Cotton Weaving and Designing / 6th Edition

by John T. Taylor

LAPPETS.

Lappet figures are formed by giving a horizontal motion to a thick end, and making it interweave in the manner shown at [Fig. 160]. The system has long been used in hand-looms, and it is now extensively used in power-looms, especially in Scotland. The figures are usually produced with a very thick end upon a fine muslin ground, and the advantage it possesses over figuring with extra weft is that the figuring material does not require cutting off every pick, and therefore there is not the same amount of waste, and in addition the figures are more firmly bound into the cloth.

FIG. 160.

Only small solid spot figures can be woven, as the figuring thread cannot be bound between the extreme edges of the figure. This is the chief disadvantage of the principle, and it is not to be compared with swivels for the purpose of producing intricate designs. In swivel weaving each figuring thread is placed in a small shuttle, which receives a horizontal motion by means of a rack. The small shuttles can be lifted out of, and dropped into, the warp, so as to allow the figuring thread to be passed through the shed where the spot is formed, and therefore twill or satin, and shaded effects, can be formed in the spot. In lappet weaving the floats cannot be bound in the middle.

The chief advantage of lappet weaving is that it can easily and satisfactorily be applied to a power-loom. Swivels have been applied to power-looms, but not yet with entirely satisfactory results, taking into consideration the question of cost.

The principle of the lappet power-loom will be understood from [Fig. 161]. In front of the slay cap the needle rack A is placed, the ends resting in the slots BB, and this is moved downwards by the hook C being lifted by the treadle F at the side of the loom. The figuring threads are taken from a separate beam through the needles in the rack, and it will thus be seen that when the rack is pulled down the figuring threads will be at the bottom of the shed. When the treadle F is forced down, the springs PP pull the rack back to its topmost position, and when in this position the rack is pulled to the left by pressing down the treadle D, the distance which the rack can be moved being regulated by the size of the groove in the lappet wheel at that point.

FIG. 161.

The lappet wheel G is a wheel with ratchet teeth, and is turned one tooth at a time. The groove in the wheel is so shaped that the rack can be pulled sideways a greater or a less distance as desired, to form a spot or figure. The pin N fits in the groove, and when the treadle D is pressed down the rack is pulled to the left as far as the groove will allow, when the spring S gives way until the treadle reaches the bottom of its stroke. When the treadle is released the spring K pulls back the rack and treadle as far as the groove in the wheel will allow it. The spring K is much weaker than S, so that when the treadle D is pressed down the spring K gives way the first.

The needle rack being in front of the ordinary reed, a “false” reed is required to guide the shuttle across the shed. This false reed M is placed immediately behind the shuttle race, and it is lifted every pick when the shuttle is going across, and dropped to make room for the proper reed to beat up. The treadle E is used for operating the false reed; the connection is shown in the diagram, and when the treadle is pressed down the reed is lifted.

At [Fig. 162] a section is given showing how the needle rack receives a lateral as well as a perpendicular motion. The slay-cap is cut square, and the cover C works loosely upon it. The needle rack A is pulled down against the spring S, and the cover is pulled sideways by the bar attached to the cover at O, carrying the needle rack along with it.

FIG. 162.

FIG. 163.

The treadles are operated by tappets, and those operating treadles E and F must do so every pick, whilst the treadle D only requires to be pressed down once every two picks, because the spring K pulls the needle rack to the right. The tappets are shown at [Fig. 163], where it will be seen that when the treadle E is down, F is up, and the rack will be dropped and the false reed lifted; and when the treadle F is pressed down—letting the rack be pulled up by the springs, the treadle D is pressed down, which pulls the rack to the left as far as the groove in the wheel will allow it to move.

FIG. 164.

FIG. 165.

At the back of the lappet wheel a face cam L ([Fig. 164]) acts upon a lever, MN, centred at P, and the bent arm of the lever N pushes the hook C on to the treadle F when the spot figure is being formed, and when there is no figuring going on the hook is pulled out of the way of the treadle, and so the motion of the rack is stopped.

The pattern is formed by the groove in the lappet wheel ([Fig. 165]), and in drawing this the wheel is divided into as many teeth as there are picks in the pattern. The wheel is usually made of hard wood, and after being smoothed off a number of circles are described, the distance between each being equal to one dent in the reed. Suppose the pattern is a continuous one, as at [Fig. 166], the picks shown on paper being in addition to the ground picks. In drawing a wheel for this pattern the number of teeth required will be twenty-four, as there are this number of picks in the pattern.

FIG. 166.

The pattern extends to seven dents, and as the pin N ([Fig. 165]) occupies four dents, it will be necessary to have eleven spaces, each equal to a dent, in the groove. The first pick in the pattern floats over two dents or four ends, and therefore the groove at this point must be six spaces wide—four for the pin, and two for the space it has to move through. Before the next movement of the rack, the wheel will have been turned one tooth, and at this point the groove moves one space further to the left. For the third pick both sides of the groove are moved one space to the left, and the size of the float will remain the same as in the second pick, but it will float over different ends. The groove gradually gets wider until the tenth pick is reached, when it narrows down again until it repeats on the twenty-fourth pick.

If there are two spots set “one and one” in the pattern, the wheel requires one tooth more than the picks in a repeat, in consequence of changing from one spot to the other.

CHAPTER IX
AUTOMATIC WEFT-REPLENISHING DEVICES

THE history of the development of the power-loom, from its inception by Dr. Cartwright, has been written on many occasions. That story relates how old methods have been improved or else displaced by new ones of greater efficiency, and how the modern power-loom has, by the effort and skill of the pioneers of industry, been brought gradually to its present state of mechanical perfection. This march of progress goes on steadily, continuously, and almost imperceptibly to those who are not immediately interested in or affected by the changes that are thus wrought; until by some special circumstance they suddenly and unexpectedly arrest attention, and it is realized for the first time that a new era has dawned and promises changes of great magnitude.

The advent, now fifteen years ago, of what are popularly described as “automatic looms” marked the beginning of events of considerable importance to the weaving industry in particular, and to the textile industry in general. The essential element which distinguishes these looms from those of ordinary construction consists of special apparatus attached to, and forming an integral part of, the looms, which are thereby enabled to replenish weft automatically from a reserved supply conveniently held in readiness. This briefly constitutes the automatic element of the looms. There are, of course, many auxiliary attachments that are incidental to the weft-replenishing devices, and which increase their efficiency and productiveness.

Notwithstanding the comparatively short period that has elapsed since the adoption, on a commercial scale, of these looms, such has been the activity of inventors and loom-makers both at home and abroad, that looms of this class have already been designed in an almost endless variety of forms, some of which differ essentially in construction and operation, whilst many others differ only in minor details of construction. Most of these, however, have never matured to practical forms. Many have never escaped the secret confines of the experimenting room. Others have been doomed to premature failure, whilst some three or four types of real merit are struggling hard for supremacy. Which of the competing types will win, ultimately, is at the present time matter for conjecture. This will depend entirely on the type that will best meet the requirements of manufacturers, and the one that will endure the test of experience and time, which alone can be the deciding factors. But, for certain classes of fabrics for which they are suitable, it is safe to predict that automatic looms of some approved type are permanently established in the trade.

Whatever particular character these weft-replenishing devices assume, they may be broadly classified under one or other of two distinct types, namely, (1) that in which the same common shuttle is replenished with cops or bobbins of weft; and (2) that in which a fresh shuttle replaces the previous one. Each of these two broad divisions comprises numerous modifications in both their construction and also in the manner in which they operate.

Of the cop-or bobbin-changing type of loom, the “Northrop” loom, invented in Hopedale, Mass., U.S.A., by James H. Northrop (a native of Keighley, Yorks.), has gained a greater measure of success than that of any other automatic loom; and of the shuttle-changing type, the “Hattersley” loom, invented by Simeon Jackson, of Geo. Hattersley and Sons, Limited, Keighley, Yorks., has probably found greater favour than others of that type. Looms of the Northrop type require essentially the use of shuttles of special construction that are capable of self-threading the weft; whereas looms of the Hattersley type may weave with the same kind of shuttles as those employed in ordinary power-looms. Looms of both types are constructed so that the change of weft is effected instantaneously whilst they are running at full speed, without any loss of time; but when a change of weft takes place in the Hattersley modification of the shuttle-changing type, the looms stop running automatically for a few picks to allow more time for the changing of shuttles, after which the looms re-start automatically and continue running at full speed.

In addition to the essential elements constituting a successful weft-replenishing device, this requires to be supplemented by numerous appliances of a special character to ensure the general efficiency of the loom. For example, at that side of the loom on which the replenishment of weft is made, there is fixed a weft-cutting device to sever the superfluous trail of weft close to the selvedge of cloth after the insertion of each fresh supply of weft. In some looms the weft is replenished only when the previous supply fails either by breaking or becoming exhausted; and some are furnished with “weft-feeler” motions to put the weft-changing mechanism into operation and thus replenish the weft just before the previous supply is entirely depleted, thereby preventing broken or missing picks of weft which would produce faulty cloth. A warp-stop motion, which is sometimes applied to ordinary looms, is an almost indispensable accessory to an automatic loom. Its function is to detect the breakage of warp-ends, and to stop the loom automatically whenever that occurs. These remarks apply also to the controlling of the tension and delivery of the warp, which are sometimes effected automatically in looms of any description.

Up to the present time weft-replenishing devices are almost exclusively restricted to single-box looms employed in the production of standard varieties of fabrics of comparatively simple construction, and containing but one kind of weft requiring the use of only one shuttle. These devices have, however, been employed on check-looms weaving with more than one kind of weft, and therefore requiring the use of a corresponding number of shuttles at the same time; but automatic check-looms have not yet passed the experimental stage and become established on a commercial basis, although there are prospects of this taking effect in the near future.

Having thus far introduced the reader to what constitutes the chief elements of an automatic or self-acting loom, it will, at this stage, and before examining the details of their special mechanism, be both instructive and profitable to briefly survey the work of pioneers in this sphere of invention, as revealed in the records of the numerous Letters Patent that have from time to time been granted for inventions of devices for the automatic replenishing of weft in looms, and to trace the origin and development of such devices from the earliest authentically recorded date of their inception down to the present time.

From a research of the earliest published records of patents relating to weaving, which records date from 15th July, 1620, it would appear that the credit for the first patent for an automatic weft-replenishing device for looms is due to Messrs. John Paterson Reid and Thomas Johnson, both of Glasgow, who are the joint patentees of an invention of such a device described in the Patent Specification, dated 20th March, 1834, No. 6579. This is a large document of 69 pages of text comprising over 35,000 words and 12 sheets of diagrams. It describes in a very lucid manner several improvements in power-looms, of which that relating to the automatic replenishing of weft is treated almost as if it were regarded, by the inventors, as of only secondary importance to the other improvements which they describe.

In view of the great progress which has been made within recent years in the development of these looms, and also in consideration of the fact that a patent, which was granted to Charles Parker nearly seven years subsequently, and is described in the Specification dated 22nd October, 1840, No. 8664, has been frequently cited as the first patent relating to the automatic supply of weft in looms, the first-named document acquires a special interest, not only as a record of what is probably the first attempt in that direction, but also because it establishes, beyond refutation, the date and rightful title to the first patent granted for such an invention.

In the former specification, the patentees state that their improvements are applicable to what were then known as Johnson’s vertical power-looms, in which the warps were extended vertically from the warp-beam at the bottom to the cloth-roller at the top of the loom; and the reed, which served as the shuttle-race during the flight of the shuttle through the warp-shed, moved in a vertical plane when beating up the weft. These vertical looms were made double, to permit of two pieces of cloth being woven in them at the same time; but they had evidently been discarded, and were not then in use amongst manufacturers. The looms made according to Reid and Johnson’s specification were so very different from Johnson’s looms as to have very little in common with them excepting that they also were vertical power-looms in which the warps extended vertically. The specification states that the “great object” of their improvements is to enable four webs or pieces of cloth to be woven simultaneously and at one operation in the same loom, with only one slay which has a vertical motion, and also that the warps for the four webs are to be wound on two separate warp-beams. After describing in minute detail the construction of the improved loom, the patentees proceed to describe their invention of a device for the automatic supply of weft to their looms whilst these continue running. This part of their invention is introduced as if it were quite incidental and of little consequence, and is described as the “accessories and new improvements” which they apply to their vertical power-looms, as follows:—

“In order to avoid stopping the motion of the loom when any one of the four weft threads break, twice or three times as many shuttles as are required for constant use are to be lodged in suitable receptacles or shuttle boxes, which are so arranged that the breaking of a weft thread will cause a change of shuttles, and a substitution of spare shuttles, which have been provided and placed in the said receptacles ready for such changing; for instance, the breaking or failure of a weft thread from either of the two shuttles, which work on the same reed as one pair, will cause the pair to be removed, and a pair of spare shuttles to be brought into their place instantaneously, without any act of the person who attends the loom, and who will therefore have no occasion to stop the motion thereof when a weft thread breaks or runs off, but will only have to take care to keep the loom at all times provided with a sufficient number of spare shuttles ready filled and inserted into their proper places in the receptacles, leaving it to the machinery of the loom to remove those shuttles which have been working, and to substitute others the instant that a change becomes necessary in consequence of the breakage or failure of weft thread. But if, by neglect of the attendant, the loom is not so provided with a pair of spare shuttles ready filled and placed in preparation for changing as aforesaid by the machinery on the breakage or failure of any weft thread, then the loom will stop its own motion, wherefore the weaving cannot be continued unless all the four webs have their several wefts duly inserted in a proper manner for working cloth.” From this description it is of interest to note that what probably constituted the first automatic loom was of the shuttle-changing type, to which nearly all subsequent inventors in this particular field have chiefly devoted their attention.

It was not until an interval of nearly seven years had elapsed after Reid and Johnson’s patent that a patent was granted to Charles Parker, of Darlington, for the second invention of an automatic weft-replenishing device, which, like its predecessor, was also one of the shuttle-changing type. This device, along with other improvements in power-looms, is described and illustrated in the specification dated 22nd October, 1840, No. 8664, in which the fourth claim made by the patentee is in respect of “means of changing the shuttle when the weft is broken or the shuttle is empty of weft” without the necessity of stopping the loom for that purpose.

The next and third patent for an automatic weft-replenishing device, which, like the two previous devices, was a shuttle-changer, was that granted to an agent, William Newton, to whom the invention was communicated from a foreign country not named in the specification which is dated 28th April, 1852, No. 14,092. This document states that the invention relates to improvements in looms for weaving plain, figured, or fancy fabrics, and that it consists in the employment of several shuttles arranged in the loom in such a manner that if the weft failed, or the shuttle missed or flew out of the shuttle-box, a second shuttle would always be in readiness to take its place, without it being necessary to stop the loom in order to replace it with a fresh shuttle. In carrying out the improvement, several shuttles where placed one above the other in a box, or in guides fixed immediately above the shuttle-race or box, and held in their place by means of a stud, plate, or catch, which, when required, was removed so as to allow a second shuttle to enter the shuttle-box in place of the spent shuttle, which, by the same motion, was pushed out. In the event of a shuttle flying out or missing the shuttle-box, the same mechanism caused a fresh shuttle to supply its place. The special mechanism which affected the changing of shuttles was put into operation by means of a weft-stopping device which detected the absence of weft whenever this failed to pass along the shuttle-race in front of the reed.

