EGYPT.
I have hesitated, in the superficial view I propose to take in noticing the ethnological and archæological researches of the day, as to whether I ought to speak of the land of the Pharaohs. The explorations have been on so grand a scale, and the results so astounding, that one is lost in amazement in attempting to keep pace with them.
In England, France, Germany and Italy, Egyptian archæology is the most fruitful topic among the learned. In Paris, it forms the theme of lectures by the most distinguished archæologists, and the subject absorbs so much interest in Germany, that the King of Prussia has established a professorship at the Royal University for Egyptian antiquities and history, which he has assigned to Professor Lepsius, the most accomplished scholar in Egyptian learning, and who was at the head of the scientific commission sent by his majesty to explore the valley of the Nile.
It will be remembered that in addition to the immense and costly work published by Napoleon, there have since been published the great national works of Champollion, by the French government, and of Rossellini by the Tuscan government. These are to be immediately followed by the great work of Lepsius, who has just returned from Egypt, laden with innumerable treasures, the results of three years of most laborious and successful explorations. This undertaking is at the expense of the King of Prussia, one of the most enlightened monarchs of Europe, and who, at the present moment, is doing more in various parts of the world for the advancement of science than any now living.
But the French government, which has always been foremost in promoting such explorations, is determined not to be superseded by the learned Prussian's researches in Egyptian lore. An expedition has been organized under M. Prisse, for a new survey and exploration of Egypt. Mr. Prisse is an accomplished scholar, versed in hieroglyphical learning, and author of a work on Egyptian Ethnology. He will be accompanied by competent artists, will go over the same ground as Lepsius, and make additional explorations.
As regards the eminent men who have won brilliant distinction in the career of Egyptian studies, it is out of the question here to analyze their books: it must suffice to state, that all have marched boldly along the road opened by Champollion, and that the science which owed its first illustration to Young, to the Champollions, to the Humboldts, to Salvolini, to Rosellini, to Nestor L'Hote, and to whose soundness the great De Sacy has furnished his testimony, counts at this day as adepts and ardent cultivators, such scholars as Letronne, Biot, Prisse, Bunsen, Lepsius, Burnouf, Pauthiér, Lanci, Birch, Wilkinson, Sharpe, Bonomi, and many more.[41]
A few important results of the late explorations in Egypt, and researches into her hieroglyphics and history, it may be well to mention.
Prof. Schwartze, of Berlin, is publishing a work on Egyptian philology, entitled Das Alte Ægypten. Some idea may be formed of the erudition of German philologists, and the extent to which their investigations are carried, when we state that this savant has completed the first part of the first volume of this work, which embraces 2200 quarto pages! and this is but a beginning.
De Saulcy has made great advances in decyphering the Demotic writing of Egypt, in which, from Champollion's death to 1843, little had been done. He has now translated the whole of the Demotic text on the Rosetta stone, so that we may consider this portion of Egyptian literature as placed on a firm basis.
Farther elucidations of the Coptic language have been made. This, it will be remembered, is the language into which the ancient Egyptian merged, and is the main instrument by which a knowledge of the latter must be obtained. Recently a discovery has been made by Arthur de Rivière, at Cairo, in an ancient Coptic MS. containing part of the Old Testament. The manuscript was very large and thick, and on separating the leaves was found to contain a pagan manuscript in the same language, the only one yet discovered.[42] On a farther examination of this manuscript, it proved to be a work on the religion of the ancient Egyptians. The translation of this curious document is looked for with much interest.
M. Prisse is publishing at the expense of the French Government, the continuation of Champollion's great work on Egypt and Nubia—50 plates are in press.
Mr. Birch, of London, has nearly ready for the press a work on the titles of the officers of the Pharaonic court. He has discovered in hieroglyphical writing those of the chief butler, chief baker, and others, coeval with the pyramids and anterior to Joseph. He has also discovered upon a tablet at the Louvre (age of Thotmes III. B.C. 1600) his conquest of Nineveh, Shinar, and Babylon, and with the tribute exacted from those conquered nations. The intense interest which Egyptian archæology is exciting in Europe will be seen from the list of new books on the subject.
The most remarkable discoveries, and in which the greatest advances has been made, are in monumental chronology. Through the indefatigable labors of the Prussian savant, Lepsius, primeval history has far transcended the bounds to which Champollion and Rosellini had carried it. They fixed the era of Menes, the first Pharaoh of Egypt, at about 2750, B.C. Böckh, of Berlin, from astronomical calculations, places it at 5702 B.C.
Henry of Paris, in his "L'Égypte Pharaonique," from historical deductions, places the era at 5303 B.C.
Barucchi, of Turin, from critical investigations, at 4890 B.C., and Bunsen, in his late work entitled "Egypt's Place in the World's History," from the most laborious hierological and critical deductions, places the era of Menes at 3643 B.C.
