ASSYRIA AND PERSIA.
The discoveries recently made, and the researches now in progress in those regions of the world known in ancient times as Assyria, Babylonia and Persia, are among the most interesting and important of the age. Of the ancient Assyrians and Babylonians we know nothing, but what we find in the Bible, or what has been preserved and handed down to us by the Greek historians. Unlike Egypt, who has left so many records of her greatness, of her knowledge of the arts, and of her advancement in civilization, in the numerous and wonderful monumental remains in the valley of the Nile, the Assyrians were supposed to have left nothing, no existing monuments as evidences that they ever had an existence, save in the vast and misshapen heaps along the banks of the Euphrates and Tigris, believed to wash the spots where the great cities of Nineveh and Babylon once stood. The site of Nineveh still remains doubtful; and so literally have the prophecies in regard to Babylon been fulfilled, that nothing but vast heaps of rubbish, of tumuli, and traces of numerous canals, remains. The language of the Assyrians is unknown, and the impressions of characters in the form of a wedge or arrow-head stamped upon the bricks and other relics dug from these heaps, have been looked upon as mysterious and cabalistic signs, rather than the representatives of sounds, or belonging to a regular form of speech. For more than twenty centuries, these countries have been as a blank on the page of history; and all we have gathered from them consists in the observations of curious travellers, who, at the risk of their lives, have ventured to extend their wanderings this way.
Pietro della Valle, Le Brun, Niebuhr, Ker Porter, Rich, and Ouseley, have given us descriptions of the ancient remains in Persia and Assyria, particularly those at Persepolis, Pasargadæ, and Babylon. These consist of views of the monuments and sculptures, together with copies of the inscriptions in the cuneiform, or arrow-head character. The object of the edifices, the subject of the sculptures, and the meaning of the inscriptions, were wholly matters of conjecture; and it seemed a hopeless task to arrive at any conclusions in relation to them, until some key should be discovered, by the means of which the language should be made known, and the numerous inscriptions decyphered. No bilingual tablet, such as the Rosetta stone of Egypt, had been discovered; and, although it appeared that many of the inscriptions were recorded in three different languages, no means seemed to exist by which philologists could obtain a clue to their meaning. With this dark prospect in view, the task of decyphering the arrow-headed characters was attempted by M. Grotefend, one of the most sagacious and distinguished philologists of Europe. The particulars of the attempt and its results, we shall briefly state.
At Persepolis it is known are extensive ruins, chiefly belonging to a large edifice, with every indication that this edifice was originally a royal palace. History and tradition supported this belief; and the general character of the sculptures and architecture, together with the inscriptions, would carry its origin back to a period some centuries before the Christian era. It was doubtless the work of one of the great monarchs of Persia; of Cyrus, Cambyses, Xerxes, Darius, or some other with whom history is familiar.[68] On some of the monuments at Persepolis, are inscriptions in the Pehlvi character, parts of which have been decyphered by M. de Sacy. In one of these, the titles and name of a king are often repeated; these titles M. Grotefend thought might be repeated in the same manner in the arrow-head characters.[69]
Over the doorways and in other parts of this edifice, are portraits, evidently of kings, as there is always enough in the dress and insignia of a monarch to enable one to detect him on any ancient monument. Over these portraits are inscriptions; these it was natural to suppose related to the person represented, and if so, contained the name of the king and his titles. Such would be the conclusion of any one who reflected on the subject, and such was the belief of M. Grotefend and other philologists. In these inscriptions one group of characters was repeated more frequently than any other, and all agreed that the decyphering of this group would furnish a key to the whole. On this group of characters then our Savans set to work.
According to the analogy of the Pehlvi inscriptions, decyphered by De Sacy, it was believed that the inscriptions then under consideration, mentioned the name of a king son of another king, that is the names of father and son. M. Grotefend first examined the bas-reliefs at Persepolis, to ascertain the particular age of the Persian kings to which they belonged, in order that he might discover the names applicable to the inscription. A reference to the Greek historians convinced him that he must look for the kings of the dynasty of the Achæmenides, and he accordingly applied their names to the characters of the inscriptions. "These names could obviously not be Cyrus and Cambyses, because the names occurring in the inscriptions do not begin with the same letter; Cyrus and Artaxerxes were equally inapplicable, the first being too short and the latter too long; there only remained therefore the names of Darius and Xerxes;" and these latter agreed so exactly with the characters, that Mr. Grotefend did not hesitate to select them. The next step was to ascertain what these names were in the old Persian language, as they come to us through the Greek, and would of course differ somewhat from the original. The ancient Zend, as preserved in the Zendavesta, furnished the only medium through which the desired information could be obtained.[70] He next ascertained that Xerxes was called Kshershe or Ksharsha; and Darius, Dareush. A farther examination gave him the name of Kshe or Ksheio for 'king.'[71] The places or groups of characters corresponding with these names, were then analyzed and the value of each character ascertained. These were then applied to other portions of the inscriptions, and led to the translation of two short ones, as well as to the formation of a considerable portion of the alphabet.
Such was the result of Professor Grotefend's labors up to the year 1833. His first discovery was made and announced as early as 1802, but an account of his system of interpretation did not appear until 1815, in the appendix to the third German edition of Heeren's Researches. This was afterwards enlarged in the translation of Heeren published at Oxford in 1833, when it was first made known to English readers. In 1837 he published a treatise containing an account of all the Persepolitan inscriptions in his possession, and another in 1840 on those of Babylon.
The brilliant success which attended Grotefend's earlier efforts, soon attracted the attention of other philologists to the subject. M. Saint Martin read a memoir before the Asiatic Society of Paris in 1822, but did not make any additions to our previous knowledge. Professor Rask next took it up, and discovered the value of two additional characters. M. Burnouf followed in 1836, with an elaborate memoir, in which he disclosed some important discoveries.[72] Professor Lassen, in his Memoir published in 1836, and in a series of papers continued up to the present day,[73] has identified at least twelve characters, which had been mistaken by all his predecessors, and which, says Maj. Rawlinson, "may entitle him almost to contest with Professor Grotefend the palm of alphabetical discovery."
