An Illustrated Dictionary of Words used in Art and Archaeology / Explaining terms frequently used in works on architecture, arms, bronzes, Christian art, colour, costume, decoration, devices, emblems, heraldry, lace, personal ornaments, pottery, painting, sculpture, &c., with their derivations.

by John W. Mollett

PREFACE.

This Dictionary was commenced as an amended edition of that written by M. Ernest Bosc, architect of Paris, and contains the 450 engravings published in the French work, to which about 250 more have been added. Little or nothing, however, of the text of M. Bosc’s work has been left standing; his definitions having, in the process of revision under reference to original works, almost entirely disappeared. The whole work, as it now stands, has been drawn from, or carefully corrected by, the best authorities in each of its special branches. Considerable prominence has been given to Architecture, from the French original corrected from English writers; to Christian Antiquities from Martigny, and the Dictionary of Dr. Smith and Professor Cheetham, and other authorities; to Mediæval Armour, and terms of Chivalry, chiefly from Meyrick’s Ancient Armour; to Costume from Planché and Fairholt; to Heraldry from Boutell’s and Mrs. Bury Palliser’s works; to Pottery, the substance of the articles on this subject being derived from M. Jacquemart’s work; to Needlework, Ivories, Musical Instruments, Goldsmiths’ Work, Painters’ Materials and Processes Ancient and Modern, Colour, &c., with references to the several authorities referred to.

The Greek and Roman Antiquities, which are the principal part of M. Bosc’s work, have been in this volume reduced to the smallest possible compass: the Dictionaries of Dr. Smith and Rich must be referred to by those who require fuller definitions upon this subject, which would of itself fill ten such books as the present.

A few Indian, Chinese, and Japanese Terms, which have come into ordinary use in art, have been sought out and inserted: in the first-mentioned Dr. Birdwood’s Handbooks have been a most useful guide. Finally, it is necessary to state, that many words essential to the completeness of the work would have been in danger of omission, if I had not had before me Mr. Fairholt’s admirable Dictionary of Art Terms, which, occupying a more restricted ground than this, is so thorough and accurate in dealing with all that it professes to include, that the only raison d’être of this work is the very much wider and different ground that it covers, and the greater condensation of its definitions. Obviously the substance of every statement in the work is borrowed from some previous writer on the subject, and it is evident that a Dictionary of Reference is not a convenient vehicle for theory or invention.

The appended list of Classified Catalogues which have been prepared by direction of the authorities of the South Kensington Museum, will have the additional use of referring the reader to the fountain-head at which he can verify and amplify the condensed information that this work supplies.

J. W. MOLLETT.

October, 1882.

CLASSIFIED CATALOGUES OF BOOKS ON ART

IN THE

NATIONAL ART LIBRARY, SOUTH KENSINGTON MUSEUM.

ISSUED BY AUTHORITY.

List of Works on Costume, 1s.; Furniture, 1d.; Heraldry, 3d.; Lace and Needlework, 1d.; Ornament, 6d.; Painting, 4d.; Pottery and Porcelain, 3d.; Sculpture, 3d.

These Catalogues may be had on application to the Secretary of the Science and Art Department, South Kensington, S.W.

ILLUSTRATED DICTIONARY OF WORDS
USED IN
ART AND ARCHÆOLOGY.

Abbreviations—Arch. Architectural; Chr. Christian; Egyp. Egyptian; Fr. French; Gr. Greek; Her. Heraldic; It. Italian; Lat. Latin; Med. Mediæval; O. E. Old English; Orient. Oriental; R. Roman.

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Aar or Aarou, Egyp. A plain in a supra-terrestrial region, which corresponded, with the Egyptians, to the Elysian Fields of the Greeks and the Asgard of Scandinavian mythology.

Fig. 1. Abaculi used as pavement.

Abaculus, Gr. and R. (a diminutive of abacus, q.v.). A small square or cube of glass, or some vitreous composition made to imitate stone or glass of various colours. Abaculi were employed for the inlaid-work of pavements, or the incrustations of mosaic.

Abacus, Gr. and R. (ἄβαξ, a slab or board). 1. In general a rectangular slab of stone, marble, or terra-cotta. 2. A board or tray used in arithmetical calculations, and constructed for reckoning by tens. 3. A play-board divided into compartments, a kind of backgammon in use in antiquity. The same term was also applied to a board used for another game of skill, the ludus latrunculorum, which was more like our chess. 4. A side-board on which were displayed, in the triclinium, or dining-room, silver plate and other table utensils. 5. A slab of marble, used for a coating in the decoration of a room or apartment of any kind. 6. A square slab of terra-cotta or wood, placed by the earliest builders at the top of wooden columns, in order to give them a broader head, and so afford a better support to the beams which rested on them. It was this motive that gave rise to the formation of the abacus of the capital of a column.

Abaton or Abatos, Gr. (α, βᾰτὸς, inaccessible). A term used generally to denote any inaccessible place, such as the cella of a temple, an adytum from which the profane were excluded. The term Abaton denoted more particularly a building in the city of Rhodes, which contained, together with two statues in bronze, a trophy commemorating a victory gained over the Rhodians. This memorial had been placed in the building by queen Artemisia, who had consecrated it to a divinity. To destroy it would have been a sacrilege, and as no one could be allowed to penetrate into the interior of the Abaton, without the defeat of the Rhodians becoming known, all access to it was forbidden.

Abezzo, Olio di, It. Strasburg Turpentine (q.v.).

Fig. 2. Ewer for ablutions (Persian).

Ablutions, Chr. There were various ablutions: that of the head (capitilavium), as a preparation for unction in baptism; that of the hands (aquamanile), during Mass, &c.; that of the feet (pedilavium), including the ceremony of washing the feet of the poor, performed on Maundy Thursday, by the Pope. (Fig. [2].)

Abococke, Med. Cap of estate, worn by kings on their helmets: “a huge cappe of estate, called Abococke, garnished with two rich crownes;” 15th century.

Fig. 3. A Lictor with the fasces, wearing the abolla.

Abolla, Gr. and R. (ἀναβολὴ, a throwing back and around). A cloak made of a piece of cloth folded double and fastened round the throat by a brooch. Abolla major was the name given to the ample blanket in which the Greek philosophers were accustomed to wrap themselves. This cloak was adopted by the philosophers as an instance of their humility, because it was mostly worn by the poorer classes at Rome. Fig. [3] is a representation of one of the lictors, with his fasces on his shoulder, and wearing the abolla.

Abraxas, Gr. (a mystical or cabalistic word formed of the Greek letters α, β, ρ, α, ξ, α, ς). Cut stones or gems of very various shapes, upon which are engraved the words Abraxas, Abrasax. They are also known as Basilidian stones or gems, because they constituted the symbols of the gnostic sect of the Basilidians. Certain peoples looked upon them as magic amulets against particular maladies and demoniacal influences. The impressions on these stones are very varied; cabalistic figures, the signs Α and Ω, and the word ΙΑΩ, which designates the Supreme Being. Numerous explanations have been sought for this term abraxas; some philologists assert that it comes from the Persian [or Pehlvi], and that it signifies Mithra; others derive it from the Hebrew, or the Coptic, while others again recognize in it only a numerical sign, the letters of which, added together, would give the number 365, or the number of days that make up the year, and in this case abraxas would symbolize the annual revolution of the sun. A figure often found upon Abraxas stones is that of a serpent with a radiated lion’s head (Chnouphis), which rears itself amid seven stars. The reverse of these stones often bears the inscription ΤΩ ΧΝΟΥΦΙ, “To Chnouphis.”

Absidiole. Diminutive of apse, and thus used to denote a small apse terminating a lateral nave, while the apse closes the central or chief nave. (See Absis.)

Absis or Apse, R. (ἁψὶς, a bow or vault). Any enclosure of semicircular form terminating a room, hall, &c. There was an absis in the Basilica (q.v.), or court of justice, and it was in the semicircular recess thus formed that the judges’ seats were placed. Many temples also had an absis attached to them, and there is one in particular of this description well known to all archæologists. This is the absis of the temple of Venus at Rome, which was built by the emperor architect Hadrian. (See Apse.)