I should do wrong to speak of the labors of foreign savans, without alluding to what has been done in this country. Dr. Morton, it is known, has published a work on Egyptian Ethnography, from crania in his possession furnished by Mr. Gliddon, which reflects great credit on his scholarship, and has been highly commended in Europe. The late Mr. Pickering, of Boston, was one of the few who cultivated hieroglyphical literature in America. But perhaps the American people, as a mass, owe a deeper debt of gratitude to Mr. Geo. R. Gliddon, for his interesting lectures on Egypt and her literature, and to his work entitled Chapters on Egyptian Antiquities and Hieroglyphics, than to any other man. Mr. Gliddon, by a long residence in Egypt, and by a close study subsequently of her monuments, has been enabled to popularize the subject, and by the aid of a truly magnificent and costly series of illustrations of the monuments, the sculptures, the paintings and hieroglyphics of Egypt, to make this most interesting and absorbing subject, comprehensive to all.
The results of these Egyptian investigations will doubtless be startling to many; for if the facts announced are true, and we see no reason to believe otherwise, it places the creation of man far, very far, beyond the period usually assigned to him in the chronology of the Hebrew Bible. But again, it must be observed that the common chronology gives the shortest period for that event. If other scriptural chronologies are adopted, we gain two or three thousand years for the creation of man, which gives us quite time enough to account for the high state of civilization and the arts in Egypt, four thousand years B.C.
But we do not fear these investigations—truth will prevail, and its attainment can never be detrimental to the highest interests of man.
I must also acknowledge the obligation I am under for the use of many splendid and valuable books relating to Egypt, from Mr. Richard K. Haight. This gentleman, with an ample fortune at his command, and with a taste for archæological studies, acquired by a personal tour among the monuments of Egypt, has collected a large and valuable library of books on Egypt, including all the great works published by the European governments on that country. This costly and unique collection, which few but princes or governments possess, he liberally places at the command of scholars, who, for purposes of study, may require them.
Mr. Haight's interest in archæological researches has been noticed in Paris, in an article by De Saulcy, member of the Institute of France, in a memoir entitled, "L'Etude des Hieroglyphics." Speaking of Mr. Gliddon's success in the United States in popularizing hieroglyphical discoveries, De Saulcy justly remarks—"Il a été puissamment secondé, dans cette louable entreprise, par une de ces nobles intelligences dont un pays s'honore; M. Haight, l'ami, le soutien, dévoué de tous les hommes de science, n'a pas peu contribué, par sa généreuse assistance, a répandre aux Etats-Unis les belles découvertes qui concernent les temps pharaoniques." Revue des Deux Mondes. Paris, June 15, 1846.
The following list embraces the late works relating to Egypt:
The Oriental Album; or Historical, Pictorial, and Ethnographical Sketches, illustrating the human families in the Valley of the Nile: by E. Prisse. folio. London, 1846.
The History of Egypt, from the earliest times till the conquest by the Arabs, A.D. 640. By Samuel Sharpe. 8vo. London, 1846.
A Pilgrimage to the Temples and Tombs of Egypt, Nubia, and Palestine, in 1845-'46, by Mrs. Romer. 2 vols. 8vo. London, 1846.
L'Égypte au XIX siècle, histoire militaire et politique, anecdotique et pittoresque de Mehemet Ali, etc.; par E. Gouin. Illustrée de gravures.
Panorama d'Égypte et de Nubie avec un texte orné, de vignettes; par Hector Horeau. folio.
Recherches sur les arts et métiers de la vie civile et domestique des anciens peuples de l'Égypte, de la Nubie et de l'Éthiopie, suivi de détails sur les mœurs et coûtumes des peuples modernes des mêmes contrées; par M. Frederic Cailliand. folio. Paris, 1831-'47. 100 plates.
Das Tödtenbuch der Ægypten nach dem Hieroglyphischen Papyrus in Turin, von Dr. R. Leipsius. Leipsig.
Schwartze. Das alte Ægypten, oder Sprache, Geschichte, Religion und Verfassung d. alt. Ægypt. 2 vols. 4to. Leipsig.
Ægyptens Stelle in der Weltgeschichte: Von Carl J. Bunsen. 3 vols. 8vo.
Manetho und die Hundssternperiode, ein Beitrag zur Geschichte der Pharaonen: Von August Böckh. 8vo. Berlin, 1845.
Macrizi's Geschichte der Copten. Aus den Handschriften zu Gotha und Wién, mit Übersetzungen and Anmerkungen. Von Wüstenfeld. 4to. Göttingen, 1845.
Monuments de l'Égypte et de la Nubie. Notices descriptives conformes aux manuscrits autographes rédigés sur les lieux par Champollion le jeune. folio. Paris, 1845-'46.
L'Égypte Pharaonique, ou Histoire des institutions qui régirent les Égyptiens sous leur Rois nationaux. par D.M.J. Henri. 2 vols. 8vo. Paris, 1846.
Discorso Critici sopra la Cronologia Egizia; del Prof. Barucchi. 4to. Turin.