In 1835, Major Rawlinson, then residing in Persia, turned his attention to the subject, and decyphered some of the proper names on the tablets at Hamadan. In the following year he applied himself to the great inscription at Behistun, the largest and most remarkable that is known in Persia, and succeeded in making out several lines of its contents.
The result of Major Rawlinson's first attempt at decyphering the Behistun inscription, was the identification of several proper names, and consequently the values of additional characters towards the completion of the alphabet.[74] But more was wanted than the alphabet, which only enabled the student to make out proper names, but not to advance beyond; and it was the lack of this knowledge which prevented the sagacious and indefatigable Grotefend from carrying out to any great extent, the discoveries which he had so well begun.
The language of the inscriptions must next be studied; and as the Zend had been the medium through which the first links in the chain of interpretation had been obtained, it was naturally resorted to for aid to farther progress. The Zendavesta, with the researches of Anquetil du Perron, and the commentary at the Yaçna by M. Burnouf, wherein the language of the Zendavesta is critically analyzed, and its grammatical structure developed, furnished the necessary materials. To the latter work, and the luminous critique of M. Burnouf, Major Rawlinson owes the success of his translations; as he acknowledges that by it he "obtained a general knowledge of the grammatical structure of the language of the inscriptions."
But the Zend was not of itself sufficient to make out all the words and expressions in the Behistun and other inscriptions. Other languages contemporary with that of the inscription and of the Zend must be sought for, to elucidate many points which it left obscure.[75] The Sanscrit was the only one laying claim to a great antiquity, whose grammatical structure was sufficiently developed to render it useful in this enquiry. A knowledge of this language had previously been acquired by Major Rawlinson, and he was therefore fully prepared for the arduous task he had undertaken. Neither of these, it must be observed, was the language of the inscriptions, which it is believed had ceased to be a living form of speech, at the period when the Sanscrit and Zend were in current use.
It is unnecessary to note in detail the difficulties and great labor attending the decyphering of the Behistun tablets, on which Major Rawlinson was occupied from time to time during a space of ten years. His discoveries were announced in London, in a memoir read before the Royal Asiatic Society in 1839, but were not published in extenso until 1846.
Briefly to sum up the results of his labors, it will suffice to state that they present "a correct grammatical translation of nearly four hundred lines of cuneiform writing, a memorial of the time of Darius Hystaspes, the greater part of which is in so perfect a state as to afford ample and certain grounds for a minute orthographical and etymological analysis, and the purport of which to the historian, must be of fully equal interest with the peculiarities of the language to the philologist." In a few cases it may be found necessary to alter or modify some of the significations assigned; but there is no doubt but that the general meaning of every paragraph is accurately determined, and that the learned Orientalist has thus been enabled "to exhibit a correct historical outline, possessing the weight of royal and contemporaneous recital, of many great events which preceded the rise and marked the career of one of the most celebrated of the early sovereigns of Persia."
Such is the history of this great discovery, which has placed the name of Major Rawlinson among the most distinguished Oriental scholars of the age. He will rank among the laborers in cuneiform writing, where Champollion does among the decypherers of Egyptian hieroglyphics; for though, like Champollion, he did not make the first discoveries in his branch of Palæography, he is certainly entitled to the honor of reducing it to a system, by ascertaining the true powers of a large portion of the alphabet, and by elucidating its grammatical peculiarities, so that future investigators will find little difficulty in translating any inscription in the particular class of characters in question.
The cuneiform (wedge-shaped) or arrow-headed character is a system of writing peculiar to the countries between the Euphrates and the Persian frontier on the East. Various combinations of a figure shaped like a wedge, together with one produced by the union of two wedges, constitute the system of writing employed by the ancient Assyrians, Babylonians, Medes, and the Achæmenian kings of Persia. The character seems to have been as extensively employed in this portion of the world, as the Roman letters now are in Europe. Particular arrangements or combinations of these characters apparently belonged to different nations, speaking different languages. When and where this system of writing originated is not known. Professor Westergaard[76] thinks that "Babylon was its cradle, whence it spread in two branches, eastward to Susiana, and northward to the Assyrian empire, from whence it passed into Media, and lastly into ancient Persia, where it was much improved and brought to its greatest perfection."
Major Rawlinson makes of the arrow-headed writing three great classes or divisions, the Babylonian, Median and Persian. The first of these he thinks is unquestionably the oldest. "It is found upon the bricks excavated from the foundations of all the buildings in Mesopotamia, Babylonia, and Chaldea, that possess the highest and most authentic claims to antiquity;" and he thinks it "not extravagant therefore to assign its invention to the primitive race which settled in the plain of Shinar."[77] In the recent excavations made by M. Botta and Mr. Layard, on or near the site of ancient Nineveh, numerous inscriptions in this form of the arrow-head character were found. It also occurs in detached inscriptions from the Mediterranean to the Persian mountains.
A comparison of the various inscriptions in the Babylonian class of writing has led Major Rawlinson to believe that it embraces five distinct varieties, which he calls the Primitive Babylonian, the Achæmenian Babylonian, the Medo-Assyrian, the Assyrian, and the Elymæan.[78] The peculiarities of these several varieties, with the countries in which they are found, are pointed out in the second chapter of our author's learned Memoir on cuneiform writing. The Median and Persian classes are peculiar to the trilingual tablets of Persia, and are better known than the first class or Babylonian.
Mr. Westergaard[79] divides the cuneiform writing into five classes: the Assyrian; the Old Babylonian; and the three kinds on the trilingual tablets of Persia, which embrace the Median and Persian varieties, and the one called by Rawlinson the Achæmenian Babylonian.
The history we have already given of the progress made in decyphering these characters applies exclusively to one of the varieties on the tablets of Persia. The inscriptions on these monuments are almost invariably repeated in three sets of characters, and doubtless in three different languages. The characters of what appears in each case to be the primary or original inscription, of which the others are translations, are of the simplest construction, and consequently were the first to attract the attention of decypherers, and to yield to their efforts. The language in which they are written has been found to exhibit close affinities both to the Sanscrit and to the Zend, and is now termed by philologists the Old Persian. The system of writing is alphabetic, that is to say, each character represents a single articulate sound; whereas that of the other two species is at least in a great measure syllabic, which renders the task of decyphering them much more difficult.
