REFRACTING OPTICAL INSTRUMENTS.
I. The Magic Lantern.
No other optical instrument has ever caused so much wonderment and delight, from its origin to the present time, as this simple contrivance. For a long time its true value was overlooked, and only ridiculous or comic slides painted, but its educational importance is now being thoroughly appreciated, not only on account of the size of the diagrams that may be represented on the disc, but also from the fact that the attention of an audience is better secured in a room when the only object visible is the diagram under explanation. The lenses it contains are a "bull's eye" or plano-convex, nearest the light, and a double convex glass, for the purpose of focussing the picture which is inverted and placed between the two lenses. (Fig. 293.)
Fig. 293.
The magic lantern.
In many books full directions are given for painting the glass slides, but this is an art that requires very great practice and experience. A person may know how to draw and paint on paper or canvas, but it is quite a different thing where glass is concerned, and unless the juvenile artist has taken lessons from a regular painter on glass, his or her efforts are likely to be very unsatisfactory. In many popular works embracing the subject of optics, full directions are given on the mode of painting the slides for the magic lantern, or dissolving views; a new era, however, has dawned upon this mode of illustration, in the preparation of photographs on glass of the most lovely description, and now instead of exhibiting mere daubs of weak colouring, photographic pictures of singular perfection can be procured of Messrs. Negretti and Zambra, Holborn, who have turned their attention especially to this branch, and supply slides of all sizes.
II. The Dissolving Views.
This very pleasing modification of the ordinary magic lantern is displayed with the assistance of two lanterns of the same size, provided with lamps and lenses which are exactly alike. They are best arranged on one board, side by side, and if kept parallel with each other, the circles of light thrown from the two lanterns would not coincide on the screen; it is therefore necessary to place one of them at an angle which will vary according to the distance from the screen. The task of making the two circles of light overlap each other precisely on the disc, is called centering the lanterns, and is the first thing that must be attended to before exhibiting the slides. The slides for the dissolving views are all painted of the same size, and supposing a scene such as a church with a bridal procession and the trees in full foliage, to represent summer, is first thrown on to the disc, it may be changed to winter by putting another picture of the same subject, but painted to represent bare trees, and the church and ground covered with snow, and a grave open, with a funeral procession. The two pictures must not be projected on the screen at the same time, and here the dissolving mechanism is required; it consists of two fans so arranged that they may be raised or lowered by a rack-work and handle; one fan in descending covers one of the nozzles of the lanterns, and the other leaves the second lantern open, and free to project the picture; the dissolving is managed by slowly moving the handle of the rack-work, so that one quarter of the picture already on the disc is cut off, and one quarter of the new one thrown on. As the movement proceeds, one half of the old picture is shut out, and one half of the new slide takes its place, and so on, till the whole of the original picture is cut off by the fan and the new one comes into view, and it is in this way the effect of the change from summer to winter is produced. (Fig. 294.)
Fig. 294.
Nozzle of one lantern, with the fan, a, raised, and in the position to throw a picture on the disc. b. The other fan shutting off the second lantern.
When two pictures such as those already described, dissolve one into the other, of course the same building or other marked portion of the subject, must strictly coincide in each picture on the disc, or else the two pictures are apparent, and the illusion is destroyed. The pictures must all be centered before the exhibition commences. By the arrangement of Mons. Duboscq, one electric light serves to illuminate both lanterns by making use of mirrors. The dissolving apparatus is likewise very simple, and consists of two diamond-shaped openings in a brass frame, which open and shut alternately by a slide worked with a handle. The single light is not to be recommended, as it is somewhat troublesome to manage properly. (Fig. 295.)
Fig. 295.
a. The electric light. b b. The two sets of lenses for the two pictures. c. The dissolving mechanism. d. The picture on screen.
When dissolving views are required on a grand scale, the lenses must be exceedingly large, and the condenser (corresponding with the "bull's-eye" of the simple magic lantern) should be at least nine or eleven inches in diameter, and the front glasses must be of a superior make. The lenses for a large lantern lit by the oxy-hydrogen light, are arranged as in the next cut. (Fig. 296.)
Fig. 296.
a. The lime light. b. The condensers. c. The picture. d d. The front lenses for focussing, with rack-work.
At the Polytechnic the author had no less than six lanterns working at or about the same time, to produce effects, in the views illustrating the voyages of Sinbad the Sailor; and in order to obtain the increased results required for dioramic effects, such for instance as the Siege of Delhi, showing the bursting of the shells, &c., the four fixed lanterns (the fronts of which are shown in the next cut) were always employed. The two upper lanterns are dissolved by discs of brass worked by the hand, and the lower ones with the fans. (Fig. 297.)
Fig. 297.
Fronts of the four lanterns, showing how the dissolving mechanism is arranged.
"Behind the scenes" always has a great attraction for young people; we have, therefore, in the frontispiece, with the help of Mr. Hine (who painted a great number of the photographs shown at the Polytechnic during the author's management), given a section of the large theatre taken whilst the effective scene of the Siege of Delhi was in progress. The optical effects were assisted by various sounds in imitation of war's alarms, for the production of which, more volunteers than were required would occasionally trespass behind the screen, and produce those terrific sounds that some persons of a nervous temperament said were really stunning. In a page picture, we have also given a correct drawing of the interior of the optical box at the Polytechnic, with the four fixed lanterns, and side cupboards to hold the glass pictures. The four lanterns worked on a railway, with wheels and a circular turn-table; they could be removed, and the microscope arranged in their places.