Abutment, Arch. called also Impost. The solid part of a pier from which an arch immediately springs.

Abydos, Tablets of, Egyp. Under this term are designated two hieroglyphic inscriptions containing the names of Egyptian kings. These tablets were graven upon the walls of a cella in a small temple at Abydos, in Upper Egypt; hence their name. The first tablet, the beginning of which was destroyed at the time of its discovery, contains the names of the kings of the twelfth and eighteenth dynasties; this inscription was discovered in 1817 or 1818 by J. W. Bankes, and drawn by Caillund in 1832; it had been taken down from the wall of the temple by Mimaut, the French consul at Alexandria. It is now at the British Museum. The second tablet, which begins with Menes, who is generally supposed to have been one of the first kings of Egypt, contains a complete list of the two first dynasties, as well as a great number of names belonging to kings of the third, fourth, fifth, sixth, ninth, tenth, and eleventh dynasties. This tablet was discovered in 1864 by M. Mariette. It is reproduced in De Rougé’s treatise on the six first dynasties.

Abyssus, Egyp. A Coptic word, read by some archæologists as Noun (q.v.), and which signifies the abyss, the immensity of the celestial waters upon which sails the solar bark.

Acacia, R. A term employed by some antiquaries to denote an object held in the hand of the statue of an emperor of the Lower Empire. It usually consists of a piece of cloth, which the emperor unfurled as a signal for the games to commence.

Academies of Italy. Literary societies established during the middle ages. The principal were the Accesi, Affidati, Amorevole of Verona, Animosi of Milan, Arcadi of Rome, Ardenti of Pisa, Ardenti of Naples, Ardenti of Viterbo, Catenati of Macerata, Chiave of Pavia, Crusca of Florence, Elevati of Ferrara, Eterea of Padua, Florimontana of Annecy, Granelleschi of Venice, Infiammati of Padua, Infocati, Insensati of Perugia, Intronati of Siena, Lincei of Rome, Occulti, Offuscati, Ostinati, Rinovati, Sonnachiosi of Bologna, Trasformati of Milan, Travagliati, Unanimi. Their devices are described under the respective headings.

Acæna, Gr. (ἀκαίνη), a measuring-rod; ten Greek feet in length.

Fig. 4. Architectural acanthus.

Acanthus, Gr. and R. (ἀκὴ a point, and ἄνθος, a flower). A plant, the ornamental foliage of which has been largely employed as an architectural decoration by different peoples. The acanthus has been applied to the ornamentation of friezes, cornices, modillions, and various other members of architecture, but in especial to the decoration of modillions (projecting brackets) (Fig. [4]) and of Corinthian and composite capitals. There are several varieties of the acanthus; those most in use are the cultivated acanthus, or Brankursine (Acanthus mollis), and the spring acanthus (Acanthus spinosa), the foliage of which is much less beautiful, and furnished with small spikes which make the plant resemble a thistle. This last has also often been applied to decoration, in the Romano-Byzantine and lanceolated styles of architecture. An English name for this ornament is the “bear’s claw.”

Fig. 5. Bracket decorated with acanthus.

Acapna, Gr. (α, priv., and καπνὸς, i. e. without smoke). Wood for fuel, which had undergone several operations to hinder it from smoking when put on the fire. One of the methods employed consisted in stripping the bough of the bark, immersing it in water for some days, and then leaving it to dry. In a second method, the surface was rubbed with oil or oil-lees, or else the piece of wood was plunged into the oil for a few moments. A third method consisted in slightly charring the surface of the wood by passing it through the flame. The wood prepared by this last process was also called cocta and coctilia.

Acatium, Gr. and R. (ἀκάτιον, dimin. of ἄκατος, a light boat). A description of vessel belonging to the class called actuariæ, i. e. were propelled either by sails or oars. The acatium was a fast-sailer much employed by the Greek pirates. The stern was of a rounded concave form (inflexa), and the prow was adorned with a beak (rostrum). (See also Actuariæ.) The name acatium was also given to a drinking-vessel which was in the form of a boat. The Roman scapha was a similar vessel.

Acca. A word used in the 14th century for a cloth of gold shot with coloured silk, figured with animals: from Acre in Syria.

Accesi, It. (inflamed). One of the Italian Literary Academies. Their device was a fir-cone placed over a fire, with the motto “hinc odor et fructus.”

Accetta, Med. Lat. A battle-axe, or hache-d’armes.

Accidental or complementary colour, the prismatic complement of a ray of light: such are orange to blue, green to red, and purple to yellow.

Accidental light. An effect of light in a picture independent of the principal light, such as that on the Holy Child in the Notte of Correggio, or that of a candle, &c.

Acclamations, Chr. Formulas employed by the first Christians to express their grief on the occurrence of some misfortune, or on the other hand, to testify their joy at some piece of good fortune. These acclamations were imitated from the nations of antiquity [e. g. at marriages, “Io Hymen, Hymenæe, Talassio:” at triumphs, “Io, triumphe,” &c.].

Accollée, Her. (1) placed side by side: (2) entwined about the neck.

Accosted, Her. Side by side.

Accrued, Her. Grown to maturity.

Accubitum, R. (ad and cubitum, an elbow). A bed or rather couch of a peculiar kind, upon which the Romans reclined at meals, and which replaced the lectus triclinarius. It was a kind of sofa holding only a single person, while the lectus triclinarius held two or three. The act of reclining on this sofa was called accubitio or accubitus, a term derived from accubo, to recline at table.

Acerra or Acerna, R. (prob. from acer, maple). A small square box with a hinged lid; a coffer used to hold the incense for sacrifices; whence its Latin names arca turalis, arcula turalis, acerra turis custos. The acerra appears on certain bas-reliefs among the sacred utensils. It is to be seen represented on the altar of the small temple of Quirinus, at Pompeii, underneath a garland, and above an augur’s wand. It is generally met with, as being carried by the officiating priests, at religious ceremonies. The attendant carried the acerra in the left hand and employed the right hand to sprinkle the incense on the flame of the altar; whence the expression libare acerra. The term acerra was also used to denote a small portable altar placed before the dead, on which incense was burnt during the time the corpse was exposed to view (collocatio). The altar was also named, from this circumstance, ara turicrema.

Acetabula, R. A kind of bronze cymbals, attached to the hands and feet, as also to the knees. The same name was also given to silver cymbals which were played by striking them with a stick of hard wood.

Acetabulum, R. (from acetum, vinegar). A cup for vinegar used by the Romans at meals.

The acetabulum was also a goblet used by jugglers among the Greeks and Romans to make nutmegs disappear. By the latter these jugglers were called præstigiatores, by the former ψηφοκλέπται or ψηφοπαίκται. Lastly, we find in Pliny the Elder that acetabulum was the name given to a dry measure of capacity, equal to the quarter of a hemina or the half of the quartarius, and equivalent to .1238 of a pint. [The Greek Oxybaphon.]

Acha, Achia, Hachia, Lat. A battle-axe.

Achelor, Achlere or Ashlar. (Arch.) Hewn stone.

Achromatic, Gr. (α priv. χρομος, colour). The effect of an arrangement of lenses by which a coloured ray of light is rendered colourless.

Acicula, Gr. (dimin. of acus, a needle or pin). In particular a bodkin used by the Roman ladies to keep the hair in its place when curled or plaited, and to keep on false hair. The words acicula and acus are however all but synonymous. The former does not denote a bodkin of smaller size than the acus, but an object made of an inferior material; the acus being of silver, ivory or gold, while the acicula was simply of bone or some hard wood such as box, myrtle, olive, &c.

Fig. 6. Acinaces.

Acinaces, Orient. (ἀκινάκης; orig. a Persian word). A straight poniard resembling a very short Roman sword, used by the Eastern nations of antiquity, especially, the Medes, Persians and Scythians. It was worn by soldiers suspended from a belt round the waist, but the weapon hung either at the right or the left side, according to the nationality and accoutrements of the soldier. When, however, he wore a sword, this was always placed at the left, and the acinaces at the right side of the body. The handles of these weapons are generally extremely rich.

Acisculus, R. (Diminutive of ascia, an adze = a small adze). A small pick employed by stone-cutters and masons in early times. Representations of it may be seen pretty frequently on medals, in especial those of the Valerian family. [See Ascia.]