For our knowledge of the second variety of characters on the Persian trilingual tablets, we are indebted to the labors and sagacity of Professor Westergaard.[80] These characters had remained entirely undecyphered until the first kind had been completely made out. It was evident that the inscriptions in the second kind of character were but a translation of those in the first; and with this supposition, this learned Orientalist began the task of decyphering, by identifying the proper names Darius, Hystaspes, Cyrus, Xerxes, Persians, Ionians, &c., which frequently occur in the inscriptions decyphered by Major Rawlinson. Having obtained these, he next analyzed each and ascertained the phonetic values of the several characters of which they are composed. By this means, he was enabled to construct an alphabet. He next examined the introductory words and the titles of the sovereigns, and finally the entire inscriptions, all of which he has most satisfactorily made out, and with them has reconstructed the language in which they are written. In his learned and elaborate article detailing the process of this discovery, Professor Westergaard gives a systematic classification of the characters, one hundred in number, of which seventy-four are syllabic, twenty-four alphabetic, and two signs of division between words. The character of the language, which for convenience sake he terms Median, he does not pretend to decide, though he considers that it belongs to the Scythian rather than to the Japhetic class of languages; in which opinion Major Rawlinson coincides. The Oriental Journal alluded to in the second note to p. 90, contains several learned papers by Professors Westergaard and Lassen, on the arrow-headed inscriptions.
In the third sort of Persepolitan characters, termed the Achæmenian Babylonian, some advances have been made by Major Rawlinson. The contents of the other portions of these tablets being known, he pursued the course adopted by Professor Westergaard, namely that of identifying the groups of characters corresponding with the proper names in the other inscriptions. He has thus been enabled to ascertain the phonetic values of a large number of characters which must in time lead to a knowledge of the rest of the alphabet. A beginning in this direction was also made by Professor Grotefend, who in his Memoirs of 1837 and 1840, singles out and places in juxtaposition the names of Cyrus, Hystaspes, Darius and Xerxes, in the first and third species of Persepolitan writing. There is every reason to hope that the labors of the three accomplished Oriental scholars, Rawlinson, Lassen, and Westergaard, which have been so far crowned with success, will add to their fame by making out the characters and language of this species of writing also. A high degree of interest is attached to it, not only on account of the information it embodies, but in regard to the nation to which it is assignable.
It will be recollected, that besides these three sorts of Persepolitan writing, there are two other distinct classes of arrow-head characters, called Babylonian and Assyrian. Little or nothing has yet been accomplished towards decyphering them; which is owing to the fact that they are of a very complicated nature, and that they have hitherto been found alone, that is to say not accompanied by a version in any other language or character. A Parisian savant, M.J. Löwenstern, who has applied himself to the study of the Assyrian tablets, published in 1845 an Essay on the monument recently discovered by M. Botta at Khorsabad near Mosul, in which he thinks he has made out the groups which stand for the words great king, and also several alphabetical characters. Further investigations can alone determine whether or not his conclusions are correct.
It will be necessary to state some of the historical facts brought to light by the labors of Major Rawlinson, to which we have alluded. The great tablet at Behistun relates exclusively to Darius. "To this monarch," says Major Rawlinson, "insatiable in his thirst of conquest, magnificent in his tastes, and possessed of an unlimited power, we are indebted for all that is most valuable in the palæography of Persia. Imbued, as it appears, with an ardent passion for monumental fame, he was not content to inscribe the palaces of his foundation at Persepolis with a legend commemorative of their erection, or with prayers invoking the guardianship of Ormuzd and his angels, but he lavished an elaborate workmanship on historic and geographic records in various quarters of his empire, which evince considerable political forethought, an earnest regard for truth, and an ambition to transmit the glories of his reign to future generations, to guide their conduct and invite their emulation. At Persepolis, the high place of Persian power, he aspired to elevate the moral feelings of his countrymen, and to secure their future dominancy in Asia, by displaying to them their superiority over the feudatory provinces of the empire,[81] while upon the sacred rock of Baghistan, he addressed himself in the style of an historian, to collect the genealogical traditions of his race, to describe the extent and power of his kingdom, and to relate, with a perspicuous brevity worthy of imitation, the leading incidents of his reign. His grave relation of the means by which, under the care and favor of a beneficent Providence, the crown of Persia first fell into his hands, and of the manner in which he subsequently established his authority, by the successive overthrow of the rebels who opposed him, contrasts strongly but most favorably with the usual emptiness of Oriental hyperbole."
The following are some of the translations from the great inscription at Behistun, which embraces upwards of four hundred lines in the arrow-headed characters. In Major Rawlinson's Memoir, are given fac-similes of the original inscriptions, a transcription of the same in Roman letters with an interlineal translation in Latin, and a translation in English. Accompanying these, is a critical commentary on each line, together with notes, rendering the whole as clear as possible.
"I am Darius, the great king, the king of kings, the king of Persia, the king of (the dependent) provinces, the son of Hystaspes, the grandson of Arsames, the Achæmenian.
"Says Darius the King:—My father was Hystaspes; of Hystaspes, the father was Arsames; of Arsames, the father was Ariyaramnes; of Ariyaramnes, the father was Teispes; of Teispes, the father was Achæmenes.
"Says Darius the King:—On that account, we have been called Achæmenians: from antiquity we have been unsubdued; from antiquity those of our race have been kings.
"Says Darius the King:—There are eight of my race who have been kings before me, I am the ninth; for a very long time we have been kings.
"Says Darius the King:—By the grace of Ormuzd, I am king; Ormuzd has granted me the empire.
"Says Darius the King:—These are the countries which have fallen into my hands—by the grace of Ormuzd, I have become king of them—Persia, Susiana, Babylonia, Assyria, Arabia, Egypt; those which are of the sea, Sparta and Ionia; Armenia, Cappadocia, Parthia, Zarangea, Aria, Chorasmia, Bactria, Sogdiana, the Sacæ, the Sattagydes, Arachosia, and the Mecians; the total amount being twenty-one countries.