Voyage en Égypte, en Nubie, dans les déserts de Beyonda, des Bycharís, et sur les côtes de la Mer Rouge: par E. Combes. 2 vols. 8vo. Paris, 1847.
EASTERN ARCHIPELAGO.
Borneo.—Among the most remarkable and successful attempts to open a communication with the natives of the East India Islands, is that of Mr. James Brooke. This gentleman, prompted solely by a desire to improve the condition of the people of Borneo, and at the same time to explore this hitherto unknown region, has established himself at Sarawak, on the northwestern part of the island, 427 miles from Singapore. Such was the interest manifested by him on his arrival in the country to promote the good of the people, and to suppress the piracies which have been carried on for many years by the Malays, and certain tribes associated with them, that the then reigning Rajah, Muda Hassim, resigned to him his right and title to the government of the district, in which he was afterwards established by the Sultan of Borneo. The success that has attended Mr. Brooke's government, among a barbarous people, whose intercourse with foreigners had been confined to the Malays and Chinese, is most remarkable. Possessed of an independent fortune, of the most enlarged benevolence; familiar with the language, manners, customs and institutions of the people by which he is surrounded, with a mind stored with knowledge acquired from extensive travel and intercourse with various rude nations, he seems to have been prepared by Providence for the task which he has attempted, and which has thus far been crowned with success.
Capt. Keppel's Narrative of his expedition to Borneo, and Mr. Brooke's Journal, furnish some interesting ethnological facts. The Dyaks, or aboriginal inhabitants of Borneo, are divided into numerous lesser tribes, varying in a slight degree in their manners and customs. Their language belongs to the Polynesian stock, on which has been ingrafted, particularly along the coast, a large number of Malayan words. It also exhibits evidences of migrations from India at remote periods. In speaking of the Sibnowans, Mr. Brooke observes that "they have no idea of a God, and though they have a name for the Deity, (Battara, evidently of Hindoo origin), with a faint notion of a future state, the belief seems a dead letter among them. They have no priests, say no prayers, make no offerings to propitiate the Deity; and of course have no occasion for human sacrifices, in which respect they differ from all other people in the same state of civilization, who bow to their idols with the same feelings of reverence and devotion, of awe and fear, as civilized beings do to their invisible God."[43] From their comparatively innocent state, Mr. Brooke believes they are capable of being easily raised in the scale of society. "Their simplicity of manners, the purity of their morals and their present ignorance of all forms of worship, and all idea of future responsibility, render them open to conviction of truth and religious impression, when their minds have been raised by education."[44] It is a well known fact, that since the establishment of Europeans in the Eastern Archipelago, the tendency of the Polynesian races has generally been to decay. The case of Mr. Brooke, however, now warrants us in hoping that such a result need not necessarily and inevitably ensue.
While success has attended this gentleman at the north, the American missionaries, among the Dutch possessions farther south, have totally failed in their objects. They attribute the unwillingness of the Dyaks to submit to their instruction, to the influence of the Malays, whose interests are necessarily opposed to those of the missionaries, for, it is evident that once under the guidance of the latter, the Dyaks will see their own degraded and oppressed condition, and submit to it no longer. Mr. Youngblood says that "so prejudiced are the Dyaks, that I have been unable to obtain a few boys to instruct, of which I was very desirous."[45]
The Dutch have long had trading establishments in Borneo, but they had made no efforts either to suppress the piracies, or improve the moral and social condition of its inhabitants. Its great value has now become so apparent, that unless they keep pace with, and follow the example set by the English, they will be in danger of having it wrested from their hands by the more enlightened policy of the latter.
Borneo produces all the valuable articles of commerce common to other islands of the Eastern Archipelago. Its mineral productions are equally rich, and include gold dust, diamonds, pearls, tin, copper, antimony, and coal. The interior is quite unknown. It is three times larger than Great Britain, and is supposed to contain about 3,000,000 of people.
I have purposely avoided speaking of the trade and commerce of the islands of the Eastern Archipelago, as they are subjects which do not fall within the sphere of our enquiries, in a review like the present; although the productions, the trade and commerce of nations are properly a branch of ethnological enquiry, in a more enlarged view. An interesting pamphlet, embodying much valuable information on the commerce of the East, has been lately published by our townsman, Mr. Aaron H. Palmer. This gentleman is desirous that the United States government should send a special mission to the East Indies, as well as to other countries of Asia, with a view to extend our commercial relations. The plan is one that deserves the attention of our people and government, and I am happy to state that it has met with favor from many of our merchants engaged in the commerce of the East, as well as from some distinguished functionaries of the government.[46] England, France, Prussia, Denmark, and Holland, have at the present moment, expeditions in various parts of the East Indies and Oceanica, planned for the pursuit of various scientific enquiries and the extension of their commerce. With the exception of Prussia, these nations seem to be desirous to establish colonies; and they have, within a few years, taken up valuable positions for the purpose.