Acketon, Fr. A quilted leathern jacket, worn under the armour, introduced from the East by the Crusaders.

Aclis or Aclyx, R. A sort of harpoon, consisting of a thick short stock set with spikes. This massive weapon was chiefly employed by foreign nations, but not by the Romans. It was launched against the enemy, and drawn back by means of a cord to which it was attached, to be launched a second time. This weapon bears some resemblance to a particular kind of angon (or trident). (See Angones.)

Acoustic Vases, R. (Gr. ἀκουστικὸς, pertaining to the sense of hearing). Vases of earthenware or more often of bronze, which, in the theatres of antiquity, served the purpose of strengthening the voices of the actors. Vases of this kind would also seem to have been employed for the same purpose during the middle ages, for the architect Oberlin, when repairing the vault of the choir, in the ancient church of the Dominicans at Strasburg, discovered some acoustic vases there.

Fig. 7. Acratophorum, Roman.

Acratophorum, Gr. and R. (ἀκρατο-φόρος, holding unmixed wine). A table vessel for holding pure wine, while the crater (κρατὴρ), on the other hand, contained wine mixed with water. These vessels were often dedicated to Bacchus. They were made in earthenware and metal, but those that were dedicated to the gods were of gold and silver, and had their place among the treasures of the temples. Fig. [7] represents a silver acratophorum found at Hildesheim.

Acrolith, Gr. (ἄκρον, end, and λίθος stone). A statue covered with garments which in many cases were gilded. The extremities of these statues were of marble or stone—whence their name—more rarely of gold and ivory. The Minerva of Areia, at Platæa in Bœotia, described by Pausanius, was an acrolith. This was by Pheidias. The acrolith period is the infancy of the Greek plastic art.

Acropodium, Gr. (ἄκρον, end or point; and πόδιον, a foot). A low square plinth serving for basement to a statue and often forming part of it.

Acropolis, Gr. (ἀκρό-πολις, upper or higher city). From its primary meaning the term came to signify a fortified city. They were very numerous, in ancient times, in Italy, Greece and the colonies of Asia Minor. Most ancient Greek cities were built upon hills, and the citadel on the summit of the hill was called the acropolis.

Acrostic, Chr. (ἄκρον, end, and στίχος, a row or line). A combination of letters formed out of some word, which is thus made to express a thought differing from its own meaning. For instance, the Greek word ΙΧΘΥΣ (ICHTHUS, fish), symbolizes, in the primitive church, the name of Christ. The following is the acrostic of this word: Ιησους, Χριστος, Θεου, Υἱος, Σωτηρ I, CH, TH, U, S.

Fig. 8. Roman acrostolium.

Acrostolium, Gr. and R. (ἀκροστόλιον, extremity of beak of a ship). An ornament employed by the ancients to decorate the upper extremity of the prows of ships. This ornament often figured among trophies, since it was the custom for the victor in a naval combat to take the acrostolia from the captured ships. It is frequently to be met with on the bas-reliefs of triumphal monuments. Fig. [8] shows an acrostolium taken from a bas-relief in the Museum of the Capitol. The object seen projecting from the acrostolium is a sounding lead.

Acroterium, Gr. and R. (ἀκρωτήριον, the extremity of anything). In a signification more restricted than the primary one, yet generally admitted, the term acroteria is applied to the plain socles and pedestals placed at the summit of buildings to support statues, groups, or other crownings. Acroterium was the common name for the acrostolium, and the taking of it away as a trophy was called acroteriazein.

Actia, Gr., festivals held every fourth year, at Actium, in Epirus, in honour of Apollo.

Actinic (rays of light:) chemically active.

Actuariæ, R. (See Naves). Open boats, built to attain a high degree of speed, propelled by sails and sweeps, and never fitted with less than eighteen oars. Pirates used this class of vessel exclusively.

Actuarii, R. The shorthand writers who took down speeches in the senate. Also certain officials who answered to our commissariat officers.

Acuminated, Arch. Finishing in a point, like a lofty Gothic roof.

Acus, R. (Gr. ἀκὴ, a point). A bodkin, needle, or pin. The acus denoted both a needle for sewing and a pin for fastening anything. When used for the hair it was called acus crinalis or comatoria. In Christian archæology the word applies to the jewelled pins used as fastenings to papal or archiepiscopal vestments. The Roman acus is worn in the hair by the Italian peasant woman of the present day.

Addorsed, Her. (1) Back to back; (2) pointing backwards.

Adespotoi, Gr. (ἀ-δέσποτοι, i. e. without masters). A name given to a certain class of freedmen at Sparta.

Adobare, Med. To entrust with arms (to “dub” a knight). Meyrick.

Adobes. Bricks manufactured by the ancient Peruvians.

Adramire, Med. To challenge to a duel or tournament. (Meyrick.)

Fig. 9. Plan of a Roman temple, showing the adytum.

Adytum or Adyton, Gr. and R. (ἄδυτον, from α, priv., and δύω, to enter). An obscure and secret sanctuary in certain temples from which the public was excluded, and into which the priests alone might enter. The little temple of Pompeii possessed an adytum, and it was here that was discovered the Portici Diana now in the Naples Museum. There was also an adytum in the temple of Delphi, which was burnt down in the first year of the 58th Olym., and rebuilt by the Corinthian Spintharus. The temple of Paphos contained in its adytum a representation of the goddess under the form of a column pointed at the top and surrounded by candelabra. The engraving shows the position of the adytum of a small Doric temple, now destroyed, which once stood near the theatre of Marcellus at Rome. The adytum was the name given to the cella of a temple, in which oracles were given, or the worship was connected with mysteries. See Abaton and Cella.

Ædicula, R. (dimin. of Ædes, q.v.). A small house, temple, chapel, tabernacle, or even shrine. Thus the name was given to a small wooden shrine, constructed to imitate the front of a temple, and in which were preserved the ancestors of the family (imagines majorum), together with the Lares and tutelar divinities.

Ægicranes, Gr. (αἴγειος, of a goat; κρανίον, the skull). A goat’s [or ram’s] head employed as a decoration by ancient sculptors. It was used chiefly to adorn altars which were dedicated to rural divinities.

Æginetan marbles. Two remarkable groups of very early (archaic) Greek sculpture, in the Glyptothek at Munich—discovered in the temple of Pallas-Athene at Ægina, and arranged by Thorwaldsen. They illustrate “the infancy of art, which lingers round symbolic representation, and has not yet grasped the full meaning and truth of nature.” (Butler’s Imitative Art.) The anatomy of the bodies and limbs at this period is greatly superior to the expression of the heads.

Ægis, Gr. In its primary meaning, a goat-skin. The primitive inhabitants of Greece used the skins of goats and other animals for clothing, and defence. At a later period the Ægis became a protective mantle; the shield of Minerva, beneath which the goddess sheltered those whom she wished to protect from the enemy’s missiles. Later still the Ægis denoted the breastplate of a divinity, in especial that of Jupiter or Minerva, as opposed to the lorica, which was the breastplate of a mere mortal. The ægis bore in its centre the Gorgon’s head, of which the serpents were arranged round the border. Minerva is generally represented wearing it, either as a cuirass or a scarf passed over the right shoulder.

Aëneator (Lat. aëneus, brazen). The name given to any musician who played on an instrument of brass (aëneum); such as the buccinatores, cornicines, liticines, tubicines, &c. They formed a college.

Fig. 10 Eolipyle.

Æolipilæ or Æolipȳlæ, Gr. (αἴολος, the wind; and πύλη, an orifice). A metal vase with a narrow orifice, which was filled with water and placed upon the fire, either to make the chimney draw better, or, according to Vitruvius, to show which way the wind blew.

Æolian Harp, Gr. A musical instrument that is played on by the wind passing over its strings.

Ærarium, R. (æs, money). The public treasury as distinguished from the private treasury of the Emperors (fiscus). Under the Republic the temple of Saturn served as the public treasury, and here were preserved the produce of the revenue, the public accounts and other public records. The army had a separate treasury of its own called ærarium militare, entirely distinct from the ærarium publicum. It was established by Augustus to provide for the special expenditure of the army.