"Says Darius the King:—These are the countries which have come to me; by the grace of Ormuzd, they have become subject to me—they have brought tribute to me. That which has been said unto them by me, both by night and by day, it has been performed by them.
"Says Darius the King:—Ormuzd has granted me the empire. Ormuzd has brought help to me until I have gained this empire. By the grace of Ormuzd, I hold this empire.
"Says Darius the King:— ... He who was named Cambyses, the son of Cyrus of our race, he was here king before me. There was of that Cambyses a brother named Bartius; he was of the same father and mother as Cambyses. Cambyses slew this Bartius. When Cambyses slew that Bartius, the troubles of the state ceased which Bartius had excited. Then Cambyses proceeded to Egypt. When Cambyses had gone to Egypt, the state became heretical; then the lie became abounding in the land, both in Persia and in Media, and in the other provinces."
He then goes on to speak of the rebellions in his dominions after the death of Cambyses, of the Magian who declared himself king, and that no one dared to resist him. He continues:
"every one was standing obediently around the Magian, until I arrived. Then I abode in the worship of Ormuzd; Ormuzd brought help to me. On the 10th day of the month Bagayadish, I slew the Magian and the chief men who were his followers. By the grace of Ormuzd, I became king; Ormuzd granted me the sceptre."
He then says, he "established his race on the throne, as in the days of old," prohibited the sacrificial worship introduced by the Magian, and restored the old families to office,—all of which was accomplished by the aid of Ormuzd. The people of Susiana and Babylon then became rebellious. He slew the leader of the former.
"Says Darius the King:—Then I proceeded to Babylon against that Natitabirus, who was called Nabokhadrosser (Nebuchadnezzar). The forces of Natitabirus held the Tigris; there they had come and they had boats. Then I placed a detachment on rafts. I brought the enemy into difficulty; I assaulted the enemy's position. Ormuzd brought help to me; by the grace of Ormuzd, I succeeded in passing the Tigris. Then I entirely defeated the army of that Natitabirus. On the 27th day of the month of Atriyata, then it was that we thus fought."
Darius then continued his march to Babylon, where he was met by the army of Natitabirus; he gave him battle and defeated him, driving his army into the water. He then took Babylon. It would appear from what this monarch relates, that he had a pretty rebellious set of subjects, who took advantage of his absence at Babylon. The inscription continues.
"Says Darius the King:—whilst I was at Babylon, these are the countries that revolted against me; Persis, Susiana, Media, Assyria, Armenia, Parthia, Margiana, Sattagydia and Sacia.
He then gives the names of the rebellious leaders and of the officers sent to subjugate them; the forts, villages, or cities, where battles were fought; the day of the month when they took place, and the result, in every case, by the help of Ormuzd. One example will suffice. After speaking of the revolt of Armenia, the inscription continues.
"Says Darius the King:—Then Dadarses by name, an Armenian, one of my servants, him I sent to Armenia. I thus said to him: 'Greeting to thee, the rebel state that does not obey me, smite it.' Then Dadarses marched. When he reached Armenia, then the rebels having collected came before Dadarses arraying their battle ... by name, a village of Armenia, there they engaged. Ormuzd brought help to me; by the grace of Ormuzd, my forces entirely defeated that rebel army. On the 8th of the month Thurawahara, then it was a battle was fought by them."
In this manner we have the whole history of the reign of Darius king of Persia, who filled the throne 550 B.C. And it may truly be said that no monument of remote antiquity which has been preserved to modern times, at all equals it in importance. The inscriptions of Egypt are far more ancient, but consist of fragments, which, excepting the tables of kings, do not throw much light on history. Nothing is more interesting in the details given by the Persian king of his successes, than his acknowledgment of an overruling power, a Supreme Being, who protected him and aided him in all his battles. From the closing part of this remarkable tablet, which consists of twenty paragraphs, we select the following.
"Says Darius the King:—This is what I have done. By the grace of Ormuzd have I achieved the performance of the whole. Thou whoever hereafter may peruse this tablet, let it be known to thee, that which has been done by me, that it has not been falsely related.
"Says Darius the King:—Ormuzd is my witness, that this record I have faithfully made of the performance of the whole.
"Says Darius the King:—By the grace of Ormuzd, there is much else that has been done by me that upon this tablet has not been inscribed.... If thou publish this tablet to the world, Ormuzd shall be a friend to thee, and may thy offspring be numerous.
"Says Darius the King:—If thou shalt conceal this record, thou shalt not thyself be recorded; may Ormuzd be thy enemy, and mayest thou be childless.
"Says Darius the King:—As long as thou mayest behold this tablet and these figures, thou mayest not dishonor them; and if from injury thou shalt preserve them, may Ormuzd be a friend to thee, and may thy offspring be numerous, and mayest thou be long lived, and that which thou mayest do may Ormuzd bless for thee in after times."
The great inscription from which we have made these extracts, is sculptured in three languages, and in three different forms of the arrow-headed character, the particulars of which have been stated. There are a few imperfections and cracks in the stone which made certain words and sentences unintelligible; these will be corrected when the other two inscriptions are decyphered. In the midst of these records is a piece of sculpture in relief, representing Darius followed by two of his officers, with his foot upon a man, who raises his hands before him, and nine other figures representing the rebellious leaders whom he had severally conquered. They are connected by a rope around their necks and have their hands tied behind, and are probably portraits of the persons they represent. Beneath each is engraved his name, as in the extract given.
"This Natitabirus was an impostor: he thus declared, I am Nabokhadrosser, the son of Nabonidas; I am king of Babylon."
The discoveries of Professor Westergaard, to whom we are indebted for the key to the second or Median form of the arrow-headed character, require notice. This accomplished Orientalist, on his return from an archæological tour in India and Persia, under the patronage of the king of Denmark, brought with him, among other literary treasures, copies of a great number of inscriptions in the arrow-headed character. While in Persepolis he carefully examined all the inscriptions which those wonderful ruins still retain. Those which had already been published, he accurately compared with the original monuments, and the remainder he copied entire. This gentleman went thoroughly furnished with all the preparatory knowledge that could be gained in Europe to ensure success. He had shown himself by his publications to be an excellent Sanscrit scholar; besides which he had acquired as complete a knowledge of the Zend language as it is possible to do at present, and was well acquainted with all that had been effected in the way of decyphering the inscriptions. Having thus so greatly the advantage of his predecessors, Niebuhr, Ker Porter, and Rich, it is not to be wondered at that his transcripts are proportionably more accurate and complete.
