovered, they are characteristic and well preserved, and all are apparently marsupials; the lowest mammalian group known in America, living or fossil. The American Triassic mammals are known at present only from two small lower jaws, on which has been founded the genus Dromotherium, supposed to be related to the insect-eating Myrmecobius, now living in Australia. Although the fauna of Europe have yielded other similar mammals for the Oolite, America has as yet none of this class from that formation, while from the rocks of cretaceous age, no mammals are known in any part of the world."
[255] P. 118.
[256] P. 105.
[257] Le monde des plantes avant l'apparition de l'homme, p. 34.
[258] Genesis of Species, p. 129.
[259] Charles Darwin, p. 185.
[260] Genesis of Species, p. 130.
[261] Types of Animal Life, 149.
[262] Genesis of Species, p. 132.
[263] "Primeval Vegetation in its relation to the Doctrine of Natural Selection and Evolution" (Essays and Addresses, Owen's College, Manchester, p. 251).
[264] "Succession of Life on Earth." (Half-hour Recreations, 2nd Series, p. 329.)
[265] Essays and Addresses, Owen's College, Manchester, p. 220, note.
[266] See note, p. 238.
[267] "Geological Contemporaneity," 1862. (Lay Sermons, p. 222.)
[268] "Palæontology and Evolution," 1876. (Critiques and Addresses, p. 182.)
[269] P. 187.
[270] P. 192.
[271] Genealogy of Animals.
[272] Natural History of Creation.
[273] Le Transformisme, pp. 337-340.
[274] Lectures on Evolution, New York, 1876. Cheap Edition, p. 43.
[275] Coming of Age of the Origin of Species, etc.
[276] Essays on Controverted Questions, p. 450.
[277] "Utebatur autem equo insigni, pedibus prope humanis, et in modum digitorum ungulis fissis; quem natum apud se, cum haruspices imperium orbis terrae significare domino pronuntiassent, magna cura aluit." (Suetonius, Julius, 61.)
[278] The radius and ulna are the two bones of the forearm above the wrist; the tibia and fibula the corresponding bones of the leg above the ankle. In the horse, the ulna and fibula are almost, but not quite, lost.
[279] Animals and plants are placed in different species when the differences between them are only relative; in different genera, when such differences are absolute. Thus, for example, the size of teeth is considered relative; the number of teeth absolute.
[280] American Journal of Science and Arts, 3rd Series, vol. 43 (1892), p. 351.
[281] Modern Ideas of Evolution, p. 119.
[282] Types of Animal Life, 205.
[283] Nicholson and Lydekker's Manual of Palæontology, ii. 1362.
[284] Origin of Species, c. xi.
[285] Lydekker, p. 1361.
[286] Evolution of the Horse, 12.
[287] "Succession of Life on Earth" (Recreations in Popular Science, 2nd Series, p. 339).
[288] British Museum (Nat. Hist.) Guide to fossil mammals and birds, p. 38.
[289] American Journal of Science and Art, 3rd Series, vol. 43 (1892), p. 351.
[290] The Evolution of the Horse, p. 16.
[291] Lydekker, ut sup. p. 1363.
[292] Sir W. Flower, The Horse, p. 74.
[293] "It is a consequence of the theory of Natural Selection that identity of structure involves community of descent; a given result can only be arrived at through a given sequence of events; the same morphological goal cannot be reached by two independent paths." Milnes Marshall, Biological Lectures, 247.
[294] Origin of Species, c. xi. "Geological Succession of Organic Beings."
[295] Tablet, April 21, 1888, p. 637.
[296] Catalogue of Mammals, etc., ut sup. p. 38.
[297] Chain of Life, p. 222.
[298] Les Enchainements du Monde Animal ... Mammifères Tertiaires.
[299] Chain of Life, 227.
[300] It is the "fingers" of the bat's "hand" which support the wing membrane. Hence the scientific name Cheiroptera.
[301] E.g. Dinotherium giganteum and Elephas meridionalis. (Vid. Gaudry, op. cit. 169.)
[302] Lecture at Royal Institution, January 2, 1904.
[303] A remarkable instance of the need of caution is furnished by the history of the Dinotherium itself. From the teeth, first found, Cuvier set down the animal as a monster Tapir. Then, a whole skull being discovered, Herr Kaup of Darmstadt, commenting upon the danger of such a proceeding, himself classed the beast among the Edentata (Sloths, etc.), and afterwards among the Hippopotami. Buckland and Strauss thought it must have been an aquatic creature; Blainville and Pictet labelled it a Manatee, or sea-cow. (Vid. Gaudry, op. cit. 187-9.)
[304] Op. cit. p. 191.
[305] Milnes Marshall, Lectures on Darwinian Theory, p. 66.
[306] See Appendix C. p. 285.
[307] Modern Ideas of Evolution, c. iv.
[308] "Primeval Vegetation in its relation to the Doctrine of Natural Selection and Evolution." (Essays and Addresses, Owen's College, Manchester, p. 200.)
[309] History of Creation, ii. 92, English Edition.
[310] Ibid., p. 295.
[311] Les Emules de Darwin, ii. 76.
[312] As an instance M. de Quatrefages cites Haeckel's own words, from his Anthropogenie. "The Vertebrate Ancestor No. 15, akin to the Salamanders, must have been a species of Saurian (Lizard). There remains to us no fossil relic of this animal; in no respect did he resemble any form actually existing. Nevertheless, comparative anatomy and ontogeny authorize us in affirming that he once existed. We will call this animal Protamnion."
[313] Ibid., p. 122.
[314] Revue Scientifique (1886), p. 486.
[315] Ibid. (1877), I. 1101.
[316] Origin of Species, c. x.
[317] Genesis of Species, p. 134.
[318] Le monde des plantes avant l'apparition de l'homme, p. vi.
[319] Op. cit., p. 288.
[320] Life of Darwin, ii. 193.
[321] Epistle I—to Pope.
[322] Hibbert Journal, January, 1903.
[323] Order of Nature, p. 239.
[324] Thoughts on Religion, p. 123.
[325] Presidential Address, British Association, 1871.
[326] Système Analytique des Connaissances positives de l'homme (1830), pp. 8, 43.
[327] North American Slime Moulds, Introduction, p. II.
[328] Bloud's Science et Religion, No. 431, pp. 50, seq.
[329] Traité de Microbiologie, I., p. 253. Also the Magazine Broteria (Lisbon), Vol. vi., 1907, Botany, p. 23.
[330] See Nature, June 4, 1903, p. 113, in notice of a paper on the subject by Professor F. W. Oliver and Dr. D. H. Scott, F.R.S.
[331] Linnean Society's Proceedings, May 3, 1906.
[332] See the Congress Report, vol. iv.
[333] Transactions American Philosophical Society (N.S.), 18, 1896, pp. 119, 120.
[334] The Origin and Influence of the Thorough-bred Horse. Cambridge, 1905.