Aerial perspective. The realization of the effect of intervening atmosphere in the distances of a landscape.

Æro, R. A basket made of rushes or broom, but still more commonly of osier, and used for conveying sand. It was employed by the Roman soldiery when at work on intrenchments, excavations, or fortifications, as may be seen from bas-reliefs; more particularly some of those which adorn the column of Trajan.

Æruca, R. (æs, bronze). A very brilliant green colour artificially made to imitate verdigris.

Ærugo, R. Verdigris, the same colour as æruca (q.v.), but obtained from oxide of bronze. It is difficult to establish a real distinction between the two terms, as Pliny gives the name of ærugo (the rust of bronze) to what Vitruvius calls æruca. It is probable, however, that æruca was a kind of verdigris obtained by artificial means, while ærugo was the natural verdigris. This has given rise to the two terms, which by many archæologists are confused together. Æruca, the artificial copper rust, formed by the action of wine refuse upon copper, is an acetate of copper (verdigris): while the genuine copper rust, Ærugo, is a carbonate of copper.

Ærumna, R. A kind of fork by which travellers carried their baggage over the shoulder. 2. An instrument of punishment for slaves. (See Furca.)

Æs. A term used in antiquity to denote brass, copper, bronze, or any alloy of these metals. It also serves, in various connexions, to denote a number of different objects. Such as æs candidum, a brass mixed with silver; æs Corinthum, a brass mixed with gold; æs Cyprium, the ancient name for copper. (See also Bronze.)

Æs grave, R. A general term current in Rome to denote any bronze money at the period when the as was equal to about a pound in value.

Æs rude, R. The name given to the bronze ingots employed at Rome as ready money in exchanges and other commercial transactions.

Æs thermarum, Gr. and R. A bronze gong or metal bell hung up in the public baths, the sound of which, when struck, gave notice to the public that the baths were sufficiently warm to be ready for use.

Æs ustum. Peroxide of copper, or calcined copper.

Æsthetics, Gr. (αἰσθάνομαι, to comprehend). The science of the instinctive apprehension of the harmonies.

Aetos, Gr. (Ἀετός). A Greek word signifying eagle, and by analogy, a gable, pediment, or higher part of a building generally, so called from the resemblance which these parts bear to an eagle with outstretched wings. In the same way the Greeks gave the name of πτερὰ (wings), to the outer rows of columns flanking each side of a temple.

Affidati, It. One of the Italian literary academies. Their device was a nautilus, with the motto “tutus per suprema per ima.”

Affrontée, Her. Showing the full front.

Agalma, Agalmata, Gr. (ἄγαλμα, from ἀγάλλω, to glorify). Any work of art dedicated to a god, whether it were placed in his temple or not; such as tripods; [braziers for incense], or other accessories of a temple. The low pillar placed over a tomb, or the statue of a god might be agalmata.

Agate. A variety of quartz often employed by the engravers of antiquity. The term is a corruption of the word Achates, a river of Sicily, on the banks of which numerous varieties of the stone abound. Among these maybe mentioned the cerachates, or white wax-like agate; dendrachates, or arborescent agate; hemachates, or blood-agate, so called from its blood-like spots; and leucachates, or white agate. Agates were often carved into scarabæi by the Egyptians, and Babylonian cylinders have been found, made of the same material. The oriental agate is semi-transparent, the occidental is opaque, of various tints, often veined with quartz and jasper; hence its fitness for cutting cameos.

Agathodæmon, Cup of, Gr. (Ἀγαθο-δαίμων). A name given by the Greeks to a cup consecrated to Bacchus, and meaning literally, the “Cup of the Good Genius.” It was sent round after a feast, in order that each guest might partake of the wine.

Agea, R. A narrow passage or gangway in a boat, by means of which the boatswain (hortator) communicated with the rowers.

Agger, R. A general term to denote a mound of any materials, such as that formed by a dyke, quay, roadway, or earthwork; and particularly a rampart composed of trunks of trees and employed in offensive or defensive warfare. A celebrated agger was that of Servius Tullius at Rome. The art of constructing aggeres and other fortifications, had been learnt by the Romans from the Greeks, who in their turn had derived it from the East. It was after having penetrated into the heart of Asia under Alexander the Great, that the Greeks learned the use of siege works employed in the attack or defence of strong places, and became acquainted with various kinds of warlike engines such as the Acrobaticon, &c.

Agnus Bell, Chr. A sacring bell.

Agnus Dei, Chr. The Lamb of God, or lamb bearing the banner of the cross. The term is also used to denote certain ornaments or medallions of wax impressed with a figure of the lamb. They represented the ancient custom of distributing to worshippers, on the first Sunday after Easter, particles of wax from the consecrated paschal taper.

Agolum, R. A long sharp-pointed shepherd’s stick used by the Roman herdsmen for driving their cattle. The agolum was made out of a straight shoot of the prickly pear; it is still in use among the herdsmen of the Roman campagna at the present day.

Agonalia or Agonia, R. A Roman festival, which derived its name from the word agone (shall I proceed?) the question asked of the rex sacrificulus by the attendant, before he sacrificed the victim. The Quirinal was called Mons agonus, from a festival being held there on the 17th or 18th of March, in honour of Mars. The day itself was called Agonium martiale or day of the Liberalia. Another explanation of the etymology of the name is that the sacrifice was offered on the Quirinal hill, which was originally called Agonus. (Consult Ovid. Fasti, i. 319–332, he suggests several explanations.)

Agonistic, (ἀγωνιστικὴ, from ἀγὼν, a contest). With the ancients, that part of gymnastics in which athletes contended with arms.

Fig. 11. Agora of Antiphellus.

Agora, Gr. (ἀγορὰ, from ἀγείρω, to assemble). A place of assembly or public market. The agora was to the Greeks what the forum was to the Romans. There were numerous agoræ in Greece and Asia Minor. Fig. [11], represents the plan of the agora of Antiphellus; in which a and b indicate the sites of the corn-pits; c, that of a basilica. Agora is also used to denote the general assembly of freemen in contradistinction to the Boulè (q.v.).

Agraulia. An Athenian festival.

Agrenon, Gr. and R. A net, or garment of netted wool, worn over their other dress by the priests of Bacchus and by soothsayers.

Aguinia, Med. A corruption of ingenia, engines of war. (Meyrick.)

Aguzo, It. A spear-head; a spear.

Ahenum or Aenum. A bronze vessel furnished with a handle for suspending it over the fire, and so named from the material out of which it was made. (2) The coppers used in the public baths for heating the water in.

Fig. 12 Aiglets.

Aiglet, Fr. (aiguillette). A metal tag or point to a lace; sometimes used to signify the lace itself, as in the military costume of the present day. They were formerly used to fasten the slashed dresses of the middle ages; and sometimes to fasten armour, when they were made of leather with metal points. In civilian costume they were of silk. The term Aiguillette is also applied to the shoulder-knot worn by soldiers and livery servants.

Ailettes (little wings). Armour worn on the shoulders to protect the back of the neck; found in monumental brasses of the 13th century.

Aisle (ala, a wing). The wing of a building; the side passages of a Roman house. In buildings of vast size, such as a basilica or temple, comprising a central and two lateral naves, the latter are called aisles.

Alabarda, Med. A halberd.

Alabaster or Alabastrum, (ἀλάβαστρον). A small vase for holding precious perfumes; so called from the alabaster of which it was generally made. It was of various shapes, but chiefly assumed an elongated form resembling a long pear, a pearl-drop, &c. [Many of these perfume vessels are made of stalactite.] (2) A calcareous substance of white colour, translucent or semi-transparent, and presenting, according to the variety, undulating and continuous veins. The various kinds of ancient alabaster are very numerous; the following may be named; flowered alabaster (alabastro fiorito); golden (dorato); quince coloured (cotognino); eyed (occini); tortoise-shell (tartaruga); foam-white (pecorella); Busca de Palombara (palombara); onyx (onice), &c. The Egyptians used alabaster for making statues, phials, panegyric vases, canopea, small figures, and even sarcophagi; of which last that of Seti I., now in the British Museum, is an example. Alabaster was at one time frequently used for tombs and carved figures, and is now used for pulpits and other ecclesiastical purposes. False alabaster is the name given to a gypseous variety of this substance, of which there are rich quarries at Volterra, in Tuscany. It is called “Gesso Volterrano,” and is much used in Italy for the grounds of pictures.