It has long been known that all the inscriptions at Persepolis are triple, like those on the Behistun tablets, before described. Those of the first or simplest variety, have all been translated by Professor Lassen,[82] to whom Professor Westergaard transmitted them. Accompanying his translations are critical and explanatory remarks, proving conclusively the correctness of his version. The inscriptions at and near Persepolis, relate to Xerxes. They do not possess the historical value that the tablets of his father do on the rocks of Behistun, but consist of praises of Ormuzd for blessings he had received, and of himself for the additions he made to the royal palace at Persepolis. The following is a translation of an inscription on the wall of an immense portal at Nakshi Regib, two miles from Persepolis.[83]
"Ormuzd (is) the great God. He created this earth; he created the heavens; he created mortals; he created the fortune of mortals. He made king Xerxes the only king of many, the only emperor of many.
"I Xerxes (am) the great king, the king of kings, the king of realms inhabited by many nations; the sustainer, the author of this great land; the son of king Darius, the Achæmenide.
"I (am) the noble Xerxes, the great king. By the will of Ormuzd, I have built this portal to be entered by the people. Let the Persians abide, let them congregate under this portal, and in this palace—the palace which my father built for abiding in. By the will of Ormuzd we built them.
"I (am) the noble king Xerxes. Protect me O Ormuzd; and also this kingdom, and this my palace, and my father's palace protect, O admirable Ormuzd."
No inscriptions have yet been found in Persia of Artaxerxes, the first son of Xerxes. A vase, however, was discovered at Venice by Sir J.G. Wilkinson, bearing an inscription in hieroglyphics, and in the three species of arrow-headed characters so common in Persia. This vase and its inscriptions have been examined by M. Letronne and M. Longpérier, who do not hesitate to ascribe it to Artaxerxes the first, or Longimanus, whose names and titles have been made out both in the hieroglyphics and cuneiform characters.[84]
An inscription of great historical interest of Artaxerxes the third, has been found at Persepolis.[85] It is in only one species of the Achæmenian writing, and is noticed by Prof. Westergaard as exhibiting "a most remarkable change and decay which the language must have undergone in the interval between the reigns of Xerxes and this monarch." In a philological point of view, this fact is interesting as showing so early a decline of the Persian language.
But the most important part of this inscription consists of the genealogy of Artaxerxes the third, from Arsama, the Greek Arsames, the father of Hystaspes, completely agreeing with that given by Grecian historians. In this as well as in all the other inscriptions thus far decyphered, Ormuzd is invariably invoked; he is called upon to aid them, and the several sovereigns acknowledge their gratitude to him as to an all-protecting Providence for the blessings received.
Nineveh. We have received from M. Mohl, of Paris, an account of the researches of MM. Botta and Flandin,[86] on or near the site of ancient Nineveh.
This volume contains letters from M. Botta, giving the details of his discoveries, accompanied by fifty-five plates of sculptures, statues, and inscriptions. He penetrated into the interior of a large mound, where he found a series of halls and chambers, the walls of which were covered with paintings and relievos representing historical events, and scenes illustrating the manners and customs of the Assyrians. The drawings and sculptures exhibit a higher state of art than the monuments of Egypt. The figures are remarkably well drawn, both as it regards the anatomy and the costumes. The men appear to be more athletic than the Egyptians—they wear long hair combed smooth over the top of the head, and curled behind. The beard is also long and always curled. Their dresses are exceedingly rich and profuse in ornaments and trimmings. Ear-rings, bracelets, and armlets, of various forms and elaborately wrought, are seen on most of the figures both of the men and women. The discoveries made by M. Botta have induced others to explore the ground in that vicinity. An English traveller, Mr. Layard, has recently opened a mound many times larger than that excavated by the French. "It contains the remains of a palace, a part of which, like that at Khorsabad, appears to have been burnt. There is a vast series of chambers, all built with marble, and covered with sculptures and inscriptions. The inscriptions are in the cuneiform character, of the class usually termed Babylonian. It is possible that this edifice was built at an epoch prior to the overthrow of the Assyrian Empire by the Medes and Babylonians under Cyaxares. Many of the sculptures discovered by Mr. Layard are, even in the smallest details, as sharp and fresh as though they had been chiselled yesterday. Among them is a pair of winged lions with human heads, about twelve feet high. They form the entrance to a temple. The execution of these figures is admirable, and gives the highest idea of the knowledge and civilization of the Assyrians. There are many monsters of this kind, lions and bulls. The other reliefs consist of various divinities, some with eagles' heads—others entirely human but winged—with battle-pieces and sieges."[87]
Other letters from Mr. Layard of a later date than that just mentioned, announce new discoveries. "Another mine has been opened at Nimroud; and every stroke of the pick-axe brings new wonders to light." Old Nineveh, whose very existence had become little better than a vague historic dream, is astonishing the world by her buildings her sculptures, and her many thousands of inscriptions, which have been brought to light by the explorations of Mr. Layard.[88] "He has opened fourteen chambers and uncovered two hundred and fifty sculptured slabs. The grand entrance previously described led him into a hall above two hundred and fifty feet long and thirty broad—entirely built of slabs of marble covered with sculptures. The side walls are ornamented with bas-reliefs of the highest interest—battles, sieges, lion-hunts, &c.; many of them in the finest state of preservation, and all executed with extraordinary spirit. They afford a complete history of the military art of the Assyrians; and prove their intimate knowledge of many of those machines of war, whose invention is attributed to the Greeks and Romans—such as the battering ram, the tower moving on wheels, the catapult, &c. Nothing can exceed the beauty and elegance of the forms of various arms, swords, daggers, bows, spears, &c. In this great hall are several entrances, each formed by winged lions, or winged bulls.[89] These lead to other chambers; which again branch off into a hundred ramifications. Every chamber is built of marble slabs covered with sculptures or inscriptions." The excavations thus far only extend to one corner of a great mound, the largest on the plain, measuring about one thousand eight hundred feet by nine hundred. The wonders that may be brought to light from a more complete survey of this vast heap of ruins, will be looked forward to with intense interest.