After an interval of five years from the granting of the previous patent, Patrick McFarlane, of Perth, patented an automatic weft-replenishing device which marks a distinctly new departure from the previous inventions for the same object, and one, moreover, which has the distinction of constituting the prototype of cop-or bobbin-changing devices, of which type a modification has been so successfully adopted in the construction of Northrop automatic looms. McFarlane’s invention is described in the Patent Specification dated 13th April, 1857, No. 1046, which states that “the first part of the invention consists in means or arrangements by which a loom is made to supply its shuttle or shuttles with fresh weft when the weft last placed in the shuttle or shuttles has become broken or exhausted.” The cop or bobbin of weft was placed in a case which fitted inside the shuttle in which it was held securely during weaving, but from which it could be easily ejected and replaced by another weft-case containing a fresh supply of weft whilst the loom continued weaving. Any practicable number of these weft-cases were conveniently stored and retained in a suitable receptacle or hopper, so that the successive weft-cases could take the place of those removed, as they were each in turn inserted in the shuttle. The chamber containing the reserve supply of weft-cases was attached to the framing of the loom opposite the shuttle-box or boxes, so that when the absence of weft was detected by the weft-fork, this put into operation the weft-changing mechanism which forced a weft-case from the hopper into the shuttle, and thereby displaced the previous weft-case which fell into a box or basket.

An interval of only three years elapsed before the next patent was granted for a weft-replenishing device patented by Thomas Ingram, of Bradford, for which the specification is dated 4th April, 1860, No. 861. In this specification, the patentee describes a device which combines the elements of both a shuttle-changing and also a cop-or bobbin-changing loom. The invention relates to mechanism for effecting a continuous action in looms without stopping them to change the bobbins or cops, or for an additional supply of weft, whether that is all used up or only broken. This was effected by forming an opening or aperture in the front, back, top or bottom of the shuttle-box “large enough to admit a shuttle, or a case containing a spool or spools of weft, to pass through to be inserted within the box.” Also, “when the weft is broken or used up, or a change of weft is required, the shuttle, or the case within the shuttle containing the weft, is immediately expelled through one of the openings in the shuttle-box, and supplied through another of the openings with another shuttle or a case containing a further supply of weft.” The patentee states later that he is aware of a patent for a previous device “to exchange the cop of weft by means of a portable case, whilst the loom was in action,” and does not claim that device as a part of his own invention; but what he claims “is the combination and the general arrangement of apparatus or mechanism for producing or effecting continuous action in looms for weaving.”

A device of a different character from any of those previously described was one that formed the subject of a communication from Julius Boeddinghaus, of Elberfeld, Prussia, to an agent, William Brookes, and is described in the specification dated 14th November, 1860, No. 2787. The function of this device was merely that of ejecting the shuttle automatically when the weft failed; but the replenishing of weft required to be performed by hand in the usual manner. The ejecting of the shuttle was effected by causing it to shoot downward through an opening in the base of the shuttle-box at one end of the slay, and on the occurrence of which the loom would stop.

A patent for the next device which, although not strictly belonging to the present category of inventions, is, nevertheless, closely allied to them, was that granted to John Leeming, Bradford, and described in the specification dated 5th February, 1861, No. 301. The specific object of this device was to effect changes of weft of different kinds or colours for the production of check fabrics. Weft-cases, as introduced by Patrick McFarlane in 1857, were employed to contain the weft, and the weft-cases were exchanged automatically in the same shuttle according to a prearranged scheme of decoration, but not on the failure of weft, in which event the loom would stop as usual. The device was, therefore, a checking motion to effect changes of different kinds of weft by changing cops or bobbins, instead of employing a number of separate chambers, each containing a shuttle with a different kind of weft, and bringing these in line with the race-board, as required. In this respect, therefore, the present device may be regarded as the first recorded attempt to adapt the automatic weft-replenishing element to perform the function of a checking motion.

The next following patent for a weft-replenishing device was that granted to three Crawfords and Robert Templeton, of Beith, Ayr, and described in the specification dated 17th February, 1862, No. 419. This invention, which is of the shuttle-changing type, introduces two distinctly novel departures from any previous invention of the same class, namely, the employment of a six-chambered revolving shuttle-box to bring fresh shuttles into working position, and also what corresponds to a weft-feeling motion to effect the replenishing of weft before the supply in use is quite depleted. The chambers of the multiple shuttle-box are charged with reserve shuttles contained in a hopper. At each change of shuttles the boxes revolved on their common axis for one-sixth of a revolution to receive a fresh shuttle in readiness for the next change. On arriving at the bottom of its circuit, the discarded shuttle fell out of its chamber into a receptacle. The weft-feeling motion operated the weft-changing mechanism when the weft was nearly depleted. This was effected by constructing the weft pirns or bobbins with a longitudinal slot to receive a curved blade-spring fitting inside the shuttle so that it entered the slot in the bobbin and passed underneath the weft. On the weft becoming exhausted to a certain fixed point on the bobbin, the blade-spring was automatically released, on which it projected through a slot formed in the shuttle side. Thus, on the shuttle arriving in its chamber of the rotary boxes, the blade-spring came into contact with a part of the weft-changing mechanism which was thereby put into operation to change the shuttles.

The foregoing brief descriptions of the first eight patented devices for the automatic replenishing of weft in looms will serve to indicate the general character which those devices assumed down to February, 1862. Although since that date to the present time the number of patents for devices of that class of inventions number many hundreds, yet it is significant that none of these later devices differ in any essential element from those of earlier inventions. The table on [page 209] gives a list of weft-replenishing devices for which Letters Patent have been granted, down to 1894, with the date and number of specification, the names of patentees, and type of device.

LIST OF PATENTS FOR AUTOMATIC WEFT-REPLENISHING DEVICES.

Date of Patent.				No of Specification.	Name of Patentee.			Type of Device.
(1)		1834, Mar. 20		6,579		J. P. Reid and T. Johnson		Shuttle-changing
(2)		1840, Oct. 22		8,664		Charles Parker		Shuttle-changing
(3)		1852, Apr. 28		14,092		William Newton		Shuttle-changing
(4)		1857, Apr. 13		1,046		Patrick McFarlane		Cop- or Bobbin-changing
(5)		1860, Apr. 4		861		Thomas Ingram		Shuttle-changing or Cop- or Bobbin-changing	[*]
(6)		1860, Nov. 14		2,787		Julius Boeddinghaus		Shuttle-ejecting
(7)		1861, Feb. 5		301		John Leeming		Bobbin-changing for Check Fabrics
(8)		1862, Feb. 17		419		H., J., and R. Crawford and R. Templeton		Shuttle-changing
(9)		1863, Jan. 27		239		J. Edmondson and T. Ingram		Cop- or Bobbin-changing
(10)		1864, Mar. 17		688		J. Edmondson and T. Ingram		Cop- or Bobbin-changing
(11)		1864, July 19		1,803		John Maynes		Cop- or Bobbin-changing
(12)		1865, Feb. 2		293		John Maynes		Cop- or Bobbin-changing
(13)		1865, Sept. 20		2,395		Joseph Edmondson		Shuttle-changing
(14)		1866, Jan. 1		1		J. Bullough and W. Rossetter		Shuttle-changing
(15)		1866, Apr. 16		1,069		Alf. Vincent Newton		Shuttle-changing
(16)		1866, Sept. 6		2,292		John Bullough		Shuttle-changing
(17)		1866, Oct. 13		2,654		Wm. Rossetter		Shuttle-changing
(18)		1868, July 28		2,366		John Bullough		Shuttle-changing
(19)		1868, Sept. 10		2,788		John Maynes		Shuttle-changing
(20)		1869, Sept. 28		2,820		John Bullough		Shuttle-changing
(21)		1870, May 26		1,530		Benjamin Cooper		Shuttle-changing
(22)		1872, Mar. 12		757		A. M. Clark, from Paul Heilmann		Shuttle-changing
(23)		1874, May 1		1,542		J. H. Johnson, from Arthur Villeminot		Shuttle-changing
(24)		1877, Jan. 27		356		J. S. and B. A. Raworth		Semi-automatic Shuttle-changing
(25)		1888, Mar. 31		4,850		Jacob Jucker		Shuttle-changing
(26)		1891, June 23		10,633		A. G. Brookes, from W. F. Draper		Cop- or Bobbin-changing
(27)				10,634				Shuttle-changing
(28)				10,635				Cop- or Bobbin-changing
(29)		1894, Apr. 26		8,251		H. Bourgeois		Shuttle-changing
(30)		1894, Oct. 2		18,611		G. O. Draper		Cop- or Bobbin-changing
(31)		1894, Nov. 27		22,939		A. G. Brookes, from W. F. Draper		Northrop Device for Cop- or Bobbin-changing

[*] Optional.

During the periods of four years ending December, 1900 and 1904, there were 34 and 163 British patents respectively granted for inventions relating to devices for the replenishing of weft automatically in looms, which figures bear striking evidence of the amount of energy and inventive talent which have been expended in this direction during the past few years. And how forceful are these figures when contrasted with the number of patents (31) extending over the first period of 61 years. It was, however, not until after the advent, in 1894, of the Northrop automatic loom, which received such favourable reception by American manufacturers, that the adoption of automatic looms was taken into earnest consideration by British manufacturers, many of whom now recognize that in one form or another such looms have a definite sphere of usefulness in the manufacture of a great variety of different classes of fabrics of simple construction and embodying one series each of warp and weft threads.

The Northrop Weft-replenishing Device.

The most characteristic features and essential elements of this device, and also those which distinguish it from all previous inventions of this class, consist of the removal of cops or bobbins of weft that are conveniently retained in a circular rotary hopper or magazine, and of their insertion into a self-threading shuttle, by mechanical means operated automatically either on the breakage or depletion of weft, or else when the weft is depleted to a predetermined amount, as may be elected. The magazine containing the reserve supply of weft is always mounted above the shuttle-box situated on the right-hand side of the loom, as represented perspectively in [Fig. 167], which shows a bobbin-hopper A from which a pusher B is in the act of removing a full bobbin of weft and inserting it into the shuttle, thereby ejecting the previous bobbin C which falls down a chute into a box D.

FIG. 167.

FIG. 168.

The parts of this device are better represented by the sectional view shown in [Fig. 168], which illustrates a cop-hopper A freely mounted on a stud E to permit of its partial rotation, intermittently, immediately after each successive change of weft, so as to bring into position another cop to be in readiness for the next change of weft. The hopper here shown is one constructed with sockets for 28 cops, F; but the space occupied by the pusher reduces its actual capacity to 25 cops. These are previously placed upon skewers, G, of special construction, after which they are disposed in a horizontal position around and between the rims of two discs or plates that are formed with notches for the reception of the skewers, as represented in the diagram.

The conditions under which a change of weft is effected depends entirely on the equipment of the loom, which may be adapted so that a change will take place only when the weft either breaks or otherwise fails in its supply; or else the loom may be furnished with an attachment known as a “weft-feeling” device which effects a change of weft immediately before the previous supply is completely consumed, albeit, in this case, if the weft should break, the loom will stop automatically, as under ordinary conditions. The object of this device is to avoid such defects as are liable to be caused in cloth in consequence of broken and missing picks of weft, and so produce cloth of superior merit. If, however, such a device is not employed, the weft-changing mechanism is put into action, on the failure of weft, by the weft-fork hammer pulling backward the weft-fork, as usual. But whether the operation of the weft-changing device is controlled by the weft-fork or by the weft-feeler, the object in either case is to cause the notched and free end of a trip-finger H to tilt upward from its normal position, as shown in the diagram, so that on the forward stroke of the slay K the finger will be struck by a bunter J fixed on the front of the slay-baulk. The trip-finger is loosely mounted on a stud fixed at the bottom of a short arm of an L-lever which constitutes the pusher B, fulcrumed freely on a stud L. Thus, in the event of the trip-finger being tilted on the forward stroke of the slay, the free end of the pusher, which reaches over the ready-positioned cop in the hopper, is suddenly depressed when the slay is at its extreme forward position, thereby removing that cop from the hopper, and forcing it into the shuttle M, through the bottom of which the previous cop-skewer is expelled and passed down a chute N. The next flight of the shuttle causes the weft thread to pass through a slit formed in a brass casting fixed in the upper side of the shuttle, and then to enter the shuttle eye automatically. At the same time, the remnants of both weft threads are severed near to the selvedge of cloth and also at a point near to the hopper, so that they shall not become obstructive or involve the risk of being carried along accidentally into the warp-shed. All these operations occur in proper rhythmical sequence whilst the loom continues to run at full speed, which, for a loom of 36 inches reed-space, may be up to 150 picks per minute.

The Hattersley Weft-replenishing Device.

(Patent No. 22,523, 11th December, 1900.)

The chief characteristic element which distinguishes this device—which is one of the most successful modifications of the shuttle-changing type—from other weft-changing devices, is the stopping of the loom to effect the change of shuttles, and then the restarting of it, automatically. The object of that course is to allow more time to accomplish the change, and so avert the straining and breaking of the mechanical parts, which are more liable to occur when the changing of weft is effected whilst the loom continues to run at full speed, as in all other automatic looms. It is also claimed that this arrangement enables a loom to be run at the same speed as an ordinary loom of the same width and construction, whereas continuous-acting looms require to be worked at a slower velocity.

FIG. 169.

FIG. 170.

In the Hattersley loom, the reserve supply of shuttles that have been previously furnished with weft are retained in a hopper or magazine which is mounted on the breast-beam and facing the shuttle-box on either the right-or left-hand side of the loom. The changing of shuttles may be effected either by the action of the weft-fork only when the weft actually fails from any cause, or else by the operation of a weft-feeler, before the weft completely fails, as desired. In either case a change of shuttles involves a series of six distinct operations which occur in the following sequence, namely: (1) stopping the loom, (2) raising the shuttle-box fender, (3) ejecting the failing shuttle from its box, (4) removing from the magazine another shuttle and placing it in the emptied shuttle-box, (5) lowering the shuttle-box fender back into its normal position, and (6) restarting the loom. These operations, of which the second, third, and fourth are represented by diagrams in Figs. [169], [170], and [171], are accomplished by means of a series of four tappets governed by an indented clutch-wheel, all of which are loosely mounted together on the second-motion or picking-shaft, at the same side of the loom as that on which the driving-pulleys are situated. The clutch-wheel is driven by means of a pinion carried by the loose driving-pulley, and revolves continuously, so that when a change of shuttles is called for, an indent or notch in the clutch-wheel becomes engaged by a lug which, being secured to the tappets, turns these for one revolution, and thereby performs the series of operations just enumerated. Thus, in the event of weft either failing or becoming nearly depleted, either the weft-fork hammer or else the weft-feeler motion, according to the equipment of the loom, first disengages the starting-handle to pass the driving-belt from the fast or driving-pulley to the loose pulley, thereby stopping all the primary movements of the loom, and at the same time putting into operation the series of four tappets which effect the changing of shuttles. Then one of the four tappets raises the shuttle-box front, C, above the shuttle B, as shown in [Fig. 169], to permit of the removal of the shuttle. A second tappet then operates the pusher D, which advances to eject the discarded shuttle from its box, whence it falls into a receptacle, as shown in [Fig. 170]. A third tappet next operates the feeder E, which removes the bottom shuttle from the hopper A and places it in the same shuttle-box as that previously occupied by the ejected shuttle, as represented in [Fig. 171]. The shuttle-box fender now falls sufficiently to prevent the withdrawal of the newly inserted shuttle from the box as the feeder withdraws and returns to the magazine to receive another shuttle in readiness for the next change, after which the shuttle-box front falls to its normal position, and finally the fourth tappet replaces the starting-handle into its operative position to transfer the driving-belt back again from the loose to the fast driving-pulley and thereby re-start the loom.