Before and behind the screen at the Polytechnic during the exhibition of the dioramic effects of the siege of Delhi.
III. The Oxy-Hydrogen Microscope.
Many persons will recollect the first exhibition of this instrument in Bond-street, by Mr. J. T. Cooper, and Mr. Cary, succeeded by the Adelaide Gallery exhibition of scientific wonders and an oxy-hydrogen microscope. The apparatus for this purpose consists of three condensing lenses and an object glass. The objects, such as live aquatic insects, are placed in glass troughs containing water; the other objects, ferns, feathers, butterflies, algæ, &c. &c., being mounted on slides in the ordinary way with Canada balsam. (Fig. 298.)
Fig. 298.
a. The lime light. c c c. Condensers. d. The object, such as a tank of water containing live insects. e. The object glasses.
IV. The Physioscope.
This instrument, brought out at the Polytechnic during the time that Mr. J. F. Goddard managed the optical department of the institution, always excited the greatest mirth and astonishment amongst the numerous visitors; and habitués of the old place may remember the good-natured inimitable maudlin simper with which poor Mr. Tait (who was one of the living objects shown on the disc) used to drink off the glass of wine and then wink at the audience. When we say Mr. Tait used to wink, of course it is understood that he was personally invisible, and his apparition or image only appeared on the disc. The countenance is brilliantly illuminated by the oxy-hydrogen light, and being placed near the lenses, the rays are reflected from the face into the physioscope, and being properly focused, and the inversion of the image corrected, the perfect representation of the human countenance is apparent on the disc. The lenses and concave reflectors required are shown in the section of the physioscope. Messrs. Carpenter and Westley, of Regent-street, have brought the manufacture of magic lanterns to great perfection; and Mr. Collins, of the Polytechnic, constructs every kind of dissolving view apparatus, oxy-hydrogen microscopes, physioscopes, &c. (Fig. 299.) With this instrument any opaque objects (provided they reflect light properly) may be displayed to a large audience. Plaster casts appear with singular beauty and softness, whilst flowers, stuffed birds, and especially humming birds, are excellent objects for the physioscope.
Fig. 299.
a. One or more lime lights, throwing rays reflected by concave mirrors on to the face b, from whence they are reflected to c c, the first condensers. d d. Object glasses. This instrument is made by Mr. Collins, who has the tools for making the reflectors with correct curves. The picture of the face on the disc is covered with black spots if the reflectors are not perfect.
V. The Camera Obscura.
A "dark chamber" is the name of a most amusing, and now, in the improved form, extremely valuable instrument for photographic purposes. It is occasionally to be met with in public gardens, and there is a very good one on the Hoe at Plymouth. The construction of the camera for observing the surrounding country is very simple, and merely consists of a flat mirror placed at an angle, by which the picture is reflected through a double-convex lens on to a white table beneath. (Fig. 300.)
Fig. 300.
a. The mirror. b. The convex lens. c. The white table.
The term "focusing," or the art of moving the lenses so that a sharp image may be obtained, has been frequently mentioned in this article, and perhaps it may be as well to describe the mode of ascertaining the focal distance of a lens by experiment.
Hold the lens opposite the window so that a bright picture of the window-sash may be obtained on a sheet of paper pinned against the wall, and the distance of the lens from the paper will be the focal length.
If the lens has a very long focal length, it may be determined as follows:—Measure the distance between the lens and the object, and also from the image; multiply these distances together, and divide the product by their sums; the quotient will give the focal distance.
VI. The Decomposition of Light—"its Analysis and Synthesis."
It is in the Italian language that the bride, the emblem of purity, is called Lucia (Lux, light); and surely if an illustration were required of beauty and singleness, light would be named poetically as appropriate; but physically it is not of a single nature, it is composite, and made up of seven colours. The instrument required to refract a ray of light sufficiently to break it into its elementary colours is called the prism, and is a solid having two plane surfaces, called its refracting surfaces, with a base equally inclined to them. (Fig. 301.)
Fig. 301.
The prism. The base, a b, is equally inclined to the refracting surfaces, c a, c b.
It was in 1672 that Sir Isaac Newton made his celebrated analysis of light, by receiving a sunbeam (as it passed through a hole in a shutter) on to the refracting surface of a prism, and throwing the image or spectrum on to a screen, where he observed the seven colours, red, orange, yellow, green, blue, indigo, and violet, and thus proved "that there are different species of light, and that each species is disposed both to suffer a different degree of refrangibility in passing out of one medium into another, and to excite in us the idea of a different colour from the rest; and that bodies appear of that colour which arises from the composition of those colours the several species they reflect are disposed to excite."
Sir Isaac Newton's name would have been immortalized by this discovery alone, even if he had not possessed that transcendent ability which raised him above all other mathematicians and physicists. It is at the same time interesting to know that the ancient author Claudian (a.d. 420) inquires "whether colour really belongs to the substances themselves, or whether by the reflection of light they cheat the eye—enquires sitve color proprius rerum, lucisne repulsa eludant aciem."