All are familiar with the accounts of the building of this city by Asshur, (whence the name Assyria), and of the first empire under Nimrod. In this short record we have the first traces of political institutions and of great cities. They burst upon us, and as suddenly disappear from the world's history for more than a thousand years. A learned author of the last century[90] has endeavored to throw distrust on all that the Greek writers have written about these countries, because in the Persian historians he could not recognise the great Cyrus and other prominent characters which fill important places in the Grecian annals. But the revelations already made through the arrow-headed inscriptions must remove these doubts, as they substantiate in a remarkable degree the assertions of the Greek writers. The observations of a learned Orientalist are so well adapted to this subject that I cannot forbear quoting them. "The formation of mighty and civilized states being admitted even by our strictest chronologers to have taken place at least twenty-five centuries before our era, it can but appear extraordinary, even after taking into account violent revolutions, that of so multitudinous and great existences, only such scanty documents have come down to us. But, strange to say, whenever a testimony has escaped the destruction of time, instead of being greeted with a benevolent though discerning curiosity, the unexpected stranger is approached with mistrustful scrutiny, his voice is stifled with severe rebuke, his credentials discarded with scorn, and by a predetermined and stubborn condemnation, resuscitating antiquity is repelled into the tomb of oblivion."[91]
A journey of much interest was undertaken by Dr. Robert in 18_3, who was directed by the French government to continue, in the west of the Himalaya range and the high region adjacent, the geographical, physical, and ethnographical observations which had been begun by M. Jaquemont. The latest accounts from this intrepid traveller left him in the inaccessible valleys of Chinese Tartary, from whence it was his intention to pass through Turkestan, for the purpose of entering China on the north.[92]
In the same distant region we hear of the journeys of H.R.H. Prince Waldemar, of Prussia (cousin to the king). "Consulting only his ardor for science, and burthened with the usual load carried by a traveller on foot, he scaled the lofty Himmalayah, crossed the frontier of the Celestial Empire, and reached the table-land of Thibet."[93] The prince has already transmitted a large collection of objects of natural history, many of which are new, to Berlin. It is his intention to return to Europe by way of Affghanistan, Persia, and Asia Minor.
The following list embraces the late works on Assyria and Persia, as well as those relating to the arrow-head inscriptions.
The Persian Cuneiform Inscriptions at Behistun, decyphered and translated; with a Memoir on Persian cuneiform inscriptions in general, and on that of Behistun in particular, by Major H.C. Rawlinson, 8vo., in the journal of the Royal Asiatic Society. Vol. 10. London, 1846.
On the Decyphering of the second Achæmenian or Median species of Arrow-headed Writing; by N.L. Westergaard, 8vo., in the Mémoires de la Société Royale des Antiquaires du Nord. Copenhagen, 1844.
Lettres de M. Botta sur les Découvertes à Khorsabad, près de Ninive, publiées par M.J. Mohl, 8vo., with 56 plates. Paris, 1845.
Essai sur la Numismatique des Satrapies et de la Phénicie, sous les rois Achæmenides, par H. de Luynes, 4to. Paris, 1846.
The Manual, Formation and early Origin of the Hebrew letters and points, demonstrated and explained; also an Elucidation of the so-called Arrow-headed or Cuneiform characters. 8vo. London, 1847.
Essai de Déchiffrement de l'Écriture Assyrienne pour servir à l'explication du Monument de Khorsabad. Par J. Löwenstern. 8vo. Paris, 1846.
Die Grabscrift des Darius zu Nakschi Rustum erläutert. Von F. Hitzig. Zurich, 8vo. 1846.
Remarks on the Wedge Inscription recently discovered on the upper Euphrates by the Prussian engineer, Capt. Von Mülbach. Being a commentary on certain fundamental principles in the art of decyphering the "cuneatic" characters of the ancient Assyrians, by G.F. Grotefend. 8vo. In the papers of the Syro-Egyptian Society. Vol. I. London, 1845.
Voyage en Perse. de MM. Eugene Flandin et P. Coste. Recueil d'Architecture ancienne, Bas reliefs, inscriptions cuneiformes et Pehlvis, plans topographiques et vues pittoresques. Folio. 250 plates and text.
This magnificent work, the result of an expedition sent out by order of the French government, under the directions of the Institute, and now published by a commission of savans, consisting of Messrs Burnouf, Le Bas, and Leclerc, is in the course of publication. It will unquestionably be the most complete work ever published on this interesting country and will include the antiquities of Babylon and Nineveh.
G.F. Grotefend, Neue Beiträge zur Erläuterung der Persopolitanischen Keilschrift, nebst einem Anhange über die Vollkommenheit der ersten Art-derselben. Hanover, 1837.
G.F. Grotefend, Neue Beiträge zur Erläuterung der Babylonischen Keilschrift, nebst einem Anhange über die Beschaffensheit des ältesten Schriftdruck. Hanover, 1840.
The valuable Oriental Journal edited by Prof. Lassen, entitled "Zeitschrift für die Kunde des Morgenlandes," contains many papers of great interest on these subjects.
Siberia. To the love of science which the enlightened Emperor of Russia, has always manifested, we are indebted for an expedition, the most successful which has yet been undertaken for the exploration of the northern and eastern parts of Siberia. The results of this extensive exploration of a region not before examined by scientific men, are of the greatest interest to science, and have earned for its distinguished and undaunted leader, Prof. Von Middendorff, the applause of the savans of Europe. Not having seen any detailed account of this journey, I am indebted to Sir R. Murchison for some particulars of its results.[94]
The expedition traversed the whole extent of Siberia, from east to west, and from south to north, even to the extreme northern headland of Taimyr. "Undaunted by the severe privations he had undergone in obtaining his knowledge of the far northern lands of Siberia, he next undertook the not less arduous task of traversing the whole of that vast continent to the Shantar Isles, at its southeastern extremity, and thence to return to Nertchinsk, along the Chinese frontier. His journey through thickly-wooded rocks, deep morasses and over swollen rivers, was so successfully accomplished, that the stores he has brought back to St. Petersburgh, will fully lay open the Fauna and Flora of a region never previously explored by a man of science."