FIG. 171.

All the movements just described are performed during one complete revolution of the tappets, and involve a stoppage for six picks, corresponding to six revolutions of the crank-shaft. Therefore, in a loom running at a speed of 180 picks per minute, the changing of shuttles would involve a stoppage of the loom for only two seconds.

CHAPTER X
THE PRINCIPLES OF DESIGNING

THE simplest form of interlacing the threads is the plain or tabby weave. In this weave the threads intersect as often as possible, and thus the greatest possible amount of firmness and strength is obtained from a given quantity of material by this weave, with the exception of leno or cross weaving, where additional firmness and strength is obtained by the warp threads being partly twisted round each other in weaving. Plain cloths may be ornamented by using threads of different colours and of different thicknesses, as, for instance, if four picks of blue and four picks of white are alternately put into a cloth, the warp of which is composed of four ends blue and four ends white alternately, a check is formed although the weave is quite plain. A check may also be formed on a plain cloth by using one or more thick threads at intervals in both warp and weft.

There is, of course, a limit to the number of threads of a certain count which can be put into a plain cloth. Assuming that the counts of warp and weft are equal, and that the number of picks per inch required is the same as the ends, the number of threads per inch which can be satisfactorily put into the cloth would not much exceed half the number which could be placed side by side in one inch. Some allowance must be made for the threads being bent out of a straight line and for compression. This branch of design will be treated of more fully in a subsequent chapter, but it will be obvious that this limit to the number of threads of a given count which can be used in a plain cloth renders the weave unsuitable for heavy fabrics. If a plain cloth is very heavy and thick, it must of necessity be coarse.

FIG. 172.

FIG. 173.

Plain cloth can be made by using two shafts, but four are usually taken with the draft, as shown at [Fig. 172]. This prevents overcrowding the healds. By tying the first and second together and the third and fourth together, the effect is the same as by using only two staves, only two lifts being required.

FIG. 174.

FIG. 175.

Twills.—The simplest twill is the “2 and 1” twill, which is woven with three shafts. A section through this twill is given at [Fig. 173], where it will be seen the weft passes under one end and over two. The structure of the fabric is better shown on “point paper,” as at [Fig. 174]. The spaces between the perpendicular lines represent the warp threads or “ends,” and the spaces between the horizontal lines represent the weft threads or “picks.” By filling in the first square on the first pick, it is shown that the first end is lifted for that pick; and by filling in the second end on the second pick, it is shown that the second end is lifted on the second pick, and so on. It is not always advisable to take a filled-in square as representing a lifted end, as it is often more convenient to fill in the weft squares or those which are left down in weaving. If necessary, it can be stated along with the design whether the marks represent warp or weft up.

Twilled weaves enable a larger number of threads of a given count to be put into a fabric than in a plain cloth, and therefore these weaves are employed in the production of the heavier kinds of cloths where closeness of the threads is also desired.

FIG. 176.

With three staves the twill given at [Fig. 174] is the only one which can be woven. The same twill may be woven with the warp predominating on the face, and this would be represented on paper as at [Fig. 176], where two ends are shown to be lifted on each of the three picks.

In weaving this pattern three staves would be taken with the draft, as given for [Fig. 174] (see [Fig. 175]). The first stave will be lifted for the first pick, the second stave for the second pick, and the third stave for the third pick. These three lifts being repeated over an indefinite number of times will produce small diagonal lines running at an angle of 45 degrees across the piece, if the number of warp and weft threads in a given space are equal. This twill is sometimes called a “Jean,” and is used in the production of a fabric of that name, as well as in “Jeannettes,” the latter with warp predominating on the face of the cloth. In all these fabrics a large range of qualities is made.

With four staves the following twills can be made:—

1. One up, three down;

2. Two up, two down;

3. Three up, one down.

These are shown on point paper at Figs. [177], [178], and [179] respectively. The third pattern is really the same as the first, being the reverse of that pattern. It is advisable, however, to consider them as two distinct patterns, since they give different effects when used for purposes of combination, as will be seen later.

FIG. 177.

FIG. 178.

FIG. 179.

Five-shaft Twills.—With five shafts of staves the possible twills are—

1. One up, four down;

2. Two up, three down;

3. Three up, two down;

4. Four up, one down;

5. Two up, one down, one up, one down;

6. Two down, one up, one down, one up.

FIG. 180.

FIG. 181.

FIG. 182.

FIG. 183.

FIG. 184.

FIG. 185.

These are shown on point paper at Figs. [180] to [185] inclusive. There are really only three different methods of interlacing the threads in these six patterns; but, as stated previously, different effects are produced in combination twills by all of them.

Six-shaft Twills.—With the increase in the number of shafts the number of twills increases very quickly, as with a “repeat” of six ends the following simple twill can be woven:—

1. One up, five down;

2. Two up, four down;

3. Three up, three down;

4. Four up, two down;

5. Five up, one down;

6. Three up, one down, one up, one down;

7. Three down, one up, one down, one up;

8. Two up, two down, one up, one down;

9. Two down, two up, one down, one up.

There are here five distinct methods of intersection, the remaining four patterns being reverses. The patterns are shown on point paper at Figs. [186] to [194].

FIG. 186.

FIG. 187.

FIG. 188.

FIG. 189.

FIG. 190.

FIG. 191.

FIG. 192.

FIG. 193.

FIG. 194.

Eight-shaft Twills.—With a “repeat” of eight ends and picks the number of changes which can be made in the basis of the twill is much larger, and as the size of the repeat increases the possible twills increase enormously. A selection of eight-end twills is given at Figs. [195] to [204] inclusive.

Satin Weaves.—In simple twills every pick is interlaced with the warp in the same manner, but each successive pick commences, as it were, one end further to the right or to the left, thus enabling every end to be bound into the cloth in regular order. In satins the picks are arranged differently. The object in a satin cloth is to obtain an even surface, free from the bold lines of a twill; and thus it is necessary to distribute the points of intersection of the warp and weft as evenly over the surface of the fabric as possible.

FIG. 195.

FIG. 196.

FIG. 197.

FIG. 198.

FIG. 199.

FIG. 200.

FIG. 201.

FIG. 202.

FIG. 203.

FIG. 204.

FIG. 205.

The commonest form of satin is the five shaft, and this can be woven with five shafts with a straight draft lifted in the order 1, 3, 5, 2, 4. The relation between this satin and a five-end twill is shown at [Fig. 180], where it will be seen that on the second pick of the satin the third end is lifted, on the third pick the fifth end is lifted, then the second is lifted, and lastly the fourth. This distribution of the points of intersection produces a satin. A slight twill effect is given by most of these weaves, but it is nothing like so decided as where the adjacent ends are lifted on successive picks, as in twilled cloths.

The direction of the twill in the satin at [Fig. 205] is from right to left.

This five-shaft satin weave is used with weft preponderating over warp, and also the reverse. Immense quantities of cloth are made on both principles, and in all qualities. A regular make with weft predominating is made with about 72 ends per inch of 32’s twist, and picks ranging from 100 to 200 per inch of 40’s weft. A finer make is used in large quantities for printing upon. This cloth counts about 26 ends × 45 picks per quarter-inch, and the yarns used are 60’s twist, 70’s weft. These are two of the standard makes of satins, but for special purposes all qualities are made in cotton.

With the warp predominating a cheaper fabric is produced, as less time is required to weave a given length. “Drills” are woven on this principle, the proportion of warp to weft being about two to one.

FIG. 206.

Satins may be produced on any number of shafts from five upwards. [Fig. 206] is commonly called a four-shaft satin, but this is better classed as a broken twill. The principle of its structure is essentially different to that of a true satin.

A simple method of making a satin weave on any number of ends is to find the first number which is not a measure of the number of staves used, and take this as the basis of constructing the satin, as follows: The first number which is not a measure of five is 2. Then, taking this as the basis of the satin, assuming that the first stave is lifted for the first pick, the third stave must be lifted for the second pick. This gives the number of ends to be “skipped” over, and thus we can obtain the satin by skipping over one each time, viz. 1, 3, 5, 2, 4.

It is advisable to put the numbers in a line or in a circle, and re-arrange them underneath.

The order of lifting the staves for an eight-end satin can be obtained as follows:—The first number which is not a measure of eight is 3. Then, taking this as the basis, we lift the first stave for the first pick and the fourth stave for the second pick, and “skipping” over two each time we get the order, 1, 4, 7, 2, 5, 8, 3, 6. This is shown on point paper at [Fig. 207].

FIG. 207.

FIG. 208.

FIG. 209.

A six-stave satin is irregular. It is impossible to form a satin with six staves by “skipping” over a regular number of staves each pick, but the points of intersection can be separated and a satisfactory satin formed by lifting the staves in the order, 1, 3, 5, 2, 6, 4, or 1, 4, 2, 6, 3, 5. These are shown on point paper at Figs. [208] and [209].

A six-end satin weave is extremely useful, as it takes rather more material than a five, and its irregular appearance is an advantage for some purposes.

[Fig. 210] is a seven-end satin.

FIG. 210.

FIG. 211.

[Fig. 211] is a ten-end satin. Three is the first number which is not a measure of ten, therefore three is taken as a basis in constructing the satin, and the fourth stave is lifted for the second pick, and the others in regular order.

[Fig. 212] is a twelve-end satin. The basis in this case is five, as five is the first number which is not a measure of twelve.

FIG. 212.

FIG. 213.

Combined Twills.—A useful class of pattern is obtained by combining pick and pick two simple twills. If two eight-end twills are combined in this manner, a pattern repeating on eight ends and sixteen picks is produced. At [Fig. 213] a “three and five plain” twill is combined with a “three, two, one, two,” twill, and different effects may be obtained by combining the same twills in all the possible positions.

Figs. [214] to [220] show the effect produced by all the changes in the relative position of the two twills. An immense number of patterns can be made on this principle, as all the simple twills may be combined in every position, and in each case a different pattern results.

On six ends we have seen that nine simple twills can be made, and as each may be combined with the others in six different positions, the number of patterns which can be obtained from this system of combination is as follows:—[Fig. 186] combined with each of the others in one position each gives eight patterns, and as there are six positions in which they can be combined, this gives forty-eight patterns. [Fig. 187] combined with Figs. [188] to [194] gives seven patterns, and these in six positions give forty-two patterns. [Fig. 188] combined with Figs. [189] to [194] gives six patterns, and in the six positions give thirty-six patterns. By going through all the changes in this manner we get successively 48, 42, 36, 30, 24, 18, 12, and 6, or a total of 216 patterns. In addition to these, each twill may be combined pick and pick with itself in four different positions without giving double picks.

FIG. 214.

FIG. 215.

FIG. 216.

FIG. 217.

FIG. 218.

FIG. 219.

FIG. 220.

Drafting.—The arrangement of the draft is a very important matter in connection with dobby or tappet weaving. In the case of simple twills, satins, and other regular weaves, as each end, or warp thread, in the design is required to be lifted differently, a separate stave is required for each end in the design, but in some patterns this is not the case.

[Fig. 221] is a stripe design composed of twenty ends of five-shaft satin and sixteen ends plain. The least number of shafts on which this could be woven is seven, five for the satin and two for the plain. The number of picks to the round, or the number of picks on which the pattern repeats is ten, ten being the least common multiple of two and five. The draft may be shown either by ruling lines to represent the staves as at [Fig. 222], or on point paper as at [Fig. 223]. The latter is the readier way, and is the way usually practised. The order of lifting the staves is shown in the “pegging plan” ([Fig. 224]). The term “pegging” refers, of course, to the dobby loom; if the design is woven on a tappet loom, “tappet plan” would be a more correct term to use.

FIG. 221.

FIG. 222.

FIG. 223.

FIG. 224.

FIG. 225.

FIG. 226.

FIG. 227.

When two weaves which consist of different arrangements of the same ends are combined in stripe form, the same shafts will do for both weaves. [Fig. 225] illustrates this principle. In the design there are sixteen ends of an eight-end twill, “2 up 2 down, 1 up 1 down, 1 up 1 down,” and sixteen ends of a mixed effect, which is simply a re-arrangement of the ends of the twill. Each of the ends in the crape or mixed weave can be drawn through the same stave as one of the ends in the twill, as will be seen from the draft ([Fig. 226]) given with this design, and thus the whole design can be woven with eight staves. If the staves are lifted to form the twill with the first sixteen ends, the different order of drawing the ends in the second part of the draft causes the desired change in the pattern. The pegging or lifting plan ([Fig. 227]) will therefore be the first eight ends of the twill.

FIG. 228.

FIG. 229.

FIG. 230.

FIG. 231.

FIG. 232.

FIG. 233.

One of the most useful principles of drafting is the V draft, or point draft. [Fig. 228] is a design based upon this principle; the design is repeated twice over in order to show the effect better, and it will be seen that the basis of the pattern is a “four and four” twill. The first eight ends are drawn from right to left, and by reversing the draft, as in [Fig. 229], the pattern is made to repeat on fourteen ends. The pegging plan ([Fig. 230]) will be the first eight ends and picks of the design. The first and eighth staves have each only one end out of the fourteen drawn through them, whilst all the other staves have two ends in each pattern. The number on each stave could be made equal by making the pattern repeat on sixteen ends and reversing the draft from the ninth stave, with an eight-end twill basis.

FIG. 234.

FIG. 235.

FIG. 236.

The V draft is used in a great variety of forms. It is not only in stripes that it is used. It is very often employed in weaving all-over spot effects and diamond patterns.

FIG. 237.

[Fig. 231] shows the principle applied to an all-over design. The draft ([Fig. 232]) is given, showing how the ends are drawn through the thirteen staves required to weave the pattern, and the “pegging plan” ([Fig. 233]) shows the order of lifting the staves.

FIG. 238.

A very effective method of employing this draft is illustrated at [Fig. 234]. This is a stripe design, and the general appearance would lead one to suppose that a larger number of staves are required to weave it than the eighteen actually required. [Fig. 235] is the draft and [Fig. 236] the pegging plan for this design.

FIG. 239.

FIG. 240.

Another class of pattern produced by the V draft is the “diaper” style. [Fig. 237] is a small design of this kind, and it will be noticed that the draft ([Fig. 238]) plays a very important part in increasing the size of the pattern. The draft given shows how the pattern would be made on nineteen staves.

It is not always advisable to draft a pattern to its lowest number of staves, as it is not worth while saving one or two staves at the expense of an irregular draft.

FIG. 241.

Dice Checks.—[Fig. 239] is a simple dice check pattern. Alternate squares of warp and weft twill form the check effect, and it is necessary to arrange the bindings so as to cross each other at the edges of the squares, as otherwise the ends would “slip.” Fancy dice patterns are produced by employing squares of different dimensions. [Fig. 240] is a pattern of this description. The bindings are here those of an eight-end satin. To obtain the crossing of the binding dots at the edges of the squares it is necessary to run the satin in opposite directions in the warp and weft squares.