Sir Isaac Newton determined that the spectrum could be divided into 360 equal parts, of which red occupied 45, orange 27, yellow 48, green 60, blue 60, indigo 40, violet 80. He also discovered that if the highly refracted rays, the seven colours, or spectrum were received into a concave mirror or a double-convex lens, that they again united and formed white light. In order to demonstrate the properties of the prism in various positions, the next diagram may be adduced. (Fig. 302.)
Fig. 302.
a. The ray of light passing through two prisms b placed base to base. In this position the light passes through to the second prism, c, without alteration. At c the decomposition of light occurs, and the spectrum is shown at d d. The top prism at b used singly would reflect the ray to e without decomposing it into the coloured rays.
The rainbow is the most beautiful natural optical phenomenon with which we are acquainted; it is only seen in rainy weather when the sun illuminates the falling rain, and the spectator has the sun at his back. There are frequently two bows seen, the interior and exterior bow, or the primary and secondary, and even within the primary rainbow, and in contact with it, and outside the secondary one, there have been seen other bows beyond the number stated.
The primary or inner rainbow consists of seven different coloured bows, and is usually the brightest, being formed by the rays of light falling on the upper parts of the drops of rain. The exterior bow is formed by the rays of light falling on the lower parts of the drops of rain; and in both cases the rays of light undergo refraction and reflection, hence the opinion of Aristotle, that the rainbow is caused only by the reflection of light, is not correct.
The first refraction occurs when the rays of light enter, and the second when they emerge from the spheroids of water in the first bow; the refracted rays undergo only one reflection, whereas in the second the brilliancy of the colours is impaired by two reflections.
The spectrum from the electric light is one of the most gorgeous exhibitions of colour that can be conceived; and the instruments required for the purpose are illustrated in No. 1 (Fig. 303), whilst the synthesis of the coloured rays and production of white light is shown at No. 2 of the same figure. (Fig. 303.)
Fig. 303.
No. 1. a. The electric light. b. The narrow slit through which the light passes to the convex lens, c. d. The prism. e. The spectrum. No. 2 is the same for a b c d; but f is the convex lens collecting the scattered rays, and forming white light at g.
VII. Duration of the Impression of Light.
If a circular disc is painted with the prismatic colours taken in the same proportion with respect to each other in which they are exhibited in the spectrum made by the prism, and the wheel is turned swiftly, then the individual colours disappear, and nearly white light is apparent. The cause is due to the same principle that creates the appearance of a complete circle of fire when a burning squib is moved quickly round before it is thrown away to burst, and as it is evident that the burning squib cannot be in every part of the circle at the same moment, there must be some inherent faculty belonging to the human eye which enables it to retain for a definite period the impression of images that may fall upon it; and this principle has been so far pressed, as it were, beyond its limits, that it is gravely asserted the image of a man's murderer "might be discovered on the retina of the eye-ball if that could be examined sufficiently quick after death." The fixture of the picture is said to be due to a sort of natural photographic process; but such fanciful statements often lead the mind into dream-land only, and so we will return to the fact of the duration of the impression of light on the eye as evidenced by several ingenious optical instruments, and especially by the scientific inventions of Dr. Faraday, Dr. Paris, and of Mr. Thomas Rose of Glasgow.
By careful experiment M. D'Arcy found that the light of a live coal moving at the distance of 165 feet, maintained its impression on the retina during the seventh part of a second. Hence the cause of the recomposition of white light when the colours on the disc are quickly rotated. Each colour at any point succeeds the other before the impression of the last is gone from the eye, and provided the colours move round within the seventh part of a second, they are all impressed together on the eye, and meeting on the retina, produce the effect of white light.
VIII. The Phenakistiscope.
This amusing instrument consists of a turning wheel upon which figures appear to jump, walk, or dance. The disc or wheel is of cardboard, upon which are painted (towards the periphery) figures in eight, ten, or twelve postures. Thus, if it is desired to represent clowns turning round in a circle, twelve different positions of the figure in the act of turning are painted on the disc, and above each of the figures on the wheel a slit is cut about one inch long, and a quarter of an inch wide in a direction corresponding with the radii of the circle. This simple form of the instrument is used by placing the figured side towards a looking-glass and then causing it to revolve at a certain speed, which is ascertained by experiment; and as the spectator looks through the slits into the looking-glass, the clowns appear to turn round. At the Polytechnic Institution there are two of these wheels with looking-glasses, and although the same designs have done duty for many years, they still attract the public attention. (Fig. 304.)
Fig. 304.
Design for the phenakistiscope. The spectator is supposed to be looking towards a mirror through the slits. It is supported by a handle through the centre, round which it is twirled by the other hand.
In the "Journal of the Royal Institution" Mr. Faraday has described some very interesting experiments and optical illusions produced by the revolution of wheels in different directions and velocities. The wheels are made of cardboard, and by cutting out two cog wheels of an equal size, and placing one above the other on a pin, the usual hazy tint when the cogs are acting is apparent when they are whirled round; but if the two cog wheels are made to move in opposite directions, there will be the extraordinary appearance of a fixed spectral wheel. If the cogs are cut in a slanting direction on both wheels, the spectral wheel will exhibit slanting cogs; but if one wheel is turned so that the cogs shall point in opposite directions, then the spectral wheel will have straight cogs. A number of such wheels set in motion in a darkened room, and illuminated suddenly with the light from the electric spark, appear to stand perfectly still, although moving with a great velocity. An expensive instrument has been constructed by Duboscq, for the purpose of showing the usual phenakistiscope effects on the screen with the magic lantern; a very limited picture, however, is shown, and there is still great room for the improvement of the apparatus. (Fig. 305.)