Is it not then the duty of our government to be represented in this new and wide field? Our dominions now extend from ocean to ocean, and we talk of the great advantages we shall possess in carrying on an eastern trade; but how greatly would our advantages be increased by having a depot or colony on one of the fertile islands contiguous to China, Java, Borneo, Japan, the Philippines, &c. An extended commerce demands it, and we hope the day is not distant when our government may see its importance.
England, France, Spain, Portugal and Holland have possessions in the East. The former, always awake to her commercial interests, now has three prominent stations in the China Sea,—Singapore, Borneo, and Hongkong. But even these important points do not satisfy her, and she looks with a longing eye towards Chusan, a point of great importance, commanding the trade of the northern provinces of China, and contiguous to Corea and Japan. The "Friend of India," a leading paper, "is possessed with a most vehement desire," says the editor of the "China Mail," "that the British, without infringing their 'political morality,' could contrive some means of obtaining the cession of Chusan, which, in their hands, he believes, could be converted into a second Singapore, and become one of the largest mercantile marts of the East."[47]
It is evident from what has been stated, and from the opinions expressed in foreign journals, that the attention of the civilized world has been suddenly attracted to the Eastern Archipelago, and it is only surprising, considering the knowledge possessed by the European nations, of the rich productions of these islands, and the miserable state in which a large portion of their inhabitants live, that efforts have not before been made to colonize them, and bring them under European rule.
The Spaniards contented themselves with the Philippines, but the Dutch, more enterprising, as well as more ambitious, extended their conquests to Sumatra, Java, the Moluccas, and recently to Bali, Sumbawa, Timor and Celebes. But these are not all, for wherever our ships push their way through these innumerable islands, they find scattered, far and wide, their unobtrusive commercial stations, generally protected by a fort and a cruiser.
It is said that the natives feel no attachment for their Dutch rulers, which, as they possess so wide spread a dominion in the Archipelago, is much to be regretted; for this feeling of animosity against them, may effect the relations that may be hereafter formed between the aboriginal races and other Christian people. Attempts will doubtless be made to prejudice the natives against the English, but the popularity of Mr. Brooke at Sarawak, in Borneo, his kindness to the natives, and the destruction of the pirates by the British, will no doubt gain for them throughout the Archipelago, a name and an influence which the jealousies of other nations cannot counteract. The natives of these islands except those of the interior, are strictly a trading and commercial people. Addicted to a seafaring life, and tempted by a love of gain, they traverse these seas in search of the various articles of commerce which are eagerly sought after by traders for the European, India, and Chinese markets. Piracy, which abounds in this region, grows out of this love of trade—this desire for the accumulation of wealth—and we believe that nothing would tend to suppress crime so effectually as the establishment of commercial ports throughout the Archipelago.
It is said that the population embraced in the twelve thousand islands of which Polynesia consists, amounts to about forty millions. No part of the world equals it in the great variety and value of its products. There is scarcely an island but is accessible in every direction, abounding in spacious bays and harbors, and the larger ones in navigable rivers. The people are generally intelligent, and susceptible of a higher degree of cultivation than the natives of Africa, or of many parts of the adjacent continent.
To obtain a station or an island in this vast Archipelago, we should require neither the outlay of a large sum of money, nor the loss of human life; no governments would be subjected, or kings overthrown. Civilization and its attendant blessings would take the place of barbarism, idolatry would be supplanted by christianity, and the poor natives, now bowed down by cruelty and oppression, would, under the care of an enlightened government, become elevated in the scale of social existence.
The cultivation of spices in the Archipelago, and the acts by which the monopoly is secured by the Dutch in the Moluccas, reflect little credit on human nature. "No where in the world have the aboriginal tribes been treated with greater cruelty; and in some cases literal extermination has overtaken them. Their tribe has been extinguished, they have been cut off to a man, and that merely lest, in order to obtain a humble subsistence, they should presume to trade on their own account in those costly spices, the sale of which, without right or reason, Holland has hitherto thought proper to appropriate to herself. No form of servitude, moreover, equals the slavery of those who are engaged in the culture of the nutmeg-tree. They toil without hope. No change ever diversifies their drudgery; no holiday gladdens them; no reward, however trifling, repays extra exertion, or acts as a stimulus for the future. The wretched slave's life is one monotonous round, a mere alternation of toil and sleep, to be terminated only by death."[48] The northern portions of New Guinea, as well as other islands, are in the same latitude as Banda and Amboyna, and produce the nutmeg and other spices. They might be extensively cultivated by the natives, if encouragement was given them; and a sufficient supply obtained for all the markets of Europe and America.
The Island of Bali, lying east of Java, from which it is separated by a narrow strait, has recently been subjected by the Dutch. Some difficulty growing out of the commerce with the people, is the alleged cause. It is an island of great importance to Holland, and would seriously injure her commerce with Java, should any other European nation take it under its protection, or plant a colony there. A slight pretext therefore sufficed for its annexation.