A still more fancy dice effect is given at [Fig. 241]. The bindings are on the five-end satin basis, and the blocks of warp and weft satin are arranged so that the design repeats on fifty ends and picks. It is necessary in this class of binding to commence the satin in the position indicated in the design. By a judicious arrangement of the warp and weft blocks a large variety of patterns can be produced. The principle is extensively employed in the production of fabrics for both the home and shipping trades.

FIG. 242.

FIG. 243.

“Barley corn” patterns are a related style. The structure of these cloths is shown at Figs. [242] and [243]. The former pattern is manufactured on an extensive scale, as it is a fabric in regular use for making-up purposes. [Fig. 243] has the weft square rather larger than the warp, and is usually made in rather a better quality than [Fig. 242]. In fine makes the size of the squares is often increased.

FIG. 244.

FIG. 245.

FIG. 246.

FIG. 247.

FIG. 248.

FIG. 249.

FIG. 250.

FIG. 251.

FIG. 252.

FIG. 253.

FIG. 254.

FIG. 255.

Patterns produced by Re-arrangements of Twills.—If the ends of any twill be re-arranged in some regular order, another pattern of a different character is produced. For example, by re-arranging the eight-end twill given at [Fig. 244] in “satin order” the effect at [Fig. 245] is produced. The method of re-arrangement is to take the first end of the twill design and place it in the first place in the re-arrangement. The fourth end of the twill is then placed in the second end of the re-arrangement, the seventh end of the twill in the third place, and so on, the satin order used being 1 4, 7 2, 5 8, 3 6. [Fig. 246] re-arranged in this manner gives the effect at [Fig. 247], and, as will be seen from the remaining figures (Figs. [248]–[255]), the effects produced by the re-arrangement are all good serviceable effects which are useful for a great many purposes. With larger twills the effects produced are more elaborate and varied, and the principle is distinctly useful for the production of new woven effects.

FIG. 256.

FIG. 257.

FIG. 258.

FIG. 259.

FIG. 260.

FIG. 261.

FIG. 262.

FIG. 263.

Combined twills may also be re-arranged in this manner for the production of new effects. Figs. [256] and [258] are two five-end combined twills, and the effect produced by re-arranging the ends in five-end satin order is shown at Figs. [257] and [259], respectively.

FIG. 264.

FIG. 265.

[Fig. 260] is an eight-end combined twill, and [Fig. 261] shows the effect produced by its re-arrangement in eight-end satin order.

FIG. 266.

FIG. 267.

[Fig. 262] is a twelve-end combined twill, and when re-arranged in twelve-end satin order [Fig. 263] is produced.

The effects produced by re-arrangement in satin order are, as a rule, mixed effects of a less decided character than the original twill. There are many other useful systems of drafting or re-arranging patterns.

FIG. 268.

FIG. 269.

FIG. 270.

[Fig. 265] is the re-arrangement of [Fig. 264] in the order 1 2, 6 7, 3 4, 8 1, 5 6, 2 3, 7 8, 4 5. This is a regular draft obtained by skipping three shafts between each two ends. Another draft is obtained by skipping one end between each two ends drawn through the healds.

[Fig. 267] is obtained by re-arranging [Fig. 266] in the order of the draft 1 2, 4 5, 7 8, 2 3, and so on, the draft repeating on sixteen ends.

Another useful draft ([Fig. 270]) as a basis for re-arrangement is the one employed in producing [Fig. 269] from [Fig. 268]. The order of the draft is shown along with the design; the order runs, 2 1, 3 2, 4 3, and so on, repeating on sixteen ends.

FIG. 271.

FIG. 272.

Some novel effects are obtained by re-arranging the ends of a sixteen-end twill in the order 1 4, 7 2, 5 8, 3 6, 9 12, 15 10, 13 16, 11 14. The effect of this system is shown at [Fig. 272], which is the result of re-arranging [Fig. 271] in the above order. The system is of course applicable to other twills than those on sixteen ends.

Twills combined to form Square Patterns.—Simple twills may be combined to form “square” patterns by taking alternate picks of each. If two eight-end twills are combined in this manner only four picks of each twill will be used in the combination. The principle will be understood from [Fig. 273].

This is a pattern composed of alternate picks of two ten-end twills making an effect repeating on ten ends and ten picks. The effect given by re-arranging this in satin order is shown at [Fig. 274].

FIG. 273.

FIG. 274.

FIG. 275.

[Fig. 275] is a twelve-end pattern made on the same principle, and if this is re-arranged in satin order, another effect is obtained.

[Fig. 276] is a sixteen-thread pattern, and when re-arranged this produces the rather peculiar pattern [Fig. 277].

FIG. 276.

FIG. 277.

An immense variety of useful weaves may be obtained on this system of combination, the effects being perhaps more useful than when the patterns occupy twice as many picks as ends.

Unequal Twills combined.—Some useful fancy effects are obtained by combining two unequal twills “end and end,” or “pick and pick.” [Fig. 278] shows the effect produced by combining “end and end,” a “three and two” twill, and “two and two” twill. As one twill repeats on five picks and the other on four, the combined pattern will occupy twenty picks—twenty being the L.C.M. of five and four. There will require to be twenty ends of each twill used to make up a complete pattern, therefore the combined design will repeat on forty ends and twenty picks. If a four-end twill is combined with a three-end twill in this manner, the complete pattern would occupy twenty-four ends and twelve picks, as twelve is the least number of picks on which both the four-end and three-end twills repeat.

FIG. 278.

Check Patterns produced by Re-arrangement of Twills.—If an eight-end twill “three and five plain” is re-arranged in the order 1 4, 7 2, 5 8, 3 6, the effect shown in the square A ([Fig. 279]), and if this be again re-arranged in the same order, the original twill results. It follows, therefore, that by placing the pattern A above the twill and drawing the ends through eight staves as indicated in the draft ([Fig. 280]), a check pattern will be formed. The draft which produces the crape from the twill also produces the twill from the crape. The first eight ends and sixteen picks of the design is the pegging plan. By the addition of two extra staves the floats may be prevented from passing from one square to another. To produce the check effect properly, the satin draft must be such a one that if the fourth end is drawn on the second stave, the second end must be drawn on the fourth stave. If a sixteen-end satin draft is used for making a check pattern on this principle from a sixteen-end twill, the satin draft must be selected from those which can be made on sixteen shafts, and must be such a one that exactly the same pattern will be produced in the opposite squares of the check. The sixteen-end satin which gives this effect is the one made by skipping eight ends between each lift.

FIG. 279.

FIG. 280.

Honeycomb Cloth.—In this style of cloth the threads are interlaced so as to form squares, the centres of which are lower than the ridges which form the sides. [Fig. 281] is a honeycomb pattern on ten ends and ten picks. It will be noticed that the ridges or raised portions of the honeycomb are formed by the gradually increasing floats of the weft and warp threads. The hollows are formed by the threads weaving plain for a few ends and picks. Any size of pattern, within reasonable limits, may be formed on this principle. [Fig. 282] is a 16 × 16 honeycomb on the same principle.

For smaller sizes the principle requires a little alteration. [Fig. 283] is a good 8 × 8 honeycomb, and gives a fairly good effect even in low makes of cloth. These honeycomb weaves are used for quiltings, towellings, and for fancy goods of all kinds. Some excellent effects can be produced by combining honeycomb with satin or other weaves for striped dress goods, and similar fabrics. A good effect is given by the pattern, [Fig. 284]. The weave requires very thick yarns for giving the best effect. The pattern is reversible, both sides of the cloth being exactly alike.

FIG. 281.

FIG. 282.

FIG. 283.

FIG. 284.

Mock Lenos, or Lace Weaves.—These weaves are very extensively used in cotton manufacture. The imitation of leno fabrics can be made extremely close, often so close as to deceive even experienced buyers. The simplest kind is the pattern at [Fig. 285], a “three and three” pattern. The threads are interlaced in such a manner that the first ends are pulled together by the second and fifth picks, and the picks are pulled together in threes by the second and fifth ends, and as the shed is crossed between the third and fourth picks, the crack in the cloth appears there. The open effect is greatly increased if the ends are reeded “three in a dent,” the first three ends in the pattern being together in one dent, so that the reed assists in forming the open effect. Sometimes the ends are reeded in threes with a dent “skipped” between each full one, and this greatly augments the open effect. A “four and four” mock leno is the weave shown at [Fig. 286]. To produce the best effect this requires to be reeded four ends in a dent, commencing with the first four ends in the pattern. In this weave the crack is made between the fourth and fifth ends and fourth and fifth picks. The principle of the weave is exactly the same as in the “three and three” pattern, but a slightly more open effect can be obtained with the “four and four” pattern. It is also suitable for a finer make of cloth, as the open effect can be made with a larger number of threads per inch.

FIG. 285.

FIG. 286.

FIG. 287.

FIG. 288.

A “five and five” pattern is given at [Fig. 287]. The second, fourth, seventh, and ninth ends serve to pull the picks together in fives, and to make a decided crack in the cloth between the fifth and sixth picks in the pattern. The same thing takes place with the ends, they are pulled together in fives, by the second, fourth, seventh, and ninth picks.

Probably the best open effect is produced by [Fig. 288]. This is called a “five and one” mock leno or lace. To produce the best effect, the pattern should be reeded as follows:—

Five ends one dent,

Skip a dent,

One end one dent,

Skip a dent.

Two repeats of the pattern are shown at [Fig. 288], only six ends and six picks being required to weave it. The first five picks are pulled together by the second and fourth ends, and as the shed is crossed between the fifth and sixth picks and between the sixth and the succeeding pick, the single pick No. 6 is shown in the middle of the crack between the bars of five picks. The same thing takes place with the ends.

It is not absolutely necessary to reed the pattern other than two in a dent; an open effect is produced with the ordinary reeding, but the special reeding greatly increases it.

Cords.—Cords can be formed in cloth by simply making a number of threads lift together, as in [Fig. 289]. The cord may be made across the piece by putting a number of picks in a shed, as shown at [Fig. 290]. This principle of forming cords has its disadvantages. If the cord is going lengthwise of the piece a large number of picks per inch is required to give a good and fine effect, and there is always a tendency to show a perforated appearance in cords made on this principle, owing to the threads being pulled together in threes or fours, or whatever number of threads go to form a cord.

FIG. 289.

FIG. 290.

A good cord up the piece may be made by taking six or eight ends of six-end satin and two plain ends. [Fig. 291] is a pattern of this kind. The six-end satin is used because the plain ends would make wrong bindings with a five-end satin and the ends would slip. This principle of making cords is very useful, as the effect being produced from the warp, the cost is less than if produced from the weft.

FIG. 291.

FIG. 292.

FIG. 293.

FIG. 294.

FIG. 295.

FIG. 296.

For dobby patterns it is necessary to keep the number of shafts as low as possible, and cords requiring only two shafts above the plain are made as in Figs. [292] and [293]. [Fig. 294] gives a cord across the piece, and is of rather a firmer character than an ordinary four and four cord. [Fig. 295] shows a useful principle of making cords across the piece. Two picks are taken together, and three double picks from a cord. The three plain picks serve to define the cord. A better effect is obtained from [Fig. 296], in which the double picks have a float of five ends. This cord is very suitable for stripes, as it combines extremely well with warp satin.

FIG. 297.

FIG. 298.

[Fig. 297] gives a cord up the piece. The back of the cloth is plain, each pick taking an equal part in forming the back. The plain also serves to spread the ends, and so produces a firmer cloth than would be obtained if the cord were formed on the principle of [Fig. 299]. Sometimes the back of the cord is required to be rather looser, and is woven to a small twill. At [Fig. 298] a twelve-end cord is shown on this principle, with a 2 and 1 twill pattern at the back.

FIG. 299.

FIG. 300.

Another form of cord is illustrated at [Fig. 299]. This shows a cord up the piece caused by every pick interweaving with the first and second ends, and only half the picks interweaving with the remaining six ends. The ends interweaving with half the picks are looser than the other two ends, and therefore have a raised appearance. The face of the cloth is plain, with the lines formed by the two ends running up the piece. A smaller cord is shown at [Fig. 300], which repeats on six ends and four picks. [Fig. 301] is a pattern composed of crossed cords. Excellent effects are obtained by combining larger cords in the same manner.

FIG. 301.

FIG. 302.

FIG. 303.

FIG. 304.

Crapes.—This is a name given to weaves of a small “seedy” effect. Good effects of this kind are produced by Figs. [302] and [303], which repeat on ten ends and six picks, and six ends and six picks, respectively. Another very largely used pattern is that at [Fig. 304]. This is a pattern of rather peculiar construction, as both sides of the cloth are alike, and the small floats of three are bent somewhat out of a straight line. The reason for this can be seen by a careful examination of the pattern. Patterns of the same character, but with very large repeats, are often used. In many of these there is no regularity in the construction of the pattern. The chief object is to get a perfect all-over effect free from lines or rows. This can be accomplished by keeping about the same amount of float on every pick and distributing the floats as evenly as possible. A pattern of this kind, on forty picks and sixteen ends, is given at [Fig. 305]. It will be seen that each pick has two floats on it.

FIG. 305.

FIG. 306.

Fancy Effects.—Some novel effects can be produced on the principle of [Fig. 306]. Two picks are floated on the top of a plain cloth every ten picks, and these loose picks are bound only by two ends out of every twelve. The loose picks are pulled in opposite directions by the loose ends, and the result is that small hexagonal figures are formed after the manner shown at [Fig. 307]. By using coloured ends and picks for the loose ones a still better effect is obtained.

FIG. 307.

FIG. 308.

Crimp Stripes.—These are usually produced by having two warps at different tensions. The warp to weave the crimp is lightly weighted as compared with the warp of the other stripe, which may be plain or satin as desired, and is let off intermittently. If the crimp warp is very hard twisted the effect is increased. [Fig. 308] is the design of a crimp stripe of rather a novel character. The ends woven entirely plain are on a beam lightly weighted, whilst the other ends are heavily weighted. The first two picks are of ordinarily twisted weft, and the third and fourth picks are very hard twisted. These picks are thrown to the back, and take no part in forming the cloth in one portion of it. The consequence is that these picks, loose at the back of the cloth, and being very hard twisted, pull the two edges of the stripe closer together, and thus form a crimp or “tuck” the length of the piece. The plain ends form a crimp in the ordinary manner, owing to being lightly weighted.

Huck Patterns.—This is the name given to a class of patterns used for towellings. The object is to get a firm cloth with a rough surface. [Fig. 309] is a weave of this description, but there are many others in use. The pattern repeats on ten ends and eight picks, and can be drafted down to be woven on five shafts.

FIG. 309.

Extra Warp.—When some warp ends are used for figuring without taking any part in forming the ground or body of the fabric, they are termed “extra warp” threads. The principle is much used for putting coloured spots or figures on grounds of a different colour or material. In [Fig. 310] the ends on which the black squares occur are “extra ends,” as they take no part in forming the ground of the fabric. In this figure the black squares represent the warp lifted. Where the extra warp is not forming the figure it is thrown to the back of the cloth, where it hangs loosely unless it can be bound into the ground cloth or cut off. Two or three differently coloured spots may be formed one above the other. [Fig. 311] will show the principle of this. The ground of the cloth is plain, and these ends are distinguished by the small dots in the design. The first and second ends in the design are supposed to be of different colours. This design will repeat on forty picks, and any desired number of ends may be used between each stripe for the ground. The extra warp must be put “extra” in the reed, so that, supposing there are two ends in a dent in the ground, there would be six in a dent where the two extra warps occur. The principle is useful for obtaining a large width of pattern.