Fig. 305.
Phenakistiscope made by Duboscq, of Paris. No. 1. Apparatus in elevation with the condensers. No. 2. Section of the apparatus. a. The light. b. Condenser, or plano-convex lens. c. Round glass disc with design painted on it. d. Wooden disc with four double-convex lenses placed at equal distances from each other, so as to coincide with c, whilst rotating. Both the latter and c rotate, and the picture is focussed on the disc by the lenses f. No. 3. Glass plate, with device painted thereon.
IX. The Thaumatrope.
This very simple toy was invented by the late Dr. Paris, who gave it an appropriate name, compounded of the Greek words, θαυμα, wonder, τρεπω, to turn. The duration of the impressions of light on the eye is very apparent whilst using this toy, which is usually made of a circular piece of cardboard, having on one side a painting of a man's head, and on the other a hat; or a picture of a lighted candle on one face of the cardboard, and an extinguisher on the other; or a gate, and a horseman leaping it. Each pair of designs painted on opposite sides of the cardboard appear to be one when twisted round by strings tied to the opposite edges of the cardboard circle. The rationale of this experiment being, that the picture of one design—such as the head and face—is retained by the eye until the hat appears, and being mutually impressed upon the nerve of vision at very nearly the same instant of time, they appear as one picture.
X. The Kalotrope.
This is an optical arrangement by Mr. Thomas Rose, of Glasgow, primarily designed for showing the illusions of the phenakistiscope and kindred devices to a numerous audience; but more remarkable for its presentations of very beautiful spectra, composed of the multiplication, combination, and involution of simple figures disposed around a disc. The arrangement consists of a movement for giving considerable velocity to two concentric wheels, working nearly in contact, and moving in contrary directions. But the only part of the apparatus that requires special explanation and illustration is the device disc and the disc of apertures; the first of which is placed on the hinder wheel, and the second on the front wheel. We give figures of the two discs, premising, however, that each is capable of an almost infinite variety of characters. No. 1 (Fig. 306) presents in its four quadrants the perforations for four distinct discs of apertures; and No. 2 is a device disc, consisting of twelve equidistant black balls. Under a the balls will be presented as twenty-four ovals; under b, as forty-eight involved figures, beautifully variegated; under c, as an elaborate lacework; and under d, as a rich variegation of form and colour. Every fresh disc of devices and disc of apertures of course opens up a new field of effect. Thus, if we take a disc bearing twelve repeats of a ball in the interior of a ring, each repeat being so painted that its position is advanced in the ring until it reaches in the twelfth ring the point whence it started, and place this on the back disc of the kalotrope, having previously removed the first one, no effect is observed when the wheel is rotated beyond the spreading out of the design and general appearance of hazy black circles. When, however, the disc, with twelve slits or apertures, is now placed on the front wheel, and the two rotated in opposite directions, then the whole figure starts as it were into existence, and each ball apparently moves round the interior of its circle. The apparatus was produced at the Royal Polytechnic Institution by the author, and excited much interest. (Fig. 306.)
Fig. 306.
Nos. 1 and 2 are the discs. No 3. Kalotrope in elevation. No. 4. Side view of kalotrope, showing the multiplying wheels and the perforated and painted discs moving in opposite directions.
XI. The Photodrome.
This is a second optical arrangement by Mr. Rose for showing spectral illusions; and it is superior to the last, inasmuch as it offers to the public lecturer a most effective means of presenting these deceptions to a large audience. It differs from the kalotrope in several important points. It dispenses with the discs of apertures, and leaves the device disc with its face fully exposed to the spectators. The effects are produced by a powerful light, thrown through the tube of a lantern, and broken by a wheel working across it. The apparatus, as it at present stands in the inventor's possession, consists of two distinct parts; the one a movement for the device discs, and the other for the light. A wheel four feet in diameter is connected with a train of movement capable of giving it five hundred or six hundred revolutions per minute. On this wheel the device disc is placed, in full view of the spectators, and set in motion. From an opposite gallery the light is thrown, and broken by a wheel of such diameter and number of apertures as will admit the velocity of the photodrome (or light-runner) to be at least six times the velocity of the device disc; whilst the apertures are of such width as to restrict the duration of the light-flash to about one-two-thousandth of a second. The wheel working across the light has a train of movement for raising the velocity to two thousand revolutions per second. The management of the apparatus is very simple. The device-wheel is brought to a steady, rapid rotation, and the operator on the light then works his wheel with gradually increasing velocity, until he overtakes the figures of the device, where, by mere delicacy of touch, he is able to hold them stationary or give them motion, at pleasure.