Alabastrotheca, R. (θήκη, a chest). A box or casket containing alabaster flasks or vases.

Aland, Alant, Her. A mastiff with short ears.

Alapa. The blow on the shoulder in dubbing a knight.

Alba creta. Latin for white chalk, a term used by writers on art for gypsum.

Albani stone. A pepper-coloured stone used in ancient buildings at Rome before the introduction of marble.

Albarium (opus), R. (albus, white). A white coating or kind of stucco with which brick walls were covered after a previous application of ordinary cement. This stucco, which was also called simply albarium, was made by a mixture of chalk, plaster, and white marble.

Albalista, Arbalest. A cross-bow.

Fig. 13. Albe.

Albe, (albus, white). An ancient ecclesiastical vestment, common in old brasses. It was a long white linen gown, reaching to the feet, and secured by a girdle. The surplice is an albe with wider sleeves. (Fig. [13].)

Alberk, for Hauberk. A cuirass.

Album, Gr. and R. (albus, white). A space on the surface of a wall covered with white plaster, upon which were written advertisements or public announcements. By analogy the term was used to denote any kind of white tablets bearing an inscription, such as edicts, decrees, &c. These tablets were very numerous; there were the album pontificis, prætoris, centuriæ, decurionum, judicum, senatorum, &c.

Alcato, Arab. In armour, a gorget.

Alcora pottery (See Denia.)

Alcove. A niche or recess in a room.

Aldobrandini, Marriage, R. A celebrated fresco from the gardens of Mecænas, discovered at Rome near the church of Santa Maria Maggiore, whence it was conveyed to the villa Aldobrandini, and afterwards sold to the Borghese family. This painting which indisputably dates from the reign of Augustus, consists of a group of ten figures, representing, according to some, the marriage of Peleus and Thetis; and according to others, that of Manlius and Julia.

Fig. 14. Point d’Alençon.

Alençon, Point d’. Lace formerly known as Point de France. It is the only French lace not made on the pillow, but worked entirely by hand with a fine needle, on a parchment pattern; it is called “Vilain” in the French provinces, and in England is known as needle point. (Fig. [14].)

Alerion, Her. An eagle, in early Her., represented without feet or beak. (See Eagle.)

Ale-stake. In the middle ages the roadside ale-house was distinguished by a stake projecting from the house, on which some object was hung for a sign.

Alexandrinum (opus), R. A kind of mosaic employed especially for the pavement of rooms. The distinctive feature of these mosaics is that the lines or figures composing the designs are in two colours only, the prevailing ones being red and black upon a white ground. A large number of mosaics of this description exist at Pompeii, which are also called sectilia.

Alexikakos (Apollo). Another name of the celebrated statue generally called the Belvedere Apollo; from Nero’s villa at Antium.

Algaroth powder. An ingredient in the manufacture of an Antimony white pigment.

Fig. 15. Alhambraic ornament.

Alhambraic. Ornamentation in the Moorish style of the Alhambra, the characteristic of which is a faithful imitation of natural combinations of form and colour, with a rigid avoidance of the representation of natural objects. (Fig. [15].)

Alicula, R. A kind of large mantle, furnished sometimes with a hood. The term is derived from the Greek ἄλλιξ, the name given to the Thessalian chlamys. (See Chlamys.)

Alizarin, the colouring principle of the madder.

Allecret or Hallecret. A light armour for cavalry and infantry, consisting of a breastplate and tassets (or gussets), 16th century.

Allegory in art, is allegorically represented as a female figure veiled.

All Halowes or All Hallowes. O. E. for All Saints.

Alloys of Gold. Gold is found alloyed with various metals, never without silver, often with copper, iron, or other substances in small quantities, and sometimes with mercury, when it is called an amalgam. Gold alloyed with silver is called native gold. See Electrum.

Allouyère Fr. (Lat. alloverium). A purse or pouch often carried at the girdle, for holding papers, jewels, and money.

Almayne Rivets (German Rivets). Rivets used in plates of armour made to slide and thus give play to the arms and legs, invented in the 17th century, in Germany; hence their name.

Almery, Aumery, or Ambry, Arch. Chr. A niche or cupboard by the side of an altar, to contain the utensils belonging thereto.

Almond, Chr. An aureole of elliptic form, which is frequently met with encircling representations of saints, or of God the Father, God the Son, or the Virgin. A more common name, however, for this aureole is VESICA PISCIS (q.v.). The term of mystical almond was applied to the symbol expressive of the virginity of the Virgin Mary. The mystical meaning attached to this symbol is explained by reference to the rod of Aaron, which consisted of the bough of an almond-tree that had flowered in a single night and produced an almond on the morrow.

Almonry, Almonarium, Arch. Chr. A room where alms were distributed.

Fig. 16. Almuce.

Almuce, Aumuce, Amess, Chr. (almutium). A furred hood worn by the clergy for the sake of warmth, from the 13th to 16th centuries. Common in brasses of the 15th century. (Fig. [16].)

Aloa, or Haloa. An Attic festival, in honour of Demeter and Dionysus.

Alostel, O. E. A cry of heralds at the close of a tournament, ordering the combatants to quit the lists and retire to their lodgings.

Alpha and Omega, Chr. (ἄλφα and ὠμέγα). These two letters, respectively the first and the last of the Greek alphabet, symbolize our earthly life, since this has a beginning and an end. They are also a symbol of God as being the beginning and end of everything.

Altar. A kind of platform or table upon which sacrifices were offered to the gods. Hence, in Christian art, the table upon which the Eucharistic sacrifice is offered. (See Antependium, Ciborium, Reredos, &c. See Altare and Ara.)

Altar cards, Chr. Portions of the service of the mass printed separately on cards, and placed against the reredos of an altar.

Altar cloth, Chr. The linen coverings, and embroidered hangings of an altar.

Altare, R. (alta ara, high altar). A raised altar as contradistinguished from the ara which was of no great height. (Fig. [17].)

Fig. 17. Circular Roman altar.

Altar front, Chr. An antependium (q.v.).

Altar screen, Chr. The partition behind the high altar, separating it from the Lady Chapel.

Alto-rilievo (Ital.) High Relief. See Rilievo.

Alum is used in many processes—in the preparation of paper for water-colour painting, and of lakes, and carmine, from cochineal. Roche alum, or roach alum, Roman alum, and Turkey alum, are varieties of the common alum, described by mediæval writers as alumens.

Alumen (Lat.), Greek, (stypteria). Mediæval writers confused this word with the alums. The name was applied by the classics to several salts of the nature of vitriols, and among them to the natural sulphate of iron (copperas or green vitriol of commerce).

Alur, Aloring, or Alurde, &c., O.E. Parapet wall.

Alvéole; see Nimbus.

Alveus, R. (alvus, the belly). (1) A bath constructed in the floor of a room, the upper part of it projected above the floor, the lower part being sunk into the floor itself. (2) A playing-board, which was divided in the same manner as the ABACUS (q.v.). (3) A canoe hollowed out of the trunk of a tree, the Greek μονόξυλον. (4) The hull of a ship. (5) A wooden trough or tray.

Ama or Amula, Chr. A long phial for holding the wine presented at the altar at the moment of offering.

Amassette, Fr. An instrument of horn used for spreading colours on the stone in the process of grinding.

Amatito, Ital. Lapis Amatita. Amatito is the soft red hæmatite, and is called also matita rossa. Lapis amatita is the compact red hæmatite, and is also called in Italy mineral cinnabar, and in Spain albin. When this word is used by early writers on art, it probably indicates red ochre, the red hæmatite of mineralogists. (Fairholt.)

Amber. There are two varieties of this substance, viz., the grey and the yellow amber, of which the latter only need here be more particularly noticed. Its use may be traced back to a very early antiquity, the purposes to which it was applied being the setting of jewels and furniture. It was employed by the Jews for making amulets. Amber was also used by the Egyptians in the fabrication of necklaces composed of pearls or other delicate materials. By the Romans it was sculptured into vases or statuettes. The name of vasa electrina was given to amber vases set with silver, and that of electrina patera to pateræ made of amber alone. Amber was largely used by early painters as a varnish, and also as a vehicle. It is harder than copal, and is said to be the most durable of all varnishes. It requires a long time to fit it for polishing. Amber is supposed to be a vegetable fossil; it is washed up by the sea, especially on the shores of the Baltic.