FIG. 310.

FIG. 311.

FIG. 312.

The extra ends may be of the same colour as the ground, but of thicker material, and may be used with the object of increasing the width of the pattern. [Fig. 312] is a small striped design illustrating this principle. The ground is plain, and the extra warp threads, if of sufficient thickness, give a bold well-covered figure, which enables the design to be woven on nine shafts.

Extra Weft.—Extra weft spots may be woven on exactly the same principle by taking the weft “extra” instead of the warp. [Fig. 313] is a small spot design on the “extra weft” principle. The cloth would require to have twice as many picks per inch as there are ends per inch.

FIG. 313.

The ground may be either plain, twill, or satin, but if it is required to bind the extra material a twill is preferable.

[Fig. 314] is the commencement of a small design for an extra weft figure on a “two and two” twill ground, showing how the extra weft may be bound to the ground of the fabric without showing through to the face. The extra weft may be brought up under the weft floats of the twill, and if a fair quantity of material is used the binding will not be visible on the face of the cloth.

FIG. 314.

FIG. 315.

It is impossible to bind extra weft to a plain ground or to a warp satin ground in the ordinary manner, as there is no float to hide the binding under. It may, however, be bound to a warp satin ground by means of stitching threads, after the manner shown in [Fig. 315]. This is an extra weft spot on a warp twill ground, and the loose picks at the back of the cloth are bound by the stitching thread A. This thread is really an extra warp thread, and it is lifted in such a position that the binding is hidden under the warp floats of the twill ground. One of these threads may be used at intervals of an eighth to a quarter of an inch.

In binding extra warp the same principle applies. Extra warp may be bound to a warp ground by lifting it between two warp floats, or it may be bound to a weft ground by using an extra stitching pick on the principle illustrated in [Fig. 315].

FIG. 316.

Extra warp or weft is often used to produce a solid figure on a light or open ground. [Fig. 316] is a small design of this kind, in which one half the picks are thrown out of the cloth in the ground of the pattern. The design gives a very close imitation of a figured leno cloth, if woven with suitable yarns. To obtain a good effect there should be at least twice the number of picks per inch that there are ends or warp threads. When the cloth is taken out of the loom the loose threads are clipped and passed through a shearing machine, where the loose threads are cut off close to the figure.

The extra picks should be bound round the figure by weaving plain for a few ends, to prevent the extra material being pulled out of the figure in clipping or shearing.

Extra Warp and Extra Weft combined.—Where extra warp and extra weft are used together in the same part of the design, the structure is a little more complicated.

A small check pattern of this description is given at [Fig. 317]. Every alternate end and every alternate pick are extra, and all the even numbered ends and picks belong to the ground cloth, which in this case is woven plain.

In making designs employing both extra warp and weft, it is advisable to put the dots of the ground weave on the point paper first. Then dots may be put on to lift the extra warp where it is required to form the figure, and if it is required to throw the extra weft to the back of the ground cloth when the extra warp is on the face, the ground ends must be lifted on the extra weft picks where required.

FIG. 317.

In [Fig. 317] the ground weave is shown in solid squares; the extra warp is lifted by the small circles, and the extra weft is thrown to the back of the plain cloth by the small dots, which lift all the ground ends on the extra picks where the extra warp is lifted. This design is made for single picks, but in the majority of looms there are only change boxes at one side, and so the design must be arranged for two picks alternately of ground and extra weft.

Double Weft Face.—Double weft-faced cloths are made on the principle shown at [Fig. 318]. There is a face weft and a backing weft, and both sides of the cloth may be made alike by using only one count of weft.

FIG. 318.

The pattern is a four and one twill for both face and back, and it is important that the binding should take place under the floats of the twill, after the manner described in binding extra weft.

The face pattern may be different from the back, but it is not possible to back a cloth with every pattern on this principle, as the binding must not show through to the face, and therefore the back pattern must be selected so as to give this result.

[Fig. 319] is an eight-end twill backed with weft, the back pattern in this case being a “seven and one” twill.

FIG. 319.

FIG. 320.

FIG. 321.

FIG. 322.

Suppose it is desired to put a weft back to the pattern, [Fig. 320], and to have two face picks to one back pick. The face pattern must be put on the face picks as in [Fig. 321], and the back pattern must then be put on in such a manner that where the backing weft is passing over one of the warp threads there must be at least one weft dot above and below it, as in [Fig. 321].

Two wefts of different colours may be made to form reversible figures by making them change places, first one being on the face, and then the other. The principle is shown at [Fig. 322], where the alternate picks are of different colours. The two wefts should be thick enough to cover well, and a fine warp should be used.

Double Warp Face.—This is the same as “double weft face” weaving, with the exception that two warps are used instead of two wefts. A four and one twill backed with warp is shown at [Fig. 323]. It is necessary to have the warp threads close enough together to hide the bindings. Fancy patterns may be backed with warp by binding the backing warp under warp floats in the face cloth.

FIG. 323.

FIG. 324.

FIG. 325.

Corkscrew twills are those which have a warp face on both sides of the cloth. The weave is chiefly used in the manufacture of worsted coatings, and similar goods, but is often employed in cotton designs. An eleven-thread corkscrew is given at [Fig. 324], and a fifteen-thread pattern is given at [Fig. 325]. The weave requires a large number of warp threads per inch to give a good effect.

Padded Cloths.—To obtain a raised effect on cords or figures, thick weft may be inserted between the face and back cloth, or between the face cloth and backing ends when there is no backing weft used. This thick weft takes no part in forming either the face or back cloth, and is simply held in position by the binding of the backing material to the face cloth.

FIG. 326.

A simple example of this principle of weaving is given at [Fig. 326]. This pattern may be woven with one shuttle, and a fine raised cord across the piece is formed. The backing warp threads, on which the solid squares are placed, should be on a separate beam, and should be heavily weighted as compared with the other ends. All the marks in the design represent the warp lifted, so that the empty squares represent warp left down. It will be noticed that the heavily-weighted ends are only lifted for two picks in every ten, and this forms a cord effect. There are three picks in each cord which do not interweave with either the face or backing ends, but they serve to increase the boldness of the cord by giving it a raised appearance. The three picks which form the padding are the second, fourth, and sixth in the design.

The section at [Fig. 327] will better explain the principle of the pattern. There are five plain picks in the cord, two plain picks between the cords, and three padding picks, making altogether ten to the round. These cloths are known as Piqués.

FIG. 327.

FIG. 328.

Another padded effect is given at [Fig. 328]. The double pick is the padding weft, and should be of thick material. The plain face cloth is developed in small dots, and the backing ends in solid squares. The padding picks in this pattern are pulled out of a straight line, and a diamond effect is produced on the cloth.

Double Cloths.—Double-warp-face and double-weft-face cloths are usually classed as double cloths, but they are essentially different from double cloths made from two warps and two wefts.

FIG. 329.

FIG. 330.

Figs. [329] and [330] will show how two separate cloths, one above the other, can be woven in one loom. The first figure shows one of the face ends only lifted, and a pick being put in the face or top cloth. It will be noticed that both back ends are in this case down along with one of the face ends. The second figure shows both face ends lifted and one of the back ends, whilst a pick is being put in the back cloth.

Two separate cloths of any pattern may be woven by simply lifting the face ends out of the way when a pick is being put in the back cloth.

If a pick is put in the face and back cloth alternately, the cloths will be bound together at both selvedges; but if two picks are put in each cloth alternately, they are only bound at one side. This will be seen from Figs. [331 and 332]. In the former the pick passes from the face cloth to the back cloth at one side, and from the back cloth to the face cloth at the other side of the loom. In [Fig. 332] two picks are put in each cloth in succession, and the cloth will open out to double the width of the loom. The former principle is used for weaving sacks, meat-bags, and seamless pillow-cases. In putting double cloths on point paper it is usual to use different colours or marks for the face and back cloths respectively, and also for lifting the face cloth when weaving in the back one. It is also advisable to always take the dotted squares as warp lifted.

FIGS. 331, 332.

The following directions for double cloth designing will be found useful.

First mark off the face and back ends and picks respectively. Then on the face ends and face picks put the face pattern, and on the back ends and back picks put the back pattern. On every back pick lift every face end. This will make the two cloths separate.

FIG. 333.

FIG. 334.

FIG. 335.

[Fig. 333] is the design for two separate plain cloths bound at both sides of the loom, and [Fig. 334] is the pattern for the cloths bound only at one side. The face and back cloths may be of different patterns, and bound together to form one thick fabric.

[Fig. 335] is a design for a double cloth with a two and two twill face and a plain back. The design is end and end, and pick and pick.

FIG. 336.

The binding of the two cloths together is a very important matter. It must be done in such a manner that the bindings are not visible on the face of the fabric. To find the best position for binding the two cloths together it is generally advisable to make a section showing the first two picks in the pattern, as at [Fig. 336]. A position can then be found for passing a back pick over a face end where the floats of weft in the face pattern will hide the binding. It will be seen that this can be done effectually by passing the back pick over the fourth face end, and so in the design the fourth face end is not lifted when the first back pick is being put in.

Sometimes the face cloth is required to be much finer than the back, and so there may be two face ends and two face picks to one back end and one back pick.

FIG. 337.

FIG. 338.

Figs. [337] and [338] show a design for a fabric of this description, the face pattern being a two and two twill, and the back plain. Before commencing to put the design on paper, it is best to make a section showing in what relative positions it is proposed to start the two patterns, and so enable the weaves to be placed in such positions that a satisfactory binding is possible.

FIG. 339.

[Fig. 339] shows how the binding may be effected by placing the two patterns in a certain position in relation to each other. The binding in this, as in the previous case, is made by passing a back pick over a face end.

The binding may also be made by lifting a back end over a face pick where the warp floats in the face cloth would cover it. A design illustrating this kind of binding is given at [Fig. 340]. The face pattern is a “four and four” twill and the back a two and two twill, and there are two threads of face to one of back. The two cloths are bound together by lifting the first back end on the first face pick where the binding dot comes between two warp floats. The full squares in the figure represent the face ends lifted; the small dots represent the back ends lifted; and the circles show all the face ends lifted on the back picks, which keep the two cloths quite separate. The cross on the first pick effects the binding.

FIG. 340.

The question as to which is the better system of binding depends upon the character of the two cloths. If the face weft covers better than the warp, it is the better way to bind by passing the back pick over a face end, whereas if the face warp covers better than the weft, a back end lifted over a face pick is preferable.

Three-, and more ply Cloths.—Any number of cloths may be woven separately, one above the other, or several may be bound together to form a very thick fabric. [Fig. 341] is a design for weaving four plain cloths, one above the other, and if the picks are woven in the order given in the design it will weave a cloth four times the width of the loom when opened out. The passage of the weft from one cloth to the other is shown at [Fig. 342].

FIG. 341.

FIG. 342.

Figured Double Plain Cloths.—If the warp be taken with alternate ends of two colours and picked in the same manner, figures, checks, or stripes can be formed by weaving two separate cloths of the different coloured yarns, making both cloths solid colour, and making them change places so as to form the desired figure. [Fig. 343] is a design for a small check pattern on this principle. The odd ends and picks are, we will suppose, black; and the even numbered ends and picks white. It will be seen that in the bottom left-hand square of eight ends and picks, the lifting marks for lifting the face cloth out of the way when weaving in the back cloth are put on the black ends and white picks, and therefore the black cloth is lifted to the face in this square. On the opposite square of eight ends and picks, the lifting marks for separating the two cloths are put upon the white ends and black picks, and therefore the white cloth is here made the face cloth. By bringing either the black or white cloth to the face, any figure may be formed, and the surface of the fabric is quite plain, which for some purposes is much preferable to floated figures. The weave used may be a twill or satin instead of plain, if desired, or the two cloths may be of different weaves, and one brought through the other to form a figure. [Fig. 344] is a design for a small spot pattern on the double plain principle. The threads should be “end and end” and “pick and pick” of different colours, the first end and first pick being, we will suppose, black, and the threads for the second cloth being white. The lifting marks for bringing the back cloth to the face are the solid squares, whilst the white cloth is brought to the top by the circles.

FIG. 343.

FIG. 344.

If all the black ends and picks are brought together and all the white ends and picks brought together, the pattern of both sides of the cloth can plainly be seen as well as the ground weave. [Fig. 345] will show this. The face pattern is shown on the first sixteen ends and picks, and the back pattern on the second sixteen ends and picks, whilst the ground weave is shown for both cloths in the opposite corner squares. The patterns may be designed in this manner, and the full effect produced by arranging the draft so as to give the required effect in the cloth.

FIG. 345.

Some fine effects may be obtained by inserting a thick end in the form of padding between two plain cloths, and binding the cloths together so as to make the thick end form a cord. The cords may run either lengthwise or across the piece. [Fig. 346] is a section showing how the cord is formed by the thick end coming between the two cloths without interweaving with either of them, and [Fig. 347] shows how the point paper design is made. The end on which the crosses are placed is the thick thread which is used for padding, and the four ends at each side of this are the two separate plain cloths. At each side of this there are two ends showing where the two cloths change places, and so bind the thick end between the cloths and form the cord.

FIG. 346.

FIG. 347.

Double plain cloths may be bound together by using sufficient material to cover well, but the binding is difficult to make without being visible. This principle of binding is shown at Figs. [398] and [399].

Leno Fabrics.—In a previous chapter the method of interlacing the threads in simple gauze has been shown. With the two staves and one doup required to weave gauze a considerable variety of patterns can be woven. A “five and one cross-over” has already been given, but it will be obvious that the number of plain picks in each bar of the cross-over may be any odd number. A “seven and one,” “eleven and one,” and so on, are regular weaves.

Where the crossing thread weaves plain first at one side and then the other of the standard end, a simple crack is made in the cloth between the bars of plain, and there is no single pick in the middle of the crack. The most common pattern of this description is a “five and five cross-over;” a plan, draft, and pegging-plan of this pattern is shown at [Fig. 348].

FIG. 348.

In all these fabrics the effect is decidedly of an open or transparent nature.

In some leno fabrics the object is not to get an open effect but to get zigzag effects by crossing a thick end over a few plain ends. A simple pattern of this kind was given at [Fig. 139] in dealing with leno weaving, but the effect may be varied by making the crossings at irregular intervals.

FIG. 349.

[Fig. 349] is a fancy crossing in which the thick doup end is crossing over three double plain ends.

[Fig. 350] is another fancy effect on the same principle. The marks on the plain ends show when these ends are lifted.

When the thick crossing ends all work in the same direction a “wave” effect is produced, which is often employed in conjunction with the “diamond” or “eye” effect, obtained from the opposite working of the two thick ends.

FIG. 350.

FIG. 351.

By using two doups a great variety of effect can be obtained. [Fig. 351] shows a method much practised of making the picks bend out of a straight line. It is obvious that this will require two doups, because one doup thread has to be lifted for the first six picks, and the other doup thread does not lift until the fourth pick in the pattern.

FIG. 352.

Check Lenos.—Where alternate squares of leno and plain are required to be woven, it is necessary to have two doups if the leno is required to be woven four ends in a dent, with two ends crossing two, as in [Fig. 352]. It has been shown how a check leno or gauze can be woven with only one doup at [Fig. 144], but the principle only applies to pure gauze, or one end crossing one. The draft and pegging plan for weaving a small check on the principle of [Fig. 352] is given at [Fig. 353], where it will be seen that eight shafts or staves are required with two doups and two slackeners.