New Caledonia Islands. Later information has been received from the Catholic Missionaries in New Caledonia; for it seems that even in those distant and barbarous islands both Protestant and Catholic are represented. The Propaganda annals contain some interesting accounts of the natives of these islands, and of other facts of importance in Ethnology. Two Catholic missionaries, the Rev. Mr. Rougeyron and the Rev. Mr. Colin, had been twenty months on these islands, during which time they had accomplished nothing in the way of conversions, and but little towards improving the moral condition of the natives. It was hardly time to expect much, as they had only then begun to speak the language of the country, which they found very difficult to acquire. The natives are a most lazy and wretched people. They cultivate the ground with the aid of a piece of pointed wood, or with their nails, but never in proportion to their wants. For the greater part of the year they are compelled to live upon a few fish, shell-fish, roots and the bark of trees, and at times when pressed by hunger, worms, spiders and lizards are eagerly devoured by them. They are cannibals in every sense of the word, and openly feed on the flesh of their enemies. Yet they possess the cocoa, banana and yam, with a luxuriant soil, from which, with a little labor, an abundance could be raised.
Among no savage tribes are the women worse treated than here. They are completely at the mercy of their cruel and tyrannical husbands. Compelled to carry burdens, to collect food, and cultivate the fields, their existence promises them but little enjoyment; and when there is any fruit or article of delicacy procured, it is at once tabooed by the husband, so that she cannot touch it but at the peril of her life.
The missionaries had begun to expostulate with the natives on the horrors of eating their prisoners, and other vices to which they were addicted, and observe that "a happy change has already taken place among them; that they were less disposed to robbery, and that their wars are less frequent."[49] They are beginning to understand the motive which brought the missionaries to them, and already show a desire to be instructed.
The protestant missions have not accomplished any more than the Catholic's among these savages. The latest accounts state that four of the native teachers who had been converted to Christianity, had been cruelly murdered, and that such was the hostility of the chiefs at the isle of Pines, that the prospects of the missionaries were most discouraging.[50]
Sooloo Islands.—Mr. Itier, attaché to the French mission in China, has recently visited a cluster of islands lying to the northeast of Borneo, between that island and Mindanao.[51] His researches on the natural history and geology of these islands, are of much interest. The soil is exceedingly fertile, and the climate more healthy than is usual in intertropical climates. The sugar cane, cocoa, rice, cotton, the bread fruit, indigo, and spices of all kinds, are among their products. Fruits and vegetables of a great variety, are abundant, and of a superior quality. Nine-tenths of the soil is still covered with the primitive forest, of which teak-wood, so valuable in shipbuilding, forms a part. A considerable commerce with China and Manilla is carried on, and from ten to twelve thousand Chinese annually visit the island of Basilan, the most northerly of the group, to cultivate its soil, and take away its products. The peculiar situation of these islands, and their contiguity to the Philippines, to Celebes, Borneo, Manilla, China, and Singapore, make them well adapted for a European colony. In fact, there do not appear to be any islands of the East Indies of equal importance, and there can be no doubt that with the present desire manifested by European nations for colonizing, this desirable spot will ere long be secured by one of them. The Sooloo group embraces sixty inhabited islands, governed by a Sultan, residing at Soung. One of these would be an advantageous point for an American colony or station.
The same gentleman has presented to the Geographical Society of Paris, the journal of a voyage and visit to the Philippine islands, from which it appears that that large and important croup is not inferior in interest to the Sooloo islands. The natural history and geology, the soil and its products, the manners and customs of the people, their commerce and political history, are described in detail.[52] The group embraces about twelve hundred islands, with a population of 4,000,000, of whom about 8,000 are Chinese, 4,000 Spaniards, 120,000 of a mixed race, and the remainder natives.
The Nicobar Islands, a group nineteen in number, in the Bay of Bengal, have again attracted the attention of the Danish government, by which an expedition has been sent with a view to colonize them anew. The Danes planted a colony there in 1756, but were compelled to abandon it in consequence of the insalubrity of the climate. Subsequently the French made an attempt with no better success.
Recent publications on the Eastern Archipelago and Polynesia.
Ethnology and Philology. By Horatio Hale, Philologist of the U. S. Exploring Expedition, imp. 4to. Philadelphia, 1846.
Reise nach Java, und Ausflüge nach den Inseln Mudura und S. Helena; von Dr. Edward Selberg, 8vo. Oldenburg, 1845.
Philippines (les), histoire, géographie, mœurs, agriculture, industrie et commerce des colonies espagnoles dans l'Océanie; par J. Mallat, 2 vols. 8vo., avec un atlas in folio. Paris, 1846.
The expedition of H.M.S. Dido, for the suppression of piracy; by the Hon. Capt. Keppell, with extracts from the journal of James Brooke, Esq. 2 vols. 8vo. London, 1846. Reprinted in New York.