Amber Yellow, is an ochre of a rich amber colour in its raw state; when burned it yields a fine brown red.

Ambitus, Gr. R. and Chr. (ambio, to go round about). A small niche in underground Greek or Roman tombs forming a receptacle for a cinerary urn. In the Middle Ages these niches were so far enlarged as to admit coffins; the name under which they then went being Enfeus (q.v.). During the same period the term ambitus was also applied to the consecrated ground by which a church was surrounded. It served as a place of asylum as well as for burial. The term is also applied to the process of canvassing for votes.

Ambivium, R. (ambi and via, a way round). Any road or street leading round a place.

Fig. 18. The ambo of St. Lawrence at Rome.

Ambo, Chr. (perhaps from ἀναβαίνειν, to ascend). A tribune of stone or marble in the ancient Latin basilicas, a pulpit. Fig. [18] gives a representation of the ambo in the church of St. Lawrence without the walls at Rome.

Ambrices, R. The cross laths (regulæ) inserted between the rafters and the tiles of a roof.

Ambry; see Almery.

Ambulant, Her. In the act of walking.

Ambulatory, Chr. (ambulo, to walk). Part of a cloister, forming a kind of gallery for taking exercise in.

Amenti or Amenthi, Egyp. One of the names given to the nether world of the Egyptians. It means the unseen region. We learn from Plutarch’s treatise on Osiris that, “the subterranean regions whither souls betake themselves after death is called Amenthes.” Osiris is the lord and god of Amenti, which was also called by the Egyptians the country of truth.

Amentum, R. A thong attached to the shaft of a lance at the centre of gravity. The soldier placed the fingers of his right hand between the two ends of the thong, gave the weapon a rapid turn, and then hurled it. Amentum was also used to denote the leather strap by which certain kinds of boots, such as the crepidæ, solæ, &c., were fastened above the instep.

Amess. (See Almuce.)

Amethyst, (ἀμέθυστος, without intoxication.) A precious stone of a more or less deep violet colour. The engravers of antiquity carved figures upon it, in especial those of Bacchus, since the stone was also used, in preference to any other, for making drinking-cups, from a belief that it possessed the virtue of dispelling intoxication. This was the origin of the Greek term. Among the ancient Jews the amethyst was one of the twelve stones composing the breastplate of the high priest; it occupied the eighth or ninth row. In Christian symbolism the amethyst (or the colour violet) signifies humility and modesty.

Amiantus, (ἀμίαντος [? undefiled]). A fibrous uninflammable mineral substance. It was used by the ancients for making fire-proof clothing. It was known by the name of asbestus (ἄσβεστος, uninflammable).

Amice. A piece of fine linen in the form of an oblong square, suspended over the shoulders of the clergy. Pugin says it is “a white linen napkin or veil worn by all the clergy above the four minor orders.” Durand says it is a proper covering for the head, typical of the helmet of salvation alluded to by the apostle; or of the cloth with which the Jews covered the Saviour’s face, when they asked him to prophecy who struck him. Milton, in Paradise Regained, alludes to it,—

“Morning fair

Came forth with pilgrim steps, in amice grey.”

Amma, Egyp. (1) A measure of length in use among the ancient Egyptians. It was about sixty feet. (2) A kind of line used in land surveying.

Ammah, Egyp. The door which formed the exit from the abode of the dead. Chapters lxxiii. and cxv. of the Book of the Dead are entitled,—On passing Ammah; i. e. directing one’s course to heaven by stepping over the Ammah.

Amorevole of Verona. One of the Italian literary academies. Their device was a hedgehog with its spines laden with grapes (for its young). Motto, “non solum nobis.”

Amorini, Ital. Cupids.

Ampelitis, Gr. (ἄμπελος, a vine). A black pigment prepared by the ancients from the burnt branches of the vine.

Amphibalus, Chr. A vestment, used on Sundays and high festivals; peculiar to the Gallican Church.

Amphidromia. Family festival held by the Athenians upon the occasion of the birth of a child. The carrying of the child round the hearth gave the name to the festival.

Amphimallum, Gr. and R. (ἀμφί-μαλλον, woolly on both sides). A description of woollen cloth more or less rough, and having a nap on both sides.

Amphiprostylos, Gr. and R. (ἀμφι-πρόστυλος). A temple or other building having two open porticoes (porticum and posticum), both in front and rear. They are so constructed as to project beyond the cella, or main body of the building.

Amphitapus, Gr. and R. (ἀμφί-ταπος, hairy on both sides). A particular kind of cloth, made of some material resembling Vicuna wool, and having, like the amphimallum, a nap on both sides. It was probably of Eastern origin.

Fig. 19. Ground-plan of an amphitheatre.

Amphitheatre, R. (ἀμφι-θέατρον). A building which was at first constructed for the purpose of exhibiting gladiatorial shows to the Roman populace; but later on any kind of spectacle, even to a naumachia, or sea-fight, was exhibited there. In the engraving, A shows the ground-plan of an amphitheatre, and B the plan of the seats.

Fig. 20. Greek Amphoræ.

Amphora, Gr. and R. (ἀμφὶ-φορέω). A large earthenware vessel, having a handle on each side of its neck (whence the name), and terminating in a point. Amphoræ were used for holding various kinds of produce, especially wine; they were placed side by side in an upright position in the cellar, the floor of which was covered with a deep bed of sand. The engravings represent amphoræ from Cnidus, Chio, and Samos. Amphoræ were also made of glass; and a specimen is mentioned by Nepos of one made of onyx. Homer mentions them of gold and stone; and the Egyptians had them of brass.

Amphotis, Gr. and R. 1. A brass cap lined with cloth inside. 2. A simple woollen cap worn by athletes to protect their temples and ears from the blows of the cestus, in a boxing match. 3. A wooden vessel in use among the ancient Greek peasants, as a milking-pail. It derived its name from having two handles or ears.

Ampulla, Gr. and R. A phial or flask with short and narrow neck and spherical body, which was used to hold the oil requisite for bathers (ampulla oleria); it could also be used to hold vinegar, wine, and other beverages, and was then called ampulla potaria. The ampulla generally took the form of a globe or bladder, but not invariably; a lentil-shaped variety with rounded sides was very common. Ampulla rubida was the name given to the leather-covered flasks which were made use of by travellers or sportsmen to carry wine, vinegar, or oil. The vessel or cruet used in Christian churches for the consecrated oil or wine was hence called the Ampul.

Ampyx, Gr. and R. (ἄμπυξ, from ἀμπέχω, to surround). Latin frontale. A general term to denote any net composed of strings, bands, or ribbons, which forms a head-band. It thus denotes at once a woman’s head-dress, or the ornamental strips of leather which serve as head-band for a horse. The ampyx worn by women was in some cases very costly, being made of gold or silver, and adorned with precious stones. The term was also applied, by analogy, to the cover of a vase. Another word for it is ampicter.

Amulets. Objects of a very heterogeneous description, to which is superstitiously attributed the power of healing certain diseases, or averting them from men and animals. This is the meaning which attaches, in its widest sense, to the term amulet (amuletum). Amulets are unquestionably of Eastern origin; by the Egyptians they were looked upon as preservatives against dangers, unlucky days, enemies, &c. The varieties of them were very numerous; among others, were scarabæi, small columns, cartouches, symbolic eyes, interlacing fingers, heads of uræus, &c. A large number of stones were also employed as amulets; those of commonest occurrence are hematite, jasper, lapis lazuli, amethysts, diamonds, heliotropes, &c. Each of these amulets had its special virtue; for instance, the clear crystal worn during prayer rendered the god propitious, and compelled him to give ear to the suppliant. Coral kept every evil influence away from a house; and in Italy it is looked upon, even at the present day, as a preservative against the evil eye. In Christian archæology, the name of amulets, or in some instances, Encolpia (q.v.), was given to relics, or objects of devotion, such as crosses, medals, wood from the true cross, the bones of saints, &c. Amulets were also called periapta (περίαπτα), i. e. suspended, because they were hung round the neck, and also pyctacium, because some amulets were folded in two. The Arabic word amulet means the same as periapta, that which is suspended.