Theories of light and colour still agitate the scientific world, although that man must be bold who will assert that his hypothesis is fitted to explain every difficult point that arises as our experimental knowledge increases. Mr. G. J. Smith, of the Perth Academy, has propounded a very ingenious theory of light and colour, supported by some clever experiments. But, as Solomon says, "there is nothing new under the sun," and in an able paper Mr. Rose, of Glasgow, lays claim to the anticipations of Mr. Smith's theory as follows:—
"My attention has been directed to a paper entitled 'The Theory of Light,' by G. John Smith, Esq., M.A., of Perth Academy. I think it is now nearly two years since I communicated an interesting fact to Professor Faraday, and to a member of our local Philosophical Institution, which may fairly claim to have anticipated Mr. Smith's theory. The fact was this: that if a piece of intensely white card be held in one hand, with the light of a powerful gas-jet falling upon it, and if the other hand has command of the gas-tap, as the light is gradually reduced, the card will assume the prismatic colours down to intense blue, and as the light is restored the colours will present themselves in inverse order. The experiment showed, very conclusively to my mind, that light is homogeneous, and that what we name colour is only the various affection of the optic nerve by a greater or lesser radiation of light from a focal point in an imperfect reflector—say, in the instance, a white card. I apprehend that Mr. Smith confuses his theory when he speaks of alternations of light and shadow producing colour. Shadow, or darkness, is mere negation of light. We do not see mixtures of light and darkness, or blackness and whiteness, but light in its several degrees of intensity. Mr. Smith's experiments present only what my kalotrope has done, and what my later device, the photodrome (now nearly three years old) is doing in a much more perfect manner. It is one of the mysteries intelligible only to the initiated, that whilst Mr. Smith's paper seems to have been received with great favour by the British Association, my communication relative to the photodrome was voted 'not sufficiently practical.'
"Since I have come before the public with an experiment, which in any view is an interesting one, permit me to reproduce it under several distinct conditions, and to add a brief narrative of remarkable presentations of colour that have come before me, and which, so far as I am aware, are perfectly novel, or known only through the more recent experiments of Mr. Smith. Professor Faraday very courteously acknowledged my communication of the experiment with the card, but said that it only partially succeeded with him, and added that probably this was owing to some decay of sensitiveness in his eyes. More likely I failed to state with sufficient clearness the conditions of the experiment, since I have always found nine persons out of ten perfectly agreed as to the effects produced when they have been at my side. The transitions from white to yellow, orange, red, and thence to intense blue, are, I may say, invariably admitted. Success depends on a very slow and regular reduction and restoration of the light. I have given one method of performing the experiment, and will add other two. Allow the light to remain undisturbed, and begin by holding the card near to it; then keep the hand steady and the eye intently fixed upon the card, and retire gradually with your back to the light, and the colours will change in the order of the prismatic spectrum from yellow to intense blue. On returning backwards towards the light the colours will again present themselves, but in inverse order. In this form of the experiment we are certain that the light remains precisely the same throughout. The third method is this: Place a circle of white card, about three inches in diameter, in the centre of a black board, and let a spectator stand within twelve inches of the board, with his eyes fixed upon the card. Let an operator be provided with a light so covered that it shall not fall on the eye of the spectator; then, as he retires with the light or returns with it, the spectator will see the colours as before. This arrangement evidently subjects the experiment to a severe test, since the black board enhances the whiteness of the card, and tends to preserve it.... Whilst pursuing my principal object, I frequently noticed most remarkable presentations of colour; but, as the conditions were for the most part unsuitable to the lecture-room, I gave them only a passing regard. Allow me to instance a few of the experiments.
"The first refers to the kalotrope, which may be briefly described as an arrangement of two concentric wheels, working nearly in contact and in contrary directions. Discs of various devices are provided for the hinder wheel, and a number of perforated black discs for the one in front. When a disc charged with twelve black radii is placed on the hinder wheel, the six spokes of the front wheel, in passing rapidly across it, convert the twelve black radii into twenty-four apparently stationary white radii upon a tinted ground. Here is a remarkable presentation of the complementary, inasmuch as it is placed permanently before the eye by persistence.
"The second experiment is performed with the photodrome, which consists of an independent wheel to receive the device discs, and an apparatus (altogether apart, and, if desired, out of sight) by which flashes of light are thrown upon the disc in rapid and regular succession. Now, if a disc charged with twelve dark blue balls, nearly in contact, be placed upon the wheel, and a little natural light be allowed to fall upon it, so soon as it is thrown into rapid revolution, and flashes of artificial light (insulated in a lantern) are duly measured out upon it, we see twelve apparently stationary light-blue balls upon a zone of bright orange. Here, again, there is nothing for which we are not prepared; the complementary is suddenly presented, and it is maintained permanently before the eye by persistence.
"A third experiment may prove interesting in its relation to Mr. Smith's ingenious theory. Place the kalotrope opposite a bright northern noonday sky, remove the front wheel, and affix to the hinder wheel one of the perforated black discs used for the kalotropic effects. The experimentalist stands at the back of the instrument, and can see the sky only through the apertures in the black disc. Cause these apertures to pass the eye at intervals varying from one-half to one-sixth of a second, and very remarkable presentations of colour are seen. Under the lower velocities the sky flashes, and assumes an unnatural brilliancy, and the intervals of the fourth and fifth of a second give it sometimes a crimson, at others a deep purple colour. Now, what are we to infer from this experiment? Certainly not that the pulsations have absolutely produced variety of colour. At every pulsation the full natural light falls upon the eye, and the intervals between the pulsations give time for the reaction necessary to the suggestion of complementary colour, and that under manifold modifications arising out of the ever-changing condition of the eye during the experiment. If the apertures pass the eye with a velocity exceeding one-sixth of a second, the effect ceases. There is then perfect persistence, and the eye apprehends nothing but the ordinary light of the sky, reduced in intensity, with nothing to break its uniformity or give it a chromatic character.