"Floating down the sea of Okotsk from Udskoi in frail canoes, M. Middendorff and his friends, braving shoals of floating ice and perpetual rains, reached Nitka on the great Shantar island. The wild regions which were traversed, in many parts could only be threaded by following the tracks formed by bears beneath the dense matting of underwood and birch trees" In his return journey, he examined the frontier line of China, a tract never explored even by a Cossack, and ascertained that between the Udskoi of the Russians and the mouth of the Amur, there is a considerable tract quite independent both of Russia and China, and occupied by a people called Guilaiques, who pay no tribute to either Emperor.
In addition to the several arduous journeys performed by this intrepid traveller and his companions, many questions hitherto unsolved were investigated and much new light added to our previous knowledge on these respective points. One was the real state of the question of the frozen subsoil of Siberia. "By placing thermometers at various depths in the shaft at Yakutsk, he has found that at its bottom, or at 382 feet below the surface, the cold is 2° 4" Réaumur, and that it is probable the frozen subsoil reaches to the great depth of about 600 feet! Notwithstanding this extraordinary phenomenon, the lateral extent of which has still to be determined, it appears that the culture of rye succeeds perfectly under favorable local conditions in those regions, and that the crops of grain are more abundant than in Livonia!" M. Middendorff has also thrown new light on the boreal range of vegetation. He has ascertained "that whilst rye, turnips, beets, and potatoes grow on the Yenisei to latitude 61° 40', indigenous plants, requiring less warmth, flourish much farther north, and that even trees with vertical stems reach to about 72° north latitude, in that parallel of longitude!" This fact will show that geographers can no longer mark the limit of vegetation by a rectilinear zone, but must accommodate such line to climatological and local conditions.
In regard to the mammoths, the fossil bones of which have been found in Siberia, M. Middendorff has shown that, in accordance with the views of Professor Owen, (who states that these quadrupeds were specially organized to live on the branches and leaves of such shrubs and trees as grow in boreal latitudes) there are still trees in latitude 72° which would suffice for their sustenance.
The Ethnology of this region has been elucidated by our traveller, who by investigating the languages and physical characteristics of these remote tribes, has been enabled to affiliate them with their parent stocks.
Our knowledge of the geology and geography of the northern and southeastern extremities of Siberia have been greatly extended by this journey; in fact no enquiry for the advancement of science and a knowledge of this far distant and hitherto unknown region, seems to have been neglected.[95]
Another scientific expedition of an Ethnological character is employed in Siberia under the direction of M. Castren, who has devoted much of his first report to the geography of the country. After speaking of the river Irtisch and its fisheries, he gives some account of the Ostiaks, the most ancient people of its banks. Surrounded by Russians and Tartars, they have lost all their nationality except their language. The Tartar influence is feeble, but that of Russia is felt in their religion, their manners, their customs and even in their general mode of thinking.
A paper containing "Ethnological Notes on Siberia," by Prof. Von Middendorff, was read at the late meeting of the British Association for the advancement of science. "In this paper, the geographical boundaries of the different tribes were set forth, the tribes were enumerated and some of the characteristic peculiarities described. The 1st, was the Ostiaks; these were stated to be of Finnish origin, on both physiological and philological evidence. 2d, the Samoiedes, who were of Mongol descent. 3rd, the Tunguses. 4th, the Yakuts; the extent to which Mongol features were found in a nation speaking a language akin to Turkish, was insisted on. 5th, the Yukagins; the physical peculiarities of which placed them along with the Samoiedes. 6th, the Ainos; these were the inhabitants of the Kinule islands at the mouth of the Arnus; of these there were two types, the Finnish and the Japanese. 7th, the Kachkell; these were only known through the Ainos."
A geographical Society has lately been founded at St. Petersburg, to which the emperor proposed to give ten thousand silver rubles annually. The first great exploratory expedition under the directions and patronage of this Society will be directed along the eastern flank of the Ural mountains, from the parallel of 60° north (Bogoslafsk) to the Glacial sea. This survey is to be conducted by Count A. Von Keyserling, already known to the public through his valuable geological co-operation in the work on Russia, by Sir R.I. Murchison; and who by his sound acquirements in geology, zoology and geography, will it is presumed, during the ensuing three years, throw great additional light on the wild Arctic Ural which separates Europe from Asia, and which, inhabited by Ostiaks and Samoiedes, extends beyond the limits of arboreal vegetation. Among numerous other objects, it is hoped that this expedition will elicit new results concerning the entombment and preservation of the mammoths.[96]
India. The obstacles which have existed in India, and which have retarded the extension of European civilization, will now be effectually removed by the noble step taken by Lord Hardinge, the Governor General, for promoting education in that country.[97] This benevolent and excellent man, whose well earned laurels on the field of battle are not more honorable than his philanthropic efforts in extending education among the natives of India, and in improving their social condition, "has directed the Council of Education and other authorities charged with the duty of superintending public instruction throughout the provinces subject to the government of Bengal, to submit returns of the students who may be fitted according to their degrees of merit and capacity, for such of the various public offices, as with reference to their age, abilities and other circumstances, they may be deemed qualified to fill." As this order recognizes no distinction of schools, or castes, or religion, it will have a great influence on the people, towards inducing them to give their children the benefit of a good education, which to a great extent must be obtained through the Christian missionaries. "It is," says the Friend of India, "the most powerful impulse which the cause of education has received during the last twenty-five years. It makes the seminaries the nursery of the service, and the service the stimulant of the seminaries. It introduces the enlightened principles adopted by European governments, of recruiting the public service in every department from those who have earned distinctions in the public schools. At the same time it will be found instrumental in the highest degree in the general elevation of the country. It will transplant into the interior that European knowledge and science which has hitherto been confined to Calcutta, and diffuse their influence through every district."