Amussis, R. The exact sense of this term is not clearly defined by ancient authors, beyond the fact that it denotes generally any kind of instrument employed by builders—especially masons—for testing the accuracy, regularity, and evenness of their work. The term is used to denote sometimes the plumb-line, rule, or square; sometimes the level, measuring-line, &c.

Anabathra, Gr. and R. (ἀνά-βαθρα, steps up). Steps or stairs; a raised step; a mounting block. These last were often placed along the high roads.

Anabologium, Chr. Another name for the Humerale or Amice (q.v.).

Anaceia or Anakeia, Gr. (from ἄναξ, a king). A festival held at Athens in honour of Castor and Pollux, who were also called Anaktes and Anakestes. (See Anaceium). Similar festivals were held at Sparta, Argos, and other cities of Greece.

Anaceium, Gr. A temple of ancient Athens, dedicated to Castor and Pollux. Slaves used to be sold there.

Anaclinterium, Gr. (ἀνακλιντήριον). The head-board of a sofa or bed, which served as a support for the bolster and the pillow on which the sleeper’s head rested.

Anadem, Gr. (ἀνάδημα). In general a fillet or head-band; but in a more restricted acceptation, an ornamental band, such as was worn by women and youths among the Greeks. It was thus distinguished from the diadema and the vitta, which were also head-bands, but worn solely as the insignia of honorary, regal, or religious distinctions.

Anaglyph, (ἀνὰ and γλύφειν, to carve). A general term to denote any work of art that is sculptured, chased, carved, or embossed, such as cameos, bas-reliefs, or other raised work, whether in metal, marble, or ivory. When such sculptures or chasings are incised or sunk, they are called Intaglios or Diaglyphs (q.v.). According to St. Clement of Alexandria, anaglyphs were employed by the Egyptians when they wished to hand down a panegyric of any king under the form of a religious myth. Although the words of St. Clement are very obscure, and have furnished materials for countless discussions, it is now admitted that the anaglyphs in question belong to the group of hieroglyphics which may be deciphered on the cartouches of the Pharaohs, and in which we have, in fact, panegyrics of the Egyptian kings veiled in religious myths. The Egyptians also gave the name of anaglyphs to a kind of secret writing, understood only by the initiated; even at the present day it remains undecipherable, owing to our imperfect knowledge of Egyptian mythology. (See Cælatura.)

Anagogia. A festival at Eryx, in Sicily, in honour of Aphrodite.

Analemma, Gr. and R. (ἀνάλημμα). Any raised construction which serves for a support or rest, and more particularly a pier, wall, or buttress. (2) The pedestal of a sun-dial, and so the sun-dial itself.

Anancœum, R. A drinking-cup of great capacity, the form of which is unknown. If we may credit Varro it was sometimes richly chased.

Anankaion, Gr. (ἀναγκαῖον, from ἀνάγκη, restraint). A kind of prison the purpose of which is not exactly known. According to some archæologists it was a private prison for slaves, or for freedmen, who, from some fault, were reduced to servitude again; others assert that it was a public prison.

Anapiesma, Gr. and R. (ἀνα-πίεσμα, that which is pressed back). An appliance used in ancient theatres. It was a kind of trap-door by means of which deities were raised from beneath the stage so as to make them visible to the spectators. The proscenium contained a certain number of these trap-doors; one of them, leading from the orchestra to the front of the stage, enabled the Furies to appear; by another, marine deities made their appearance; while that through which passed the shades who ascended Charon’s staircase was called Charon’s anapiesma.

Anastatic. An ingenious modern process of reproducing copies of printed matter, engravings, ink drawings, &c., by transferring them to a sheet of polished zinc.

Anathēma, Chr. (ἀνάθημα, an offering). Anything offered up in churches by the faithful; as, for instance, vases and other utensils for sacrifice, altar ornaments, &c.

Anathĕma, Chr. The greater excommunication, answering to the Hebrew cherem.

Anchor. In Christian Art, the emblem of Hope. The attribute of S. Clement, the Pope, who was bound to an anchor, and thrown into the sea. (See Ancora.)

Ancile, R. A shield of the shape of a violin case. It was the sacred shield which, according to tradition, had fallen from heaven into the palace of Numa. It occurs frequently on medals, especially those of Augustus. The two incavations of the shield were more or less deep, and usually semicircular. But Ovid describes it as of an entirely different shape, being cut evenly all round; Idque ancile vocat, quod ab omni parte recisum est (Ovid, Fast. iii. 377). The Salii, or twelve priests of Mars Gradivus, had twelve such shields. The form was oval, with the two sides curving evenly inwards, so as to make it broader at the ends than in the middle. They used to beat their shields and dance.

Anclabris, Gr. and R. A small table used instead of an altar at sacrifices; it was slightly concave, so as to adapt it to hold the entrails of the victim for the inspection of the diviners. (See Altar.)

Ancon, Gr. and R. (αγκων). A term admitting various meanings, (1) A small console on each side of a door supporting an ornamental cornice. (2) The arm of a chair or arm-chair. (3) A cramp of wood or metal serving to connect together courses of masonry or blocks of stone. (4) The prongs or forks at the end of the props employed by hunters to hang their nets upon. (5) An earthenware vessel used in Roman taverns for holding wine. According to the etymology of the word which in Greek signifies hollow or elbow, this bottle must have been shaped like a retort. (6) The arms or branches of the square used by carpenters and stone masons, which form an angle similar to that formed by the bent arm.

Fig. 21. Roman anchor, from a bas-relief.

Ancora, Gr. and R. (ἀγκύρα, from ἄγκος, a bend). An anchor or piece of iron used to stop a ship. Like those now in use, the ancient anchors were generally furnished with two flukes or arms, but sometimes they had only one. In the latter case they were called terostomos, a term corresponding to our modern blind anchor. A bas-relief on the column of Trajan represents an anchor placed at the bow of the vessel. In Christian archæology the anchor is a symbol of hope; an anchor is frequently met with, among Christian symbols, associated with a fish; the emblem of the Saviour (See Acrostic).

Ancorale, Gr. and R. Literally the cable of an anchor, and then the buoy-rope, or even the buoy itself. The ancient anchors had a ring at the end of the shank to which the buoy-rope was attached. The latter served not only to indicate the place where the anchor lay, but also to drag the flukes out of the ground when the anchor was raised.

Andiron. Iron standards with bars for supporting logs of wood fires, frequently richly ornamented, and sometimes made partly of silver.

Andriantes, Gr. (ἀνδριάντες, images of men). Statues set up by the Greeks in honour of the victors in the public games. This custom dated from 50 Olym., or 584 B.C.

Androgeonia. An Athenian annual festival, in honour of Androgeus, the son of Minos.

Fig. 22. Plan of a Greek house, showing the andron.

Andron, Andronitis, Gr. and Gr.-R. (ἀνδρὼν, from ἀνὴρ, a man). That part of the Greek or Græco-Roman house exclusively set apart for men. Fig. [22] represents the ground-plan of a Greek house; the andron occupies all that part of the building which surrounds the open court, and consists of the apartments numbered 1 to 9. The Romans applied the term simply to a passage separating a house or part of a house from another.

Anelace, O. E. A knife or dagger worn at the girdle; broad, two-edged and sharp.

“An anelace and a gipciere all of silk,

Hung at his girdle, white as morwe milk.”

(Chaucer, Canterbury Tales.)

Fig. 23. Angel of the reign of Elizabeth.

Angel. A gold coin current in England and France in the 15th and 16th centuries. It derived its name from the figure of an angel stamped upon it. A similar coin, either of gold or silver, was current in France at various periods. From the time of Louis IX. to that of Louis XI., the gold angel was equal in value to a crown of fine gold, or a little more than fourteen francs. It was stamped with a figure of St. Michael, holding in his right hand a sword, and in his left a shield with three fleur-de-lys. Henry VI., king of England, when he was in possession of Paris, had a gold angel struck which was not above seven francs in value. It was stamped with the figure of an angel holding in his hand the shields of France and England. The same king also had a silver angel struck which was only worth about five and a half francs.