"A fourth experiment is kindred to the last. Place the kalotrope under the same adjustment and management as before, in front of a brilliant sunset, and the spectator will see, with more than a poet's vision,
'The rich hues of all glorious things.'"
XII. The Kaleidoscopic Colour-top.
This invention by John Graham, of Tunbridge, is designed to show that when white or coloured light is transmitted to the eye through small openings cut into patterns or devices, and when such openings are made to pass before the eye in rapid successive jerks, both form and colour are retained upon the nerve of the visual organ sufficiently long to produce a compound pattern, all the parts of which appear simultaneously, although presented in succession. The instrument forms, therefore, a pleasing illustration of the law that the eye requires an almost inappreciably short space of time to receive an impression, and that such impression is not directly effaced, but remains for an assignable though very limited period. The results are obtained by rotating two discs on a wheel, the lower disc containing colours, and the upper one the openings; this latter disc is made to vibrate as well as to rotate, thus allowing the eye to receive the coloured light reflected from below, which light assumes, at the same time, the forms of the patterns through which it has been transmitted. The instrument serves also to illustrate most of the important phenomena of colour.
XIII. Simple Microscopes and Telescopes.
The Stanhope lenses are now sold at such a cheap rate, and are so useful as simple portable microscopes, that it is hardly worth while to detail any plan by which a cheap single-lens magnifier may be obtained. Eloquent vendors of cheap microscopes are to be found in the streets, who make their instrument of a pill-box perforated with a pin-hole, in which a globule of glass fixed with Canada balsam is placed; and the spherical form of the drop affords the magnifying power: or a thin platinum wire may be bent into a small circular loop, and into this may be placed a splinter of flint-glass; if the flame of a spirit-lamp is urged upon the loop of platinum wire and glass by the blowpipe until it melts, a small double-convex lens may be obtained, which will answer very well as a magnifying-glass. Practice makes perfect, and after two or three trials, a good single lens may be obtained, which can be mounted between two small pieces of lead, brass, or cardboard, properly fixed together, with holes through them just large enough to retain the edge of the tiny lens. A prism can be made of two small pieces of window-glass stuck together with a lump of soft beeswax, and if a few drops of water are placed in the angle, they are retained by capillary attraction. The prism is used by holding it against a large pin-hole or small slit in a bit of card, and directing them towards the sky, when the beautiful colours of the spectrum will be apparent if the card and prism are brought close to the eye.
The most simple form of the refracting telescope is made with a lens of any focal length exceeding six inches, placed at one end of a tin or cardboard tube, which must be six inches longer than the focal length of the lens; the tube may be in two parts, sliding one within the other, and when the eye is placed at the other end, an inverted image of the object looked at, is apparent. By using two double-convex lenses, a more perfect simple astronomical telescope is obtained. The object-glass, i.e., the lens next the object looked at, must be placed at the end of a tin or pasteboard tube larger than its focus, and the second lens, called the eye-glass, because next the eye, is a smaller tube, termed the eye-tube; and if the focal length of the object-glass is three feet, the eye-glass must have a one-inch focus, and of course the eye-tube and glass must slide freely in the tube containing the object-glass. An object-glass of forty feet focus will admit of an eye-glass of only a four-inch focus, and will, therefore, magnify one hundred and twenty times. A tube of forty feet in length would of course be very troublesome to manage, and therefore it is usual to adopt the plan originally devised by Huygens, viz., that of placing the object-glass in a short tube on the top of a high pole with a ball-and-socket joint, whilst the eye-glass is brought into the same line as the object-glass, and focused with a tube and rack-work properly supported. In an ordinary terrestrial telescope there are four lenses, in order that the objects seen by its assistance shall not be inverted; and whenever objects are examined by a common telescope, they are found to be fringed, or surrounded with prismatic colours. This disagreeable effect is corrected by the use of achromatic lenses, in which two kinds of glass are united; and the light decomposed by one glass, uniting with the colours produced by the other form white light, thus a double convex lens of crown glass, c c, may be united with a plano-convex lens of flint glass, f f, which must have a focus about double the length of that of the crown-glass lens. The concave lens corrects the colour or chromatic aberration of the other, and leaves about one-half of the refracting power of the convex lens as the effective magnifying power of the compound lens. The French opticians cement the lenses very neatly together, and use them in ordinary spy and opera glasses. (Fig. 307.)
Fig. 307.
A compound achromatic lens, composed of c c, the double-convex lens of crown-glass, and f f, the plano-concave lens of flint-glass.
XIV. The Stereoscope.
This instrument has now attained a popularity quite equal to, if it does not surpass, that formerly enjoyed by the kaleidoscope, and without entering upon the much-vexed question of priority of discovery, it is sufficient again to mention with the highest respect the names of Sir David Brewster and Professor Wheatstone as identified with the discovery and use of this most pleasing optical instrument.