FIG. 353.

FIG. 354.

FIG. 355.

For dobby weaving, the leno principle is chiefly used in the production of striped fabrics. One of the most popular classes of fabrics is a combination of the thick zigzag effect with an open leno effect of any kind. [Fig. 354] is an example of this combined style, the stripe can either be woven with a satin or plain ground fabric.

With three doups some very elaborate effects can be obtained, but the increased cost is rather prohibitive.

A thick end can be crossed round a pair of ends weaving leno, as in [Fig. 355]. It is necessary to bring the end from the back stave round the doup B before crossing under the pair of leno ends, as this would make the crossing easier.

Weft Pile Fabrics, Velvets, and Corduroys.—Practically all cotton velvets are woven on the weft pile principle. The intricate nature of the loom required for weaving warp cut-pile prevents its adoption for cotton pile fabrics. There is no doubt that a warp pile woven over wires is superior to any weft pile fabric, all the pile being perfectly even. The principle upon which weft pile is formed is illustrated at Figs. [356] and [357], the former showing the pile uncut, and the latter cut.

FIG. 356.

FIG. 357.

In weft pile fabrics the pile weft is usually “extra weft” issuing out of the ground fabric only between every pair of ends. This forms grooves or “races” in the fabric, which allow of the insertion of a “knife and guide” which cuts the pile about the middle of the float. At [Fig. 356] the ground fabric is plain, and between each ground pick there are three pile picks. The first pile pick passes under the first end, the second pick under the third end, and the third pick under the fifth end, and if these are repeated there are formed small grooves for the cutter’s knife every two ends. The pattern is given on point paper at [Fig. 358], extended a little in each direction as the pattern repeats on only six ends and eight picks. The ground picks (plain) are put on in circles. A large number of picks per inch are required; in a common make about 260 picks per inch of 60’s weft are used, and about 74 warp threads per inch, the counts of warp being usually 2-70’s.

FIG. 358.

If there are 260 picks per inch, and one pick out of every four belongs to the plain ground fabric or “back,” as it is sometimes called, there will be sixty-five picks per inch in the plain, and the pile weft is “extra” material forming grooves for the cutter’s knife on the face of the cloth.

FIG. 359.

After the cloth is woven it is stiffened, and stretched in a frame for cutting. [Fig. 359] shows the kind of knife used for this purpose. The guide A is selected so as to fit under the float easily and lift the centre of the float to the cutting edge B. The cutter inserts the knife and guide every two ends or “race,” and thus in a common velvet, as at [Fig. 358], one-third of the pile picks are cut each time the knife is run up the piece. The arrows show the ends where the knife is inserted.

Machine cutting is now adopted to some extent for velvets. The piece is moved backwards and forwards automatically, and so the cutter does not require to walk the length of the frame every time the knife is run up the piece.

The term velvet is used by retailers and the general public as referring to silk velvet, and by them all cotton pile fabrics are termed velveteens; but in the trade the lighter and finer classes of cotton weft pile fabrics are velvets, and the heavier kinds, such as those used for clothing purposes, are called “velveteens.” There is no very definite line drawn between the two classes.

Velvets are usually sold by weight when in the grey state. The pattern given at [Fig. 329] is made to weigh from 18 lbs. to 30 lbs. for 100 or 110 yards, 24 inches wide, the yarns being as previously stated, and the various weights obtained by altering the number of picks per inch. About 25 lbs. per 110 yards is a medium weight.

The usual width for home trade velvets is 24 inches (grey), but for shipping 22½ inches is a very common width. The pieces are usually woven two or three in a width of the loom, and afterwards torn asunder.

FIG. 360.

The length of the pile may be increased by increasing the length of the float. [Fig. 360] is a pattern with a seven float, and four pile picks to each backing, or ground pick. This is usually called an E1 velvet, a term probably handed down from the origination of the pattern.

Until well into the last century the pattern [Fig. 358] was the only weave used in the production of cotton velvets, and a patent was obtained for this E1 velvet, and the term “Patent” is still regularly used when referring to velvets with a longer pile than a five float.

An E1 velvet requires considerably more picks per inch than a “common velvet.” A good make will contain 400 or more picks per inch of 60’s or 70’s weft, woven in a 74 Stockport reed with 2-70’s twist.

Sometimes the points where the pile weft intersects are distributed in satin order as in [Fig. 361], but this makes no appreciable difference, as the picks are so piled up on the top of each other that the bindings of the four pile picks are practically in a horizontal line in either of the methods given.

FIG. 361.

FIG. 362.

[Fig. 362] is a design for a velvet with a nine float, and five pile picks to one back pick or “binder,” as they are sometimes termed. This would require a still larger number of picks, and would easily take 500 picks per inch of 70’s weft.

FIG. 363.

A cloth is made with the same length of pile as the above, but with only four picks of pile to each back pick. This pattern requires fifty picks to complete it, as will be seen from [Fig. 363]. The pile in this case will be much more firmly bound into the ground cloth than is the case in [Fig. 362].

Fast Pile Velvets.—When the pile weft is only bound under one end it is rather liable to wear out, especially by rubbing at the back. To obviate this, the pile weft is bound in the manner shown at [Fig. 364], by which it is rendered much faster. When bound to the ground fabric in this manner it is known as “fast pile.”

The method of binding detracts from the richness of the pile obtained from a given quantity of material, but the fabric possesses much better wearing qualities.

[Fig. 365] shows the structure of an ordinary fast pile velvet with a plain ground, and four pile picks to each back pick.

FIG. 364.

FIG. 365.

FIG. 366.

A regular make of this fabric is as follows:

Width 26 inches, length 104 yards, weight 30 to 34 lbs. 76 reed, 420 picks per inch, 2-70’s twist, 50’s weft.

Twill Backed Velvets.—Some of the finest kinds of velvet are made with a twill back. The chief advantage of a twill back over a plain is that the bindings of the pile weft into the ground are hidden by the twill floats at the back. This renders the pile much faster than a common velvet; in fact, twill backs are usually sold as fast pile velvets.

FIG. 367.

[Fig. 366] is a section showing the structure of the fabric, and it will be easily understood that the pile cannot be so easily pulled out at the back, owing to the weft covering the bindings. [Fig. 367] is the design for a good make of this kind of velvet, the back is a two and one twill, and the pile weft floats over eleven ends.

An important thing to remember about twill backs is, that the pile pick following a back pick must have the dot opposite a blank square in the back pick. If this were not so, the picks would slip about and form an irregular surface.

In the weave under notice, five pile picks are taken between the first two back picks, two between the second and third, and five between the third and first. This enables the proper bindings to be made.

This weave gives one of the best cloths that are made. It is usually woven with about 600 picks per inch of 60’s weft, in a 76 reed with a 2-70’s twist.

FIG. 368.

Another pattern of the same kind which will take still more weft is given at [Fig. 368]. In this there are five pile picks to each backing pick, and the pattern repeats on thirty-six picks.

Plushes.—When much longer piles are required the fabric is called “plush.” These can be made on exactly the same principles as the foregoing, or the principle embodied in [Fig. 369] may be used. In this weave the pile is bound in much oftener than in the shorter piled cloths, as a long pile is much easier to pull out than a short one, and therefore requires more firmly binding. The ground picks also in this weave are all alike, i.e. they all pass under the same ends, and this does not hold the pile weft as firmly as a proper plain back, although it utilizes the binding of the pile weft as forming part of the back pattern. The bindings of the four pile picks together form a plain pick, and the back of the cloth thus appears perfectly plain. To preserve an even surface of pile it is necessary to distribute the points, where the first pick in each four commences, in satin order. As there are in [Fig. 369] twelve ends on which the pile picks are bound, the basis upon which the bindings must be distributed is a twelve-end satin, which runs 1, 6, 11, 4, 9, 2, 7, 12, 5, 10, 3, 8. The first pile pick commences to bind on the second warp thread, and therefore the first pile pick in the second set of four (the seventh pick) must commence to bind on the sixth of the ends available for the purpose (the twelfth end). The whole design will be complete on sixty picks.

FIG. 369.

For a longer pile the weft would require to be bound under more ends, especially if the backing picks are not crossed.

Cord Velvets.—A simple cord velvet can be made on the principle of [Fig. 370]. The two plain ends on every six bind all the pile picks in the form of a cord up the piece, and there is one ground pick to four pile picks. The cutter’s knife is only run up every cord, and so the cutting operation is much cheaper and more easily done than in the case of velvets. After cutting, the pile is brushed, and the fibres spread out so as to cover the space between the two binding ends as much as possible.

An eight-end cord on the same principle is given at [Fig. 371].

FIG. 370.

FIG. 371.

Round cords are made by employing floats of two lengths. In the previous cords all the floats are equal, but in [Fig. 372] one float is a “thirteen” and the other a “fifteen.” When these are cut in the middle, the short float forms the outside of a cord, and the long float the inside, which gives the cord a round appearance. [Fig. 373] shows the appearance of the two pile picks when cut.

FIG. 372.

FIG. 373.

As a rule, these cords are used for very heavy fabrics, and twill and satin backs are chiefly used, and as the pile weft is usually much thicker than velvet weft, there are not so many pile picks between the ground picks. A smaller cord on the same principle is given at [Fig. 374].

FIG. 374.

CHAPTER XI
FIGURED DESIGN

IN figured fabrics it is most important that the distribution of the parts of the figure should be such that the eye is not attracted by lines formed by the unequal distribution of the figure. The objectionable feature is most likely to occur in designs of an all-over character, as it is almost impossible to tell if the distribution is perfect without extending the design to cover a considerable space.

FIG. 375.

In designs which consist of set or detached figures, it is a comparatively easy matter to cover the surface of the fabric equally by distributing the figures in some pre-arranged order. The simplest method of arranging detached figures is to arrange them “one and one,” as in [Fig. 375]. This is a small spot arranged from two points on twelve ends and twelve picks, and the same principle will apply whatever the size of the figure. The space to be covered, twelve ends and twelve picks, is divided into two, both in warp and weft, and it will be noticed that the central dot in each spot is in the same position in each square of 6 × 6.

In designs of a floral character the two figures are generally turned in different directions, and if the centres of the figures be properly placed they may be turned in any direction, and still preserve the equal distribution. Detached figures may be arranged in the order of any satin, but the regular satins show the figures too much in lines, and the system is not much practised on that account. Irregular satins give much better effects. [Fig. 376] is a design consisting of six spots arranged in six-end satin order, on thirty ends and thirty picks; the ground being five-end satin. In making the design the space to be covered is divided into six parts, both in warp and weft, by the crosses at the corners of the squares.

FIG. 376.

The squares are numbered at the side in the order of the satin, viz. 1, 3, 5, 2, 6, 4, and the first spot is placed in the left-hand bottom corner, the central dot of the spot being placed in the centre of its square. The next figure is placed in the third square, on the second five picks, the central dot again being placed in the middle of the square. The third spot is placed in the fifth square, on the third division of the picks; and so on, until the six figures have been placed on the thirty ends and picks.

If the central dot is always placed in the correct position in each division, the figures may be turned round or placed in any direction.

The ground weave is a five-end satin, and care must always be taken, in designing, that the ends and picks in the pattern are a multiple of the ends and picks in the ground weave, or there will occur a broken pattern at the joining of each “repeat.”

FIG. 377.

[Fig. 377] is a small spot arranged in the order of a regular eight-end satin on sixteen ends and sixteen picks. In making this design the sixteen ends and picks divided into eight will give only two ends and picks for each division, so that if the central dot of the first spot is placed on the third pick, the centre of the next spot will come on the fifth pick, and so on.

FIG. 378.

FIG. 379.

As previously stated, when set figures are distributed in regular satin order a stiff appearance is given to the design by the figures showing in lines. It is therefore necessary to get some irregular order as a basis to work upon, which will distribute the parts of the figure equally, and give a mixed up appearance. A design based upon an irregular eight-end plan is given at [Fig. 378]. The irregular satin upon which it is based is given at [Fig. 379]. The method of constructing the design is precisely the same as in the previous examples; the space to be covered is divided into eight parts in each direction, and the figures are arranged in the same order as the dots in [Fig. 379]. If ten spots or figures are to be arranged in a design, an irregular ten-end satin may be used. In arranging the order care must be taken to have the dots evenly distributed.

Transferring from Sketch to Point Paper.—In transferring a design from the sketch to point paper, it is usual to rule the sketch into small squares, each square to represent sixteen or twenty-four ends and picks, and to mark the point paper into squares of this number of ends and picks. The outline of the sketch is then drawn on the point paper; the squares into which the sketch and point paper have been divided render it a simple matter to enlarge the sketch and preserve the proportions of the various parts of the design. If the sketch measures four inches for one repeat of the pattern, and the design is to be made on 400 ends, and say 500 picks, on 8 × 8 point paper, the sketch may be ruled with lead pencil into twenty-five parts in the warp, and the same number of parts in the direction of the weft. The point paper would then require to be divided into spaces of sixteen ends and twenty picks.

40025 = 16 ends   50025 = 20 picks

Development of the Pattern.—When the outline of the figure has been drawn on the point paper, it may be coloured in. This is done by going over the line carefully and filling in all the squares that the outline passes through. If the ground of the fabric is to be plain, the outline of the figure must be kept plain—that is, it must move an odd number of threads each time, so that the plain ground may be carried up to the figure without spoiling it.

FIG. 380.

If a solid weft figure is required on a warp satin ground the figure may be coloured all over with, say, red paint, and the developing dots be put on in blue or other colour; but if much shading or fancy treatment is required, it is more convenient to develop the figure in one colour, as in [Fig. 380]. Some designers colour the ground with red, and put the satin or other dots over this in another colour, leaving the figure white, and then develop the figure by putting on the required red dots to lift the warp for shading or binding.

This method is advantageous where there is more figure than ground, which is often the case; but, as a general rule, the figure is coloured with red, and the binding dots of the ground in the same colour, another colour being used for the binding of the figure when required.

FIG. 381.

[Fig. 380] illustrates the principle of developing a weft figure on a warp satin ground by shading from warp to weft.

The outline of the figure is first sketched on the point paper, and then the whole is covered with the satin dots. By adding single dots where required any degree of light and shade can be obtained. It is best to add the dots all to the same side of the float, and, as a rule, it is most convenient to add them singly. The effect is obtained by gradually increasing the float from one to seven, and thus there are seven degrees of light and shade between the two opposite eight-thread satins.

[Fig. 381] will illustrate the principle of shading more perfectly. This is a small stripe of shaded eight-end satin. The space to be shaded is divided into seven equal parts of five threads each, as there are seven changes to be made. The first five ends are left as they are, and a dot is added to each one in the second division, two dots are added to each in the third division, and so on, until the float of seven is reached at the right-hand side of the stripe.

In a five-shaft satin there are only four possible changes, and therefore this is not of much use for figured design in cotton goods. The larger satins, such as eight, ten, and twelve-shaft satins, are most useful for this purpose.

Twills may be shaded in the same manner as satins by gradually adding to the float of a warp twill until a weft twill is reached.