Trade and Travel in the Far East; or recollections of twenty-one years passed in Java, Singapore, Australia and China, by G.F. Davidson, post 8vo. London, 1846.
Typee: Narrative of a four months' residence among the natives of the Marquesas islands, by Herman Melville. 12mo. New York, 1846.
Besides these, The Missionary Herald, the Baptist Missionary Magazine, The London Evangelical Magazine, the Annals of the Society for the Propagation of the Faith, as well as other similar journals, contain many articles of great interest on the various islands of the Eastern Archipelago and the South Sea Islands.
Australia. This vast island continues to attract the attention of geographers and naturalists. Its interior remains unknown, notwithstanding the various attempts which have been made from various points to penetrate it. The explorations of scientific men during the last four years have been productive of valuable information relating to its geography, ethnography, geology and natural history.
Among the most eminent and successful in this field, is the Count de Strzelecki. This gentleman, as early as the year 1840, made an extensive tour into the southwestern part of Australia, in which he discovered an extensive tract called Gipp's Land, containing an extent of five thousand six hundred square miles, a navigable lake and several rivers, and from the richness of the soil, presenting an inviting prospect to settlers. His explorations were continued during the years 1842 '43 and '44, and in the following year the results were given to the public,[53] "comprehending the fruits of five years of continual labor during a tour of seven thousand miles on foot. This work treats, within a moderate compass, of the history and results of the surveys of those countries, of their climate, their geology, botany and zoology, as well as of the physical, moral and social state of the aborigines, and the state of colonial agriculture, the whole illustrated by comparisons with other countries visited by himself in the course of twelve years travel through other parts of the world." For these extensive explorations and discoveries, and for his valuable work in which they are embodied, the Royal Geographical Society of London awarded the "Founders" gold medal to Count Strzelecki.[54]
Additional information to our knowledge of Australia is contained in Capt. Stokes's late work detailing the discoveries made by himself and other officers attached to H.M.S. Beagle. These discoveries consist of a minute examination of a large part of the coast of that island, of several rivers on its northern and northwestern sides, and of expeditions into the interior. Natives were seen in small numbers in various parts, all of whom were in the lowest state of barbarism. A remarkable diversity of character was noticed, however, among the natives of different localities, some being most kindly disposed, and approaching the strangers without fear, as though they were old acquaintances, whilst others manifested the greatest hostility and aversion. In the instances referred to, they had never seen white men before. Capt. Stokes says his "whole experience teaches him that these were not accidental differences, but that there is a marked contrast in the disposition of the various tribes, for which he will not attempt to account."[55] The natives at Port Essington, on the north, appear to be in some respects superior to those in other parts of the island. Their implements of war and their canoes show a connexion with the Malays. They also have a musical instrument made of bamboo, the only one yet found among them.[56] The rite of circumcision was practised on the northern coast near the gulf of Carpentaria. On the southern coast, at the head of the Australian bight, it had before been noticed by Mr. Eyre.[57] For the practice of this ancient rite at such remote distances, and confined to within such narrow limits, we can only account, by some early migration or visit of people by whom it was practised. Nothing has yet been done towards a comparison of the languages spoken by the Australian tribes. In the late cruise of Capt. Stokes, natives of the south were taken to the northern parts of the island, but in their intercourse with the people of the latter, they were unable to make themselves understood. It is possible, however, that like the languages of the American Indians, though they may exhibit a wide difference in words for similar objects, the grammatical structure may be the same. This is a more important test in ethnological comparison, and should be applied before any of the aboriginal tribes of Australia are extinct.
By far the most important journey yet accomplished for the exploration of Australia, is that of Dr. Leichardt. This gentleman, accompanied by Mr. Gilbert, a naturalist, and six others, started from Moreton Bay, on the southeastern shore of the island, in October, 1844, to penetrate to Port Essington, on its most northerly point; in order, if possible, to open a direct route to Sydney. Several months after the party left, reports were brought to Moreton Bay that they had been cut off by the natives. This was proved to be untrue by an expedition sent out for the purpose, who traced the travellers four hundred miles into the interior. Dr. Leichardt found it impossible to penetrate into the interior in a direct course, on account of high table-land, and the absence of water; and this circumstance compelled him to keep within six or seven degrees of the coast. Their six months' provisions being exhausted, the only resource of the party was the horses and stock bullocks,—and with these the strictest economy was necessary. One was killed as provision for a month—sometimes a horse, at others a bullock. For six months prior to reaching Port Essington, the party were reduced to a quarter of a pound of meat per day—frequently putrescent—unaccompanied with salt, bread, or any kind of vegetable. In the neighborhood of the Gulf of Carpentaria, Mr. Gilbert, the naturalist, was surprised by the natives, and killed. The remainder reached Port Essington on the 2d of December, 1845.[58]
The narrative of Dr. Leichardt's expedition has not yet been published in detail. The report[59] which has appeared consists chiefly of notices of the geography of the region traversed, the soil, productions, climate, &c. He encountered natives in many places, sometimes in considerable numbers. By some they were kindly received, by others treated as enemies. Their characteristics are not noticed. The most extraordinary feature in Dr. Leichardt's narrative is the constant succession of water. Although the season was an exceedingly dry one, no rain having fallen for seven months, yet from the commencement to the close of his year and a half's expedition, throughout the whole length and breadth of the vast region he traversed, he was continually meeting with fresh water, in the forms of "pools, lagoons, brooks, wells, water-holes, rocky basins, living springs, swamps, streams, creeks or rivers." The soil in many places was of the best kind, covered with luxuriant grass and herbs. Of the former, some twenty kinds were seen. In lat. 18° 48' he found a level country, openly timbered, with fine plains, extending many miles in length and breadth. The flats bordering the creeks and rivers were covered with tall grass, and the table-lands presented equally attractive features. "The whole country along the east coast of the Gulf of Carpentaria is highly adapted for pastoral pursuits. Cattle and horses would thrive exceedingly well, but the climate and soil are not adapted to sheep. Large plains, limited by narrow belts of open forest land; fine grassy meadows along frequent chains of lagoons, and shady forest land along the rivers, render this country inviting to the squatter." Dr. Leichardt thinks there are many districts suitable for the cultivation of rice and cotton.