The principle of the stereoscope (meaning, solid I see) is copied from nature: i.e., when both eyes are employed in the examination of an object, two separate pictures, embracing dissimilar forms, are impressed upon the retinæ, and produce the effect of solidity; if the pictures formed at the back of the eyes could be examined by another person with a stereoscope, they would come together, and also produce the effect of solidity.
Stereoscopic pictures are obtained by exposing sensitized paper in the camera to the picture of an object taken in two positions, or two cameras are employed to obtain the same result. If the latter mode is adopted, the stereoscopic pictures must not be taken from positions too widely separated from each other; or else, when the two pictures are placed in the stereoscope, they will stand out with a relief that is quite unnatural, and the object will appear like a very reduced solid model, instead of having the natural appearance presented by pictures which have been taken at positions too distant from each other.
Sir David Brewster says, "In order to obtain photographic pictures mathematically exact, we must construct a binocular camera which will take the pictures simultaneously, and of the same size; that is, by a camera with two lenses of the same aperture and focal length, placed at the same distance as the two eyes. As it is impossible to grind and polish two lenses, whether single or achromatic, of exactly the same focal lengths, even if we had the very same glass for each, I propose to bisect the lenses, and construct the instrument with semi-lenses, which will give us pictures of precisely the same size and definition. These lenses should be placed with their diameters of bisection parallel to one another, and at a distance of 2½ inches, which is the average distance of the eyes in man; and when fixed in a box of sufficient size, will form a binocular camera, which will give us at the same instant, with the same lights and shadows, and of the same size, such dissimilar pictures of statues, buildings, landscapes, and living objects, as will reproduce them in relief in the stereoscope." Thus with a single camera provided with semi-lenses, or two lenses of the same focal length, stereoscopic pictures can be obtained.
To bring the images of the two pictures together, and produce the effect of solidity; either of two instruments may be employed. The reflecting stereoscope is the invention of Professor Wheatstone. The refracting or lenticular stereoscope that of Sir David Brewster.
The former is constructed by placing two upright boards on a wooden stand at a moderate distance from each other; the stereoscopic pictures are attached to these boards, which may be made to move up or down, and if the pictures are held in grooves, they may be pulled right or left at pleasure, and thus four movements are secured—viz., upward, downward, right, or left. Between the two stereoscopic pictures are placed two looking-glasses, so adjusted that their backs form an angle of ninety degrees with each other. (Fig. 308.)
Fig. 308.
Wheatstone's reflecting stereoscope.
The pictures are illuminated at night by a lamp or gas flame placed at the back of the mirrors, which, when fixed together, have the same shape as a prism; indeed, Professor Wheatstone substituted a prism for the mirrors, and thus paved the way for the invention of the lenticular stereoscope.
The stereoscopic effect is obtained by bringing the eyes close to the inclined mirrors, so that the two reflected images coincide at the intersection of the optic axis; the coincidence of the images is further secured by moving either picture a little to the right or left, and if the upright boards move bodily in grooves to or from the centre mirror, the greatest nicety of adjustment is procured.
During the last three years of the author's directorship of the Polytechnic—viz., in 1856, 1857, 1858—nearly the whole of the pictures shown by the dissolving-view apparatus were coloured photographs from Mr. Hine's original pictures, painted two feet square in blue and white, and reduced on the glass to about six inches square. The collodion film being frequently thick and difficult to penetrate with light, was etched and scratched away where required, and filled in with colour, and when these pictures were looked at with one eye only, they appeared to be almost solid or stereoscopic on the disc.
The lenticular stereoscope consists of a box of a pyramidal shape, open at the base, and provided with grooves in which are placed the stereoscopic pictures; if the latter are taken on glass the base of the box is held directly against the light, but if they are daguerreotypes or paper pictures, then a side light is reflected upon them by means of a lid covered in the inside with tinfoil, which is raised or lowered at pleasure from the top part of the box. Two semi-lenses are now fitted into the narrow part of the box, and are placed at such a distance from each other that the centres of the semi-lenses correspond with the pupil of the eyes, and this distance has already been stated to amount to 2½ inches. (Fig. 309.)
Fig. 309.
Brewster's lenticular stereoscope.
The principle of the lenticular stereoscope is perhaps better seen by reference to the next diagram, in which the centres of the semi-lenses (i.e., a lens cut in half) are placed at 2½ inches apart, with their thin edges towards each other, and marked, a b, Fig. 310. The centres of the two stereoscopic pictures c d correspond with the centres of the lenses, and the rays of light diverging from c d fall upon the semi-lenses, and being refracted nearly parallel are, by the prismatic form of the semi-lenses, deflected from their course, and leave the surfaces of the lenses in the same direction as if they actually emanated from e; and as all images of bodies appear to come in a straight line from the point whence they are seen, the two pictures are superimposed on each other, and together produce the appearance of solidity, so that a stereoscopic result is obtained when the spectral images of the two stereoscopic pictures are made to overlap each other. By taking one of the semi-lenses in each hand, and looking at the two pictures, the over-lapping of the spectral images becomes very apparent, so that the combined spectral images, and not the pictures themselves, are seen when we look into a stereoscope. (Fig. 310.)
Fig. 310.