Satin figures are somewhat flat and indistinct when woven with grey warp and weft, and therefore in cotton fabrics the figures are more often developed in twill or fancy weaves of a bold character, unless coloured yarns are used. The best effect is obtained when a number of different weaves are employed in developing a design; the variety in itself prevents any appearance of flatness, which a design developed entirely in satin or twill possesses, and the weaves may be selected so as to suggest the beauties of the flower, leaf, or other object which forms the basis of the design.

The object of the designer need not be to render a direct imitation of nature; but there is no reason why a textile designer should not use the power at his disposal of suggesting the surface appearance, or the beauties, or characteristics of the object which forms the subject of the design.

A portion of a design developed in a variety of weaves is given at [Fig. 382]. The combination of the solid weft mixed fancy weaves gives a good effect.

In designs of the more conventional kind the outline of the figure may be solid weft float, and the inside any other weave that fancy may suggest.

FIG. 382.

If the figures are formed from extra warp or weft, the same principles of development will apply. Any variety of light and shade can be obtained, and bold effects may be produced by twilling, or subdued effects by interweaving the threads more closely and in satin order.

Sizes of Patterns, and Casting Out.—The Jacquard machine most generally used in the cotton trade is a 400’s, which weaves a design made on 400 ends or warp threads in a “repeat.” If the harness is tied up to the 400 neck cords, and the warp drawn through every mail in the harness, the designs made for this loom must either be on 400 ends or on a number of ends which is a measure of 400. Thus a 400’s harness will weave the following sizes of patterns:—

One

pattern to

400,

or

400

end pattern

Two

patterns to

400,

„

200

„

Four

„

400,

„

100

„

Five

„

400,

„

80

„

Eight

„

400,

„

50

„

Ten

„

400,

„

40

„

and so on.

If it is required to make a design with three patterns to the four hundred ends, the design must be made three times over, two patterns occupying 133 ends each, and the other pattern occupying 134 ends to make up the 400 ends.

A design six patterns to the four hundred may be made by designing four patterns on sixty-seven ends each and two patterns on sixty-six ends each, and other sizes not exactly divisible into the four hundred may be made to come in on the same principle.

In designing for Jacquard weaving care must be taken that the ground weave will divide exactly into the number of ends in the harness, otherwise the pattern will be broken. Sometimes the figure will allow of the ground being broken at some point or other without the break being visible. Such opportunity occurs where the ground narrows down to a fine point; but in ordinary cases, where it is necessary to make a design with a ground weave repeating on a number not a measure of 400, some of the mails must be “cast-out.”

For example, if the ground weave is required to be a 12 × 12 honeycomb, as it will not divide equally into 400, but will divide into 396, the design may be made on this number, and four mails in the harness left empty.

Casting out is also resorted to when it is required to reduce the fineness of the reed. For instance, if one-eighth of a 400’s harness be cast out, there will be 50 ends less per pattern, and if the pattern measures four inches, the reed would be reduced from a 100’s to an 87’s.

FIG. 383.

If several rows are cast out, it is best to leave them out in two places; usually one-half is left out in the first half of the machine, and the remainder in the second half.

In designing for a machine which is “cast out,” it is necessary to know in which part of the machine the ends are cast out, so that the design may be made to tie up properly, and that proper instructions may be given to the card-cutter.

Striped Designs.—Striped fabrics are always largely made for dress goods and other purposes. An endless variety of styles may be made by combining stripes of any two contrasting weaves. If the weaves are combined for dobby weaving, care must be taken that too many shafts are not required for the value of the effect obtained, but if intended for Jacquard weaving, the stripes may be figured as desired.

Some of the most effective combined styles are made of satin and leno in various forms and proportions. If for dobby weaving, the designs may be spotted to come in on a reasonable number of shafts, but if for the Jacquard, the satin is figured. The satin stripes are usually crammed—that is, there are more ends in each dent of the reed in the satin than in the other part of the fabric. [Fig. 383] is a stripe design, composed of alternate stripes of figured satin and “5 and 1” lace or mock leno. The reeding plan for this fabric will be as follows:—

Reeding Plan for [Fig. 383].

48 ends satin, 4 in a dent				=	12	dents
5 ends	1 dent		three times	=	12	dents
Skip	1 dent
1 end	1 dent
Skip	1 dent
5 ends	1 dent			=	1	dent
					25	dents in pattern.

This system of reeding the open work is the best for obtaining an open effect, as pointed out in a previous chapter. Twenty-five dents are occupied in reeding each pattern of seventy-one ends, and assuming the harness to have one hundred threads per inch, the reed required to keep the cloth the same width in the reed as in the harness will be—

71 : 100

The reed required is one with 35·2 dents per inch, or a 70’s “Stockport” reed would be used. This calculation is for a complete number of patterns, and does not allow anything for balancing the piece by having a satin stripe at both sides, as is often the case.

In figured stripe designs the general effect is much improved by placing the figure in different positions on each stripe in the 400 ends. If there are four figured stripes in the 400 ends, and the figure repeats on 100 picks, the figure may be placed in four different positions, moving twenty-five picks each time, in which case it would have to be designed on 400 ends; or in two different positions, in which case it would be designed on 200 ends. The object of this distribution is to prevent the figure appearing in rows across the piece.

Figured Diagonals.—As previously explained, striped designs are complete on the lowest number of picks into which all different weaves in the design will divide without remainder. In figured diagonals the design is complete on the first number that the diagonal and figure or figures counted diagonally will divide into without remainder. Thus, in [Fig. 384] the design is complete on 48 picks, because the diagonal repeats on 24 picks and the figure repeats on 16 picks, and the L.C.M. of 24 and 16 is 48; therefore this is the number of picks to which the design must be carried before it is complete.

FIG. 384.

Selection of Point Paper.—Point paper is divided into small squares to represent the ends and picks, and if the designs are for a 300’s or 400’s Jacquard a thick line is required every eight in the warp direction to mark off the number of rows of eight needles in the machine. In 100’s Jacquards the needles are placed in 25 rows of four needles in a row; in 200’s the needles are in 25 rows of eight needles, in 400’s there are 50 rows of eight needles, and in 600’s there are twelve needles in a row. The design on point paper must be divided by a thick line to mark off the number of needles in a row; in a 400’s machine this is always eight, in 600’s machines it is always twelve.

If the paper has a thick line every eight in the picks as well as in the warp it is called “8 × 8,” and a design made on this paper will be proportionately the same if woven into cloth with the same number of ends as picks per inch.

If it is desired to make a design for a fabric with 96 ends per inch and 60 picks per inch for a machine with eight needles in a row, the paper required to keep the figure of the same proportions as it will appear in the cloth will be 8 × 5.

96 : 60

If the design is intended for a 600’s machine, the paper must be 12 × (x). If the cloth is to have 96 ends per inch and 120 picks per inch in a 600’s machine, the paper required would be 12 × 15.

96 : 120

In selecting paper for a figured crammed stripe design, a rather more complicated calculation is necessary. It is necessary to obtain the number of ends per inch in the figured stripe, thus:—If the satin is figured in a stripe

	96 ends, 4 in a dent, satin
	50 ends, 2 in a dent, plain

woven in a harness 100 ends per inch, and the same width in the reed as in the harness, the ends per inch can be obtained as follows:—

96

ends, 4 in a dent

=

24

dents

50

ends, 2 in a dent

=

25

dents

146

ends.

49

dents.

If 49 dents are required for 146 ends, the number of dents per inch in the reed will be—

146 : 100

If the reed used is one with 33½ dents per inch and the satin is four ends in a dent, there will be 33½ × 4 = 134 ends per inch in the satin; and if there are to be 100 picks per inch in the cloth, the paper required to keep the figure proportionate would be for a 400’s machine, 134 : 100

Therefore the paper required is 8 × 6.

It is not at all necessary to use point paper ruled exactly in proportion to the warp and weft, as the design can easily be elongated or otherwise. It is only necessary to rule the sketch into squares, representing a certain number of ends and picks, and to mark off the point paper accordingly.

Designs for Split Harness.—In designing for the split harness, [Fig. 124], no ground dots are required on the design, as the shafts under the comber-board which are lifted by the spare hooks weave the ground pattern. The design is simply coloured in, and the binding dots put on the figure only.

In a double-scale split harness every hook lifted takes up two ends, and thus the bindings in the figure will appear in twos, and will therefore appear rather coarse. In the ground every end is woven separately by the shafts, and these will require to be lifted to give the required ground weave. All that is required, therefore, is to put the lifting dots on the point paper in the position required to operate the hooks which lift the shafts. Except for the limit with regard to the ground weave, designs for the split harness are prepared in the same manner as for an ordinary harness.

Pressure Harness Designs.—In designs for the pressure harness no binding dots are required on the point paper in either the figure or ground, as the shafts or “pressure healds” in front of the harness do all the binding.

This harness is chiefly used in fine goods. Several warp threads are drawn through each mail in the harness, and afterwards woven singly by the pressure healds in front.

The edges of the figure are stepped according to the number of ends in each mail.

The structure of a pressure harness damask fabric, woven six ends in a mail with eight shaft satin bindings, is shown at [Fig. 385]. Of course it is not necessary to make the design on point paper in this manner; all that is necessary is to sketch the figure and colour it in where the warp satin is required. All the binding is done by the pressure healds, as explained with [Fig. 125].

FIG. 385.

Designs woven with this harness have always a flat appearance, but this is suitable for hangings, for which the harness is chiefly used.

A considerable number of weaves may be employed in binding the ground or figure. Any two weaves can be used in conjunction for the ground and figure which do not interfere with each other in the working.

FIG. 386.

FIG. 387.

FIG. 388.

In addition to simple satin and twill weaves, Figs. [386] and [387] can be used in conjunction, the figure being woven to either pattern. [Fig. 388] will show that the two weaves do not interfere with each other—that is, an end is never required to be lifted and left down at the same time.

Figs. [389] and [390] can be used together, one forming the figure and the other the ground.

The best way of compiling weaves to give variety to pressure harness fabrics is to put the satin clots on paper first, and then to arrange a pattern to fit in the empty squares.

FIG. 389.

FIG. 390.

FIG. 391.

Designing for Edleston’s Harness.—When designing for the patent harness, illustrated at [Fig. 129], the sketch is put on point paper in the ordinary manner, but it must be remembered in doing so that the figure when woven will be on double the number of ends which it apparently occupies on point paper.

FIG. 392.

If the spot shown at [Fig. 391] is put on point paper and woven in this harness the effect shown at [Fig. 392] will be obtained in the cloth. The number of ends between the spots would only be nine on paper to give the eighteen in the cloth.

It was pointed out in explaining the structure of this harness that a weft figure could not be put upon a warp ground, as it is obvious that not more than half the warp can be lifted at once, and the figure must therefore be obtained by leaving the warp down. The designs are confined to plain grounds, or weft figures may be thrown on weft satin grounds, and twill or cord grounds may with advantage be used. The method of putting eight-end satin on point paper is given at [Fig. 130]. The principle of putting on paper any weave possible on this harness will be understood by referring to the explanation given with the illustration of the harness.

Figured Lenos.—Some of the most beautiful of all fabrics are made with the leno harness, the combination of plain or floated figures with the open and firm leno ground giving a fabric which is both serviceable and effective. The structure of the harness has already been explained with [Fig. 145], and it has been shown how “four and four” leno and a plain or floated weave can be combined.

FIG. 393.

The method of putting the design on point paper for a figured leno harness with 500 needles and 600 hooks (see [Fig. 145]) will be understood from [Fig. 393]. This is a small portion of a design which includes “four and four” leno, plain, and floated weft or warp. The solid squares show the crossing threads lifted by the ground harness, and the circles show the same ends lifted by the doup. There will thus be four ends in a dent and four picks in a shed in the leno, and when these are woven plain the contrast is very effective.

Two colours are necessary for putting the design on paper, and in cutting the cards from the design the solid squares in the leno portion will be cut opposite the third and fourth or seventh and eighth needles in the ground set, whilst the circles in the design which show where the doups are to be lifted will be cut opposite either the first or tenth row of needles. In a ground weave of this kind both doups are never lifted together, as the weave is easier when they are lifted separately.

Some beautiful striped designs are made by using thick whip threads to give a lace effect, and various fancy leno weaves can be made and employed for giving variety to the effect.

If there are more than four picks in a shed on the leno it is often necessary to lift one of the crossing ends when the standard ends are lifting in order to prevent the threads from “slipping” or “fraying.”

FIG. 394.

[Fig. 394] will give a well-known two-doup effect, and other patterns may be devised quite easily, the power of the harness being practically unlimited.

Sometimes leno figures are woven on plain grounds, but the opposite is the general rule. Floated figures are not much used, as the contrast of the plain and leno is very effective, and is more serviceable than a loose figure.

A very fair imitation of a four in a dent figured leno can be made by using one doup stave in front of an ordinary Jacquard harness, and crossing one end under three. By lifting the doup every other pick a plain figure can be woven on the leno ground, one crossing three, on the principle explained with [Fig. 144].

FIG. 395.

Toiletings.—In toilet quilts a raised plain figure is formed by an extra warp from a separate beam interweaving with the plain cloth where the ground of the design is required. [Fig. 395] is a portion of a design for a cloth of this kind. Every third end is an “extra” end, and where the raised figure is required these ends are left down, but where the ground of the design is required the extra ends interweave with the plain cloth and bind it down. The tension of the extra warp causes the figure to stick up more than would otherwise be the case. The principle can be made to give innumerable effects by different methods of introducing the extra warp, but the ends must not be left out of the cloth for too long together, or they would be too loose at the back and would be likely to catch. [Fig. 396] is a section showing the binding of the extra warp into the plain figuring cloth.

FIG. 396.

The principle is well adapted for the production of large figures such as are required on quilts and similar fabrics, owing to the fact that only one-third of the warp threads are required to pass through the Jacquard harness; the plain ends can be lifted by shafts.

In the better classes of toiletings two shuttles are used, and the extra ends are woven plain at the back instead of hanging loose. The principle is otherwise the same as in a one-shuttle toileting.

FIG. 397.

In some quilts a padding weft is inserted between the face and back cloth on the principle explained in Figs. [326]–[328]. “Marseilles” quilts are made in this manner. [Fig. 397] will show how a padded figure is formed, the dots represent the weft, and the principle of forming the figure is the same as in Figs. [326] and [328].

When the padding picks are being put in, the face cloth is all lifted, and the back cloth left down.

There are various other makes of quilts, of which the “Mitcheline” type is extensively manufactured. These fabrics are characterized by a raised figure of coarse texture upon a ground of comparatively fine texture. [Fig. 398] shows how this is effected.

FIG. 398.

Two systems each of warp and weft are used, the warp being drawn in the harness and reed as follows:—

one face end fine counts: (say white)

two figuring ends medium counts: (say brown).

The order of picking is—

two coarse figuring picks (white)

two fine ground picks (brown).

Two plain cloths are woven, one being white and the other brown, and these are made to change places so as to form the desired figure in the manner shown in [Fig. 398].

The two cloths are bound together in both the figure and the ground. When the white cloth is at the top, as in the first part of [Fig. 398], a ground pick is passed over a white face end under the float which follows, and the binding is perfectly hidden. When the brown cloth is at the top a white end is lifted, and as this is of a fine count and the brown warp threads are rather closely set to the reed, the binding is obscured.

A portion of a design of this weave is given at [Fig. 399], the structure of which will repay careful study along with the section at [Fig. 398].