In regard to a communication between the settlements, it is the decided opinion of the Doctor, that no line of road can be effected direct from Fort Bourke to the northern settlement. A route from Moreton bay to the gulf of Carpentaria will be easily constructed. The whole coast is backed by ranges of mountains, consisting, nearest the sea, generally of granite and basaltic rocks, which he calls the granite range; behind this is a second range of sandstone. Descending from this and again rising, they entered upon the table-land; which they could nowhere penetrate, so as to determine what might be the character of the central country. It was covered with a dense shrub, had no water; and frequently there was difficulty in descending from it, owing to the perpendicular cliffs and deep ravines. They passed several rivers all of which ran easterly towards the coast. After reaching the Gulf of Carpentaria, they again ascended the table-land, and suffered extremely for want of water. The country beneath them was delightful to look at, but they were unable to descend to it, until they reached the dip towards the Alligaters. Here the country surpassed in fertility any thing that they had seen.
By later advices from Sydney, it appears that this enterprising and zealous traveller, is again making arrangements for another expedition to explore the interior of this great island.[60] The Doctor now proposes to leave Moreton bay and endeavor to trace the sources of the rivers which flow into the Gulf of Carpentaria. He will then proceed northwest, penetrating directly across the unknown and unexplored interior, forming the are of a circle, to Swan river. This will be the most daring journey yet attempted; but under the direction of one who has already shown so much perseverance and undergone such severe hardships, it is to be hoped that his efforts may be crowned with success.
An expedition for the exploration of Australia, under the command of Sir Thomas L. Mitchell, is at present employed in traversing the unknown parts of this vast country. When last heard from, the expedition had reached the latitude of 29° 45' longitude 147° 34'. The particulars of Dr. Leichardt's journey have been sent to him to guide him in his course of future operations.[61]
The following list embraces the latest works on Australia.
Physical description of New South Wales and Van Dieman's Land, accompanied by a Geographical map, by P.E. de Strzelecki. 8vo. 1845.
South Australia and its Mines; with an account of Captain Grey's government, by Fr. Dutton. 8vo. London, 1846.
History of New South Wales, from its settlement to the close of the year 1844, by Thomas H. Braim. 2 vols. post, 8vo. London, 1846.
Reminiscences of Australia, with hints on the Squatters' life, by C.P. Hodgson. post, 8vo. London, 1846.
A visit to the Antipodes; with some reminiscences of a sojourn in Australia. By a Squatter. 8vo. London, 1846.
Enterprise in tropical Australia. By George W. Earl. 8vo. London, 1846.
Impressions of Savage life, and scenes in Australia and New Zealand. By G.F. Augas. 2 vols. 8vo. London, 1847.
Travels in New South Wales. By Alexander Majoribanks. 12mo. Lond. 1847.
Simmonds' Colonial Magazine contains a vast deal of information relating to Australia, as well as to other British Colonies, and is unquestionably the best book of reference on subjects relating to the history and present condition of the British colonies of any work extant.
ASIA.
Lycia, Asia Minor. This interesting region has been further explored by two English gentlemen, Lieut. Spratt, R.N., and Professor Forbes, who, accompanied by the Reverend E.T. Daniel, embarked from England in the year 1842, in H.M. ship Beacon, for the coast of Lycia, for the purpose of bringing home the remarkable monuments of antiquity discovered by Sir Charles Fellows.
This gentleman, it will be remembered, was the first who in modern times successfully explored the interior. He visited the sites of many ancient cities and towns; copied numerous inscriptions, by means of which he was enabled to identify the names of fifteen out of eighteen cities; and made sketches of the most interesting sculptures and monuments.