The renunciation of idolatry must necessarily follow the first steps in this great work of reform, and we already see it noticed that in southern India, within the short period of three months, eight hundred and thirty-two persons renounced idolatry and embraced Christianity. This large number was a part of the population of seven villages.[98]
Such changes are not without their effects on the great mass of the natives, indeed it is only by removing from their minds the gross superstition in which they have been for ages immersed, that there can be a hope of improving their social condition. The wealthy Hindoos cling to their ancient religion with greater tenacity as it totters towards its downfall, than when in its most flourishing state. Alarmed at the innovations which European civilization and Christianity have made, they are printing by subscription, a series of popular religious books in monthly numbers, on their doctrines, rites, superstitions and idolatry. Fearing that the Europeans and such as have been taught to observe these things with ridicule, might controvert them, they have confined the subscription to Hindoos, and have directed that their books shall be rigidly kept from the hands of Christians.
The Mahommedans too, in Bengal, are greatly alarmed at the danger to which their religion is exposed. They have prepared tracts and books in opposition to Christianity, and have sent, or are sending emissaries in every direction, with a view to strengthen the tottering cause of their false prophet.[99] A Mahommedan merchant in Bombay has printed at his own expense, two thousand copies of the Koran for gratuitous distribution, at a cost of several thousand dollars.
In former times the efforts of the missionaries were directed to proselyting among the Hindoos and other idolaters of the East, without first making themselves acquainted with the fabric which they were laboring so earnestly to demolish. Nursed and educated as the natives were in the doctrines and superstitions which for ages their forefathers had venerated and professed, the efforts of the missionaries and of others who labored to improve their condition were unattended with success—and a conflict between Oriental and European civilization—between Hindooism and Christianity—between the false science of the shastres and the enlightenment of Europe, for a long time existed; and it seemed doubtful whether truth or falsehood would triumph. Now, the system is changed, and a course is pursued which bids fair to produce the most wonderful effects on the people of India and China.
It has been asserted that the missionary enterprise in India was a failure, and did not warrant the large sums expended there. Those who are unfriendly to the cause do not see that more than half the amount there expended was for educating the people, for improving their social condition, for translating valuable books into their various languages and for establishing among them that mighty engine of civilization and reform, the printing press.[100]
But it is not merely in the translation and distribution of these books, that the missionaries have rendered so much service. In this labor it is true they have contributed greatly towards disseminating Christian truth and useful knowledge among a large class of people, and have improved their religious, their moral and their social condition. But to Europe and to the learned world they have also furnished a vast deal of philological knowledge, elucidating and developing languages scarcely known beyond the precincts of the several countries in which they were spoken. Many of these languages, too, were previously unwritten; and from this rude state the missionaries have trained and moulded them into forms adapted to written speech.
While speaking of the labors of the missionaries in the East, I should do great injustice to Catholics not to speak of their efforts to improve the moral and religious condition of the people in these distant countries. In the most barbarous and secluded portions of the earth do we find these devoted men diligently laboring to elevate the condition of the natives. In many do we see a zeal and devotedness, an endurance of hardships, of the most severe privations, and often martyrdom itself, which has never been surpassed in the annals of missionary enterprise. Neither François Xavier, nor Ignatius Loyola, so famous among the pioneers of the Eastern missions, ever exhibited a greater zeal or devotedness than we now witness among the Catholic missionaries in Thibet, China, Corea, the islands of the Eastern Archipelago and Oceanica. They too have added much to our stock of knowledge of the inhabitants, their manners and customs, and their languages. Their narratives give us particular accounts of the productions of the countries in which they reside, their trade, commerce, and all that interests us.
Siam. An interesting fact connected with the progress of European civilization, and the extension of Christianity in the kingdom of Siam, seems deserving of notice in this place. It was communicated by the American Mission in that country.
"The king of Siam despatched one of his ships to Ceylon about the close of last year, to carry back some Ceylonese Boodhists whom he had invited to Siam, two or three years before, and also to send a fresh ecclesiastical embassy to that island—regarded by all Boodhists as very sacred—to make further religious researches in the primitive nursery of their faith. That embassy fulfilled its mission, and returned to Siam in June, bringing a letter to his Majesty from a high priest of Boodh in Ceylon, written in English, and stating in substance, that the religion of Boodh had become almost extinct in Ceylon, chiefly through the influence of the Christian religion, and the schools and seminaries of the missionaries and English residents in that part of the world; and that, if some aid from abroad could not be obtained to prop up crumbling Boodhism in that island, it must soon become utterly extinct. The writer expressed much pain at the thought, that the very birth place of his religion should not have some permanent witness of it; and requested that his Majesty, in his pious zeal for Boodhism, would send him funds, with which he might build a Wat (Religious house) and support priests in honor of his god. He suggested that this would be a noble work for a great king, and one that would confer upon him the highest honors of Boodhism."[101]
The following list embraces the recent works on India.
Travels in the Kashmir and the Punjab; containing a particular account of the Sikhs. From the German of Baron Hugel, with notes by Major Jervis, royal 8vo. London, 1846.
The Punjaub; being a brief account of the country of the Sikhs, its extent, history, commerce, productions, religion, &c., to the recent campaign of the Sutelege. By Lt. Col. Steinbach, post, 8vo. London, 1846.
A Peep into Turkistan; by Capt. R. Burslem, 8vo. London, 1846.
Travels in the Punjab, Affghanistan and Turkistan, to Balk, Bokhara and Herat, by Mohan Lal, 8vo. London, 1846.
History of the Punjab, and of the rise, progress and present condition of the Sikhs, 2 vols. post, 8vo. London, 1846.
The history of the Sikhs, with a personal narrative of the war between the British and the Sikhs. By W.L. McGregor, 2 vols. 8vo. London, 1847.
The Sikhs and Affghans, immediately before and after the death of Runjeet Singh. By Shahamat Ali, post, 8vo. London, 1847.
The Hindoo Castes; or history, manners and customs of the 42 castes or sects of the Brahmins of British India, with highly colored plates: By E.A. Rodriguez, 24 numbers.