Twilled cloths are sometimes used for figuring on this double cloth principle, and the binding can be much more easily effected, although the weave is more expensive than double plain, if the same firmness is desired. [Fig. 400] is a section showing how the figure can be formed from two twill cloths, and how the binding can be best effected. The cloths in this example are of equal fineness.

REFERENCE.

= White face warp-ends raised above coarse white figuring picks.

= Brown figuring warp-ends raised above fine brown ground picks.

= White face warp-ends raised above fine brown ground picks, in the figure.

= Brown figuring warp-ends raised above coarse white figuring picks.

= White face warp-ends raised above fine brown ground picks, in the ground.

FIG. 399.

FIG. 400.

[Fig. 401] is a design for this fabric, showing a small portion of both ground and figure. The cloths are bound together once in every eight threads.

FIG. 401.

Figured Weft Pile Velvets.—When figuring with weft and pile, the chief difficulty is the cutting of the fabric after weaving, owing to the difficulty of keeping the knife-guide in the race when passing from one portion of the figure to another across the ground.

A considerable quantity of fabrics had been made with velvet cord figures—which are easy enough to cut—before it was found possible to cut the real velvet figure. This was rendered possible by throwing the short floats of pile weft to the back of the cloth at the edges of the figure, and always moving in steps or races at the edges of the figure, and in addition to this always keeping the end upon which the knife runs, to the inside of each step. By throwing out the short floats the chief difficulty was overcome, as the obstruction caused by these was the chief cause of the knife and guide being thrown out when cutting. These improvements were simultaneously devised by the writer and Mr. T. Anderson, of Wyke, and a large quantity of cloth was turned out a few years ago, but owing to the cottony appearance of the ground the demand quickly fell away.

FIG. 402.

Two large manufacturers took out a patent to include all figured weft pile fabrics, but a thorough search could not have been made, as the writer recently came across a heap of patterns woven on the same principle, including the stepping in races, and also with a coloured extra warp ground, which had been made at least before the year 1870.

The method of putting the designs on point paper is shown at [Fig. 402]. The weave generally used is an ordinary E1 velvet with about 400 picks per inch, woven in an 80 reed 2-60’s twist, 70’s weft. It will be seen that the figure steps in twos at the edges, and that all floats less than five are thrown to the back of the cloth by the small dots in the design. The blanks represent the weft on the face, and the inside of the step or race is arranged to come on the third, fifth, seventh ends, and so on, these being the ends along which the knife runs. Where a turn is made in the figure it must be on an odd number of ends in order to keep the race in this position.

Other systems of making figured weft pile fabrics have been tried. One of these was to use an extra warp at the back for binding the pile picks where the ground is required, and binding the picks where the figure is required, to the ordinary warp. When the pile is cut the extra warp is torn away, pulling the pile with it where the ground of the pattern occurs.

Another method is to weave the figure fast pile, and the ground loose pile, and to brush the loose pile away at the back.

Velvet and leno stripes have been woven. As velvet requires a large number of picks and leno a small number, there is a difficulty in cutting the picks at the back of the leno stripe away. This can be overcome by interweaving the picks to be taken away at the back of the leno with some extra ends, and when the velvet stripe is cut, the back cloth can be torn away quite easily.

Solid Coloured Borders.—In some fabrics, such as dhooties, the borders are sometimes made with coloured warp and weft, and the middle of the piece with white or grey yarns. The method of obtaining the solid border is rather ingenious, and is as follows.

A coloured end is placed at each side of the warp, and this thread hangs loose from the bobbin, so that not much force is required to pull the thread into the border. The warp ends forming the border are on separate staves from the ground ends, and lift so as to allow two picks to go through each shed while the middle weaves ordinary plain cloth.

The coloured end A ([Fig. 403]) is lifted every other pick, and the shuttle containing the white weft will pass round it, and as the shed is not changed in the border ends, the coloured thread is taken into the border, thus forming a solid coloured border on an ordinary grey or white cloth. In the border, there will be two picks in a shed.

FIG. 403.

FIG. 404.

The point paper plan showing the difference in the shedding between the border and the middle is given at [Fig. 404]. The coloured thread from the bottom may be lifted by the plain staves.

Direction of the Twist in Yarns.—Warp yarns are usually twisted so as to show the lines of the twist from right to left, and weft yarns are twisted in the opposite direction. The reason for this is that when the yarns are woven into cloth the lines of both warp and weft run in the same direction, and the threads become embedded together as closely as possible through the strands falling into each other. This is shown at [Fig. 405], where at A and B the warp and weft yarns are shown laid side by side. At C the same yarns are shown as laid in the cloth, when it will be seen that the lines of twist appear in the same direction, and the threads have thus a chance of getting together as closely as possible.

If the weft is spun in the same direction as the warp, or “twist way,” as it is termed, when woven the lines or strands appear in opposite directions, and each thread has a tendency to be kept apart from the others, and appears separately. This, if anything, makes the cloth feel slightly thicker, and is preferred by many for certain purposes, including some classes of printing cloths. The finer appearance is obtained by the yarns spun in opposite directions.

FIG. 405.

FIG. 406.

In twill and satin cloths, and similar fabrics, the direction of the twist has a very important bearing upon the appearance of the fabric.

The finest and closest effect is obtained by using warp and weft yarns spun in opposite directions, so that when woven the lines appear in the same direction, and the direction of the twill should be opposite to both. This is why one side of a twill cloth has a finer appearance than the other, as the twill runs against the lines on one side, and with the lines on the other side of the cloth, the former having the finer appearance. [Fig. 406] shows the yarns spun oppositely, and the twill running in a direction opposite to the lines.

In sateen cloths there is a kind of twill in one direction, as shown in [Fig. 407], and the above principle applies to this as well as regular twills.

FIG. 407.

It often occurs that for printing and dyeing purposes the weft is preferred spun “twist way,” and as the weft greatly predominates over the warp, the direction of the twill should be contrary to the lines of the weft. Not much difference is noticeable in the better makes of cloth, but when there are few picks, a frayed appearance is often produced if the direction of the twill is not reversed.

To keep the twill in a given direction, the twist may be spun “weft way” to give the desired effect.

In very small twills, such as Jeannettes, a more decided twill is obtained by using weft spun in the same way as the twist or warp yarns, but in larger twills the best effect is obtained in the opposite manner.

CHAPTER XII
TEXTILE CALCULATIONS

THE numbers of cotton yarns are based upon the hank of 840 yards, the number of hanks in 1 lb. being the “counts.”

It follows that if 840—the yards in one hank—be multiplied by the counts, the result will be the yards in 1 lb. of that count.

Thus in 1 lb. of 30’s yarn there will be 840 × 30 = 25,200 yards, and the yards in a pound of any count may be found in the same manner.

The counts of worsted yarns are based upon a hank of 560 yards, and the number of hanks in 1 lb. Avoirdupois is the count of the yarn.

Linen yarns are based on a hank or lea of 300 yards, and the number of these in 1 lb. is the count of the yarn.

Spun silk, which is the silk chiefly used in cotton fabrics for stripes and headings, is numbered on the same system as cotton yarns. The number of hanks of 840 yards in 1 lb. is the count of the yarn.

Net silks or thrown silks are numbered on an altogether different system. The “skein” or hank is 520 yards, and the number of deniers—533⅓ deniers = 1 oz.—which a skein weighs indicates the number of the yarn. In silk manufacture the number of the yarn is called the “size,” the word “count” being used to denote the closeness of the reed.

Another system is used for silk yarns called the Manchester scale. This is based upon the hank of 1,000 yards.

The number of drams which one such hank weighs is the “size” or number of the yarn or thread.

In the former scale the yards per ounce may be found by multiplying the yards in a hank by the deniers in one ounce, and dividing by the number of deniers which a hank weighs.

The yards in an ounce of 40 denier silk will be—

deniers per oz.   yards in skein

533⅓ × 52040 deniers =

6933⅓ yards per oz.

In the Manchester silk scale the yards per ounce of a 4 dram silk may be found by multiplying 1,000, the yards in a hank, by 16, the drams in an ounce, and dividing by the number of drams which the hank weighs, viz. 4; thus—

1000 × 164 = 4000 yards per oz.

Twofold Yarns in cotton, worsted, and linen are numbered according to the count of the single yarn, with the number of folds put before it. Thus a 2-40’s yarn means that the yarn is composed of two threads of 40’s single, making a twofold yarn of 20 hanks to the pound.

In spun silk the yarns are nearly always two or more fold, and the number of the yarn always indicates the number of hanks in 1 lb. The number of folds is usually written after the hanks per pound. Thus, 40’s-2 spun silk indicates that the yarn is 40 hanks to the pound, made up of two threads of 80’s single.

It sometimes occurs in fancy yarns that threads of unequal thickness are twisted together. If a 60’s thread and a 40’s thread are twisted together, the count of the doubled thread will not be the same as if two threads of 50 hanks to the pound, but will be something less than this.

It is obvious that when the two threads are twisted together the weight of a hank of the doubled thread will be 1/60 + 1/40 of a pound, and by adding these fractions together the counts of the twofold yarn may be obtained. Thus—

140 + 160 = 3 + 2120 = 5120 = 24’s counts.

Another method of obtaining the same result is to multiply the two numbers together, and add them together, and divide one result by the other. Thus—

60

60

40

40

100

)

2400

(24’s counts.

2400

If three or more unequal threads are twisted together the counts of the resulting thread may be found by adding the fractions of a pound which a hank of each count represents.

Example.—Find the counts of a threefold thread composed of one thread each of 10’s, 20’s and 60’s cotton.

110 + 120 + 160 = 6 + 3 +160 = 1060 = 16 or 6’s counts.

Some allowance must be made for the twisting of the threads, but this will vary with the number of turns per inch in the yarn, and so is not taken into account in the example.

If it is required to obtain the weight of each count in 100 lbs. of the threefold yarn, the following is the method.

As one count is to the resulting count, so is the total weight to the weight required of that yarn—

10 : 6

60

lbs. of

10’s

20 : 6

30

lbs. of

20’s

60 : 6

10

lbs. of

60’s

100

lbs.

Total.

Reeds and Setts.—The system of numbering reeds, now almost universal in the cotton trade, is known as the Stockport or Manchester count. The number of dents or splits per inch in the reed with two ends in each dent is the basis of the system. If the reed has 30 dents per inch, it is called a 60 reed, because if there are two ends in a dent in the 30 dents there will be 60 ends per inch. The number of the reed is always the same as the ends per inch in the reed, if the ends are all two in a dent.

A 60 reed Stockport counts, if reeded three ends in a dent, will have 90 ends per inch, because a 60 reed has 30 dents per inch, and if there are three in a dent, there will be 30 × 3 = 90 ends per inch.

Various other systems have been used, but are gradually giving way to the simpler Stockport or Manchester system. Some of these are—

The Bolton count, in which the number of “beers” of 40 ends, or 20 dents, in 24¼ inches is the basis of the system.

The Blackburn count, in which the number of beers in 45 inches was the basis. The beer, as above, being 20 dents, representing 40 ends in a beer.

The Preston count was based on the number of beers in different widths.

The 6-4 count was based on the number of beers of 20 dents—representing 40 ends—in 58 inches.

The 9-8’s count was based on the number of beers in 44 inches.

The 4-4’s count was based on the beers in 39 inches.

The 7-8’s count was based on the beers in 34 inches.

The Scotch system is based on the number of dents in 37 inches. Thus in a 2000 reed there will be 2000 dents in 37 inches, representing 4000 ends in that space.

The Bradford system is based on the number of beers of 40 ends in 36 inches. If there are 50 times 40 ends in 36 inches, it is a “50 sett.”

To find the number of ends per inch in a given sett, it is necessary to multiply the sett by 40 and divide by 36, thus—

50 sett × 4036 = 552036 ends per inch.

Quantity of Material in a Piece.—To find the weight of warp and weft of given counts in a piece, the total length of yarn in the piece may be found, and divided by the yards in 1 lb. of the counts of yarn used. This will give the weight in pounds. The following example will make the principle quite clear:—

Example.—Find the weight of warp and weft in a piece woven 30 inches wide in a 70 reed (Stockport) cloth 90 yards long, from 95 yards of warp, 80 picks per inch, the counts of twist or warp being 30’s, and counts of weft 40’s.

If the piece is 90 yards long, the length of warp used will be somewhat in excess of this, as the warp in interlacing with the weft is bent out of a straight line. The amount of “milling up,” as it is called, varies according to the number of intersections in the pattern or weave of the cloth, and with the counts of yarn used. It will also vary considerably according to the elasticity of the yarn. Twofold yarns are more elastic than single, and therefore will require a shorter length of yarn for a given length of cloth.

In this example 95 yards of warp are used to weave a 90-yards piece, an allowance of a little over 5 per cent.

In making the calculation for the weft it is necessary to take the width in the reed, as this length of weft is used every pick. The cloth will contract a little owing to the pull of the threads when woven, and when calculating for a given width of cloth care must be taken to calculate for the reed width and not the cloth width only.

In the present example the width in the reed is given, and so the cloth will be somewhat narrower than this when woven.

TO FIND WEIGHT OF WARP.

840

yards in 1 hank

70

ends per inch

30

counts

30

inches in reed

25200

yards in 1 lb.

2100

ends in warp

95

yards long

10500

18900

199500

yards of twist in piece.

yards

Therefore, weight of warp =

19950025200

= 7 lbs. 14⅔ oz.

yds. in 1 lb.

TO FIND WEIGHT OF WEFT.

840

yards in 1 hank

80

picks per inch

40

30

inches in reed

33600

yards in 1 lb.

2400

inches of weft in 1 inch of cloth

36

inches in 1 yard

14400

7200

36)

86400

inches of weft in 1 yard of cloth

2400

yards of weft in 1 yard of cloth

90

yards length of piece

216000

yards of weft in piece.

Therefore, weight of weft = 21600033600 = 6 lbs. 66⁄7 oz.

Weight of weft = 6 lbs. 66⁄7 oz.

Weight of warp = 7 lbs. 14⅔ oz.

In the weft calculation, the picks per inch multiplied by the width in the reed in inches gives the inches of weft in one inch of cloth. This multiplied by 36 will give the inches of weft in one yard of cloth, and divided by 36, this gives the yards of weft in one yard of cloth. The two 36’s may be left out, as it is obvious that the yards of weft in a yard of cloth are the same as the inches of weft in an inch of cloth. The formula to calculate the weight of warp in a piece is as follows:—

Inches in reed × length of warp in yards × ends per inch in reed840 × counts
= weight of warp.

The formula for the weft is—

Inches in reed × length of piece in yards × picks per inch840 × counts
= weight of weft.

Working out the previous calculation in this manner, we get—

30 × 95 × 70840 × 30 = 7 lbs. 14⅔ oz. of warp.

30 × 90 × 80840 × 40 = 6 lbs. 66⁄7 oz. of weft.

If it is required to find the number of hanks, it is only necessary to leave out the counts in the above formulæ. Thus we get—

Inches wide × length × ends per inch840 = hanks,

and using the figures in the previous example—

30 × 95 × 70840 = 237½ hanks of warp.

Before the actual cost of a piece of cloth can be calculated, it is necessary to know the price to be paid the weaver. In Lancashire the payment is made according to the list agreed upon by both employers and employed. For plain cloths and twills a new uniform list has been agreed upon, and this is now generally accepted. The following is the new list:—