It is remarkable that a country so often spoken of by the Greek and Roman historians should not have sooner attracted attention, when districts contiguous to, as well as far beyond, have been so thoroughly explored. The ruins on the southern coast of Asia Minor, were first made known by Captain Beaufort, who discovered them when employed in making a survey of this coast. Several travellers subsequently made short excursions into the country; but it was not until Mr. now Sir Charles Fellows, in 1838 and 1840, made his visits and explorations, that the riches of the interior in historical monuments were disclosed.
The relics of antiquity brought to light in these researches, consist first of the ruins of large cities, many of which, by reason of their isolated situation among the high lands and mountains, seem to have been preserved from the destruction which usually attends depopulated cities situated in more accessible places.
These ruined cities contain amphitheatres more or less spacious, and generally in a good state of preservation, temples, aqueducts, and sepulchral monuments, together with numbers of lesser buildings, the dwelling houses of the inhabitants. The ruins of Christian churches are also found in many places, and in one instance a large and elegant cathedral; the purposes of these are satisfactorily made out by their inscriptions; and the date of their erection, when not otherwise known, may be fixed by their style of architecture. The most numerous as well as the most interesting monuments of these ancient cities, are their sepulchres. In some instances where a mountain or high rock is contiguous, it is pierced with thousands of tombs, presenting an appearance similar to Petræa in Idumea, sometimes called the City of the Dead. The roads in all directions are lined with tombs and sarcophagi, many of them covered with elaborate sculptures and inscriptions. It is by means of the latter, which abound and which exist in a fine state of preservation, that the names of the cities are identified and other historical facts brought to light. The following is a translation of the most common form of sepulchral inscription.
"THIS TOMB APOLLONIDES, SON OF MOLISSAS, MADE
FOR HIS WIFE AND CHILDREN: AND IF ANY ONE
VIOLATES IT, LET HIM PAY A FINE."
Coins too are found, which possess considerable historic interest.
In architecture, we find excellent specimens of the several Grecian orders, exhibiting both the perfection and declension of the art. The works of Sir Charles Fellows abound in architectural representations. A pointed arch was discovered by Lieut. Spratt and Professor Forbes in the interior of a tomb (a sketch of which is given) among the ruins of Antiphellas. This conclusively shows, that this peculiar form of the arch was not first introduced with Gothic architecture, as has been generally believed, but belongs to a period anterior to the Christian era. An inscription in the Lycian and Latin was found on the monument.
The language of the ancient Lycians is an important discovery which has resulted from these researches. A bilingual inscription in Lycian and Greek first led to the key, and similar inscriptions, subsequently discovered, have furnished sufficient materials for ascertaining the values of the several letters of the alphabet, which consists of twenty-seven letters, two of which are still doubtful. Able disquisitions on the language have been written by Mr. Sharpe and Professor Grotefend.
In regard to the antiquity of the monuments, and the people who spoke the language called Lycian, now first made known through these inscriptions, we are enabled to arrive at conclusions which fix their era with some degree of certainty. The earliest inscription yet decyphered is a bilingual one, which consists of an edict, in which the name of Harpagus, or his son, a well known personage, is mentioned; which would give a date of 530 to 500 B.C. This is about the period of the earliest arrow-head inscriptions yet known—namely, those at Behistun, of the age of Darius, decyphered by Major Rawlinson. The language belongs to the same family as the Zend and old Persian, and is supposed to have been in use in the same age as the former, and along with that of the Persepolitan inscriptions. The sculptures too, bear some resemblance to the figures on the Persian monuments, particularly the well known figure with an umbrella, so common on the latter.
Other reasons are adduced by scholars for fixing the date of the Lycian language not before the fifth century B.C., or to the age of Herodotus. This historian was from the adjoining province of Caria; and as might be expected, gives accounts of the Lycians before his time, but does not say that they spoke a language different from his own, or from that of the entire region,—a fact that he would not have overlooked had such been the case.
It is believed that Cyrus, when he subjected this country, brought in some people from his Persian dominions, who afterwards became the dominant party, and introduced their language.[62]
It is surprising to find the names of these Lycian cities so well preserved when the descendants of its ancient inhabitants have been so entirely swept out of the country, and replaced by a people differing in manners, in religion, and having no interest connected with the locality to induce them to respect the relics or names, and keep alive the memory, of the former possessors of the soil.
Travels in Lycia, Milytas and the Cibyrates, in company with the late Rev. E.T. Daniel, by Lieut. Spratt, R.N., and Prof. E. Forbes. 2 vols. 8vo. Lond. 1847.
A Journal written during an excursion in Asia Minor, by Charles Fellows. royal 8vo. London, 1839.
An account of Discoveries in Lycia, in 1840. By Charles Fellows, royal 8vo.
An Essay on the Lycian language. By Daniel Sharpe. (In the appendix to Fellows' Journal.)