Sir David Brewster says, "In order that the two images may coalesce without any effort or strain on the part of the eye, it is necessary that the distance of the similar parts of the two drawings be equal to twice the separation produced by the prism. For this purpose measure the distance at which the semi-lenses give the most distinct view of the stereoscopic pictures, and having ascertained by using one eye the amount of the refraction produced at that distance, or the quantity by which the image of one of the pictures is displaced, place the stereoscopic pictures at a distance equal to twice that quantity—that is, place the pictures so that the average distance of similar parts in each is equal to twice that quantity. If this is not correctly done, the eye of the observer will correct the error by making the images coalesce, without being sensible that it is making any such effort. When the dissimilar stereoscopic pictures are thus united, the solid will appear standing as it were in relief between the two plane representations."
XV. The Stereomonoscope.
M. Claudet, whose name has long been celebrated in connexion with the art of photography, has described an instrument by which a single picture is made to simulate the appearance of solidity, and he states that by means of this arrangement a number of persons may observe the effect at the same time. The apparatus required is very simple, consisting of a large double convex lens, and a screen of ground glass. The object a, Fig. 311, is highly illuminated, and placed in the focus of a double convex lens b, when an image of the object is projected, and will be found suspended in the air in the conjugate focus of the lens at c, and from this point the rays of light will diverge as from a real object, which will be seen by separate spectators at d d and e e; and if the screen of ground glass is placed at g g, the image will appear with all the effect of length, breadth, and depth, which belong to solid bodies. (Fig. 311.)
Fig. 311.
The stereomonoscope.
An image formed on ground glass in this manner can be seen only in the direction of the incident rays, and the stereoscopic effect is not apparent when the image is received on a calico or transparent screen, on account of the rays being scattered in all directions.
XVI. The Stereomoscope.
This arrangement is an important modification of the other, and consists of a screen of ground glass (a b, Fig. 312), and two convex lenses (c d, and e f) arranged in such a manner that they will project images of the stereoscopic pictures, g h, at the same point on the screen, a b.
It might be thought that a confusion of images would result from projecting two pictures on one point, p—viz., the focus of the two lenses; but as each photograph can be seen only in the direction of its own rays, it follows that if the eyes are so placed that each receives the impression of one stereoscopic picture, the two images must coalesce, and a stereoscopic effect will be the result, as is apparent at k k and l l; so that several persons may look at the stereoscope at one time. (Fig. 312.)
Fig. 312.
The stereomoscope.
XVII. The Pseudoscope.
This curious optical instrument, as its name implies, produces a false image by the refracting power of prisms, and is the invention of Professor Wheatstone. When used with both eyes, the same as the stereoscope, it inverts the relief of a solid body, and makes it appear exactly as if it were an intaglio, or sunk beneath the line surrounding it. For instance, a terrestrial globe when looked at through the pseudoscope appears to be concave, like Wyld's Globe in Leicester-square, instead of convex. A vase with raised ornaments upon it looks as if it had been turned (to reverse the usual expression) outside in, and the whole of its convexity is turned to concavity; and of course a face seen under these circumstances looks very curious. (Fig. 313.) The cause is perhaps somewhat difficult to understand; but by taking other and more simple examples of the same effect, the principle may be gradually comprehended.
Fig. 313.
Horizontal section of the pseudoscope, showing at a b two prisms placed against a block of wood about two inches long and one inch and a half wide, and cut out in the centre to admit the nose at d. The eyes are supposed to be looking at the globe, c, in the direction of the arrows. e e. Brass plates blackened, which shut out the side light, and assist in keeping the prisms in position.
Sir David Brewster, in his "Letters on Natural Magic," remarks that "one of the most curious phenomena is that false perception in vision by which we conceive depressions to be elevations, and elevations depressions—or by which intaglios are converted into cameos, and cameos into intaglios. This curious fact seems to have been observed at one of the early meetings of the Royal Society of London, when one of the members, in looking at a guinea through a compound microscope of new construction, was surprised to see the head upon the coin depressed, while other members could only see it embossed, as it really was.... The best method of observing this deception is to view the engraved seal of a watch with the eye-piece of an achromatic telescope, or with a compound microscope, or any combination of lenses which inverts the objects that are viewed through it; a single convex lens will answer the purpose, provided we hold the eye six or eight inches behind the image of the seal formed in its conjugate focus."
After bringing forward various interesting experiments in further explanation of the cause, Sir D. Brewster states it to be his belief that the illusion is the result of an operation of our own minds, whereby we judge of the forms of bodies by the knowledge we have acquired of light and shadow. Hence, the illusion depends on the accuracy and extent of our knowledge on this subject; and while some persons are under its influence, others are entirely insensible to it. This statement is borne out by experience, as the author, whilst Resident Director of the Polytechnic, had four of Wheatstone's pseudoscopes placed in the gallery, with proper objects behind them; and he frequently noticed that some visitors would look through the instrument and see no alteration of the convex objects, whilst others would shout with delight, and call their friends to witness the strange metamorphosis, who in their turn might disappoint the caller by being perfectly insensible to its strange effects.
The pseudo-effects of vision are not confined to the results already explained, but are to be observed especially whilst travelling in a coach, when the eyes may be so fixed as to give the impression of movement to the trees and houses, whilst the coach appears to stand still. In railway carriages, after riding for some time and then coming to a stand still, if another train is set slowly in motion by the one at rest, it frequently happens that the latter appears to be moving instead of the former.