Fig. 24. Arms of France with Angels as supporters. XIV. century.

Angels, (Gr. ἄγγελος, a messenger) in Christian Art are represented in nine degrees, which are divided into three categories. The first consists of Seraphim, Cherubim, and Thrones; the second of Dominations, Virtues, Powers; and the third of Princedoms, Archangels, and Angels. They are represented as young, to show their continued strength; winged as messengers of speed; barefooted and girt to show their readiness; in robes of white indicative of purity, or in cloth of gold for their glory; the cloth of gold diapered with bands of precious stones; the emerald, emblem of unfading youth; the crystal, of purity; the sapphire, of celestial contemplation; and the ruby, of divine love. During the renaissance, Pugin complains, “the edifying and traditional representations of angelic spirits were abandoned, and, in lieu of the albe of purity and golden vests of glory, the artists indulged in pretty cupids sporting in clouds, &c.” The proper attributes of the angels are trumpets, for the voice of God; flaming swords, for the wrath of God; sceptres, for the power of God; thuribles or censers for the prayers of saints, and musical instruments to emblem their felicity.

Angiportus or Angiportum, R. A narrow road passing between two houses or rows of houses, or an alley leading to a single house.

Fig. 25. Point d’Angleterre.

Angleterre, Point d’. Lace made by Flemish makers who were invited to settle in England in the reign of Charles II., the English Parliament having passed an act prohibiting the importation of all foreign lace. England, however, could not produce the necessary flax, and the lace was of inferior quality. The merchants of the time remedied this by smuggling large quantities of lace from the Brussels market, selling it as English Point or Point d’Angleterre, by which latter name it is still known, effacing the old name “Point de Bruxelles.” (Fig. [25].)

Anglicanum Opus. (See Embroidery.)

Angones. French weapons of the Middle Ages furnished with three blades, one of which was straight, broad and keen, the remaining two curving outwards. Some angons have a lozenge-shaped head-blade. They were used as a kind of pike, and sometimes hurled like javelins. The latter kind somewhat resembled the aclis.

Anguilla, R. A whip made use of by Roman schoolmasters for punishing their scholars. It was so called because made from the skin of an eel (anguis).

Anguis, R. A serpent which among the Romans symbolized the local spirit (genius loci). Serpents were painted upon a wall to deter the public from defiling the spot thus indicated. At Pompeii these representations of serpents are found in the bakehouses, kitchens, and similar places where cleanliness is peculiarly desirable. The same term was applied to a military ensign in the shape of a serpent.

Anime. Gum anime is a resin, which is mixed with copal in making varnish, causing it to dry quickly and firmly.

Animosi of Milan. One of the Italian literary academies. Their device was “stags passing a river, resting on the heads of each other.” Motto, “Dant animos vices.” (Mutual help gives strength.)

Anklets, Gr. (See Periscelis.)

Annealing. The process of tempering brittle glass and metals by heat.

Annulet, Her. A plain ring, or false roundle.

Annulets, Arch. The rings or mouldings about the lower part of the echinos or ovolo of Doric capitals.

Annulus or Anulus, Gr. and R. (dimin. of anus, a ring). A finger-ring. They were originally made of iron, and used as a signet for sealing. Later on they were made of gold. Among the Greeks and Romans they were worn on the fourth finger of the left hand, whence the expression sedere ad anulos alicui, to be seated at any one’s left hand. The anulus bigemmis was a ring set with two precious stones; anulus velaris was a curtain ring. A plait of hair arranged in circles round the back of the head was also called anulus. In architecture the term was formerly employed instead of anulet. The stone most frequently used for rings was the onyx, upon which devices were carved with wonderful skill. The bezel, or part of the ring which contained the gem, was called Pala. (See Rings.)

Ansa, Gr. and R. A term signifying both haft and handle, and even eyelet or hole. Any vessel or vase which has large ears or circular handles on the neck or body, is said to be furnished with ansæ. Ansa ostii was the term applied to the handle by which a door is pulled or shut to. The bronze or iron eyelet on the top of a steelyard were also called ansæ stateræ. The holes or eyelets made in the side leathers of a Greek or Roman shoe were called ansæ crepidæ; the handle of the rudder, ansa gubernaculi; lastly an iron cramp was called ansa ferrea.

Fig. 26. Templum in antis.

Antæ, R. Square or rectangular pilasters supporting the walls of a temple, which was thence called templum in antis. (Fig. [26].) The antæ thus formed the end of the walls of the cella. The capitals of antæ and the friezes abutting on them were sometimes richly ornamented, as may be seen by referring to Fig. [27], which represents, in their restored state, the frieze and one of the antæ in the temple of Augustus, at Ancyra, in Galatia.

Fig. 27. Capital and frieze of one of the Antæ in the temple of Augustus.

Antarius, Antarii funes, R. Ropes employed for raising into the proper position any object of considerable weight, such as a column, mast, &c.

Fig. 29. Archaic Antefixa in terra-cotta.

Antefixa. Ornaments of terra-cotta which were placed above the cornice, at the end of each row of tiles on a roof (Fig. [29]). They were also used in ancient times for decorating the ridge of a roof. We possess specimens of antefixa remarkable for delicacy of design and execution; such were the antefixa of the temple of Diana Propylæa at Eleusis, and the various Etruscan specimens to be found in our museums. They were decorated with masks, leaves, and especially palms painted to imitate nature or in different colours. The Etruscans employed coloured antefixa only; many specimens of these last may be seen at the Louvre, and in the museums of Perugia, Florence, and Naples. The Antefixa of the Parthenon were of marble. (Fig. [30].)

Fig. 30. Antefixa in marble from the Parthenon.

Antemural. A term referring either to the outworks protecting the approach to a castle, or to the wall surrounding the castle.

Antenna, R. The yard-arm of a ship.

Antepagmentum, R. The jamb of a door. Antepagmentum superius, the lintel.

Antependium. Richly ornamented hangings of precious metal, wood, or textile fabrics, in front of a Christian altar.

Anteportico. A synonym of Porch (q.v.); but little used.

Fig. 31. Anterides of the Cloaca Maxima at Rome.

Anterides, Gr. and R. (? ἀντερείδω, to stand firm). A structure employed to strengthen a weaker one. It consisted of a kind of buttress placed against an outer wall, chiefly in subterranean constructions, such as a sewer or aqueduct. Fig. [31] represents the anterides of the Cloaca Maxima at Rome.

Anthony, Cross of St., in the form of the letter T. It is the idealized representation of a crutch. (See Crosses.)

Anthropomorphic. Man-shaped; said for example of the character of the Greek Religion, whose gods and demi-gods were only ideal men, from which circumstance the representation of the human form became the first object of their plastic art.

Antia. The iron handle of a shield.

Antiæ, R. The ringlets of hair worn by men and women which hung about the ears and the temples.

Antick. Strange, irregular, or fantastic in composition.

Antilena, R. An appliance attached to the pack-saddle of a beast of burden. It was a broad strap passing in front of the animal’s breast so as to prevent the saddle from slipping backwards. It was employed especially in mountainous districts.

Antimensium, Chr. A consecrated altar cloth.

Antimony. The oxide of this metal is employed in the preparation of yellow pigments for enamel or porcelain painting. Glass is coloured yellow by antimony. (See Naples, Guimet’s Yellows.)

Antipendium, Chr. (See Antependium.)

Antiphoner, Chr. An antiphonarium; a book of responses set to music.

Antique. Pertaining to ancient Greek or Roman art: more freely used in recent times to describe the quality of ancient art in general, but properly applicable only to classical art.

Fig. 32. Opus Antiquum.

Antiquum Opus, Arch. An ancient kind of stone-work or masonry composed of irregular stones. Another name for it was opus incertum.

Antiseptic varnish. A glazing composed to protect vegetable or animal pigments.

Antitype. The realization of the type.

Antonine Column. One of the most valuable architectural monuments in Rome. It is a lofty pillar ornamented with a series of bas-reliefs extending spirally from the base to the summit, representing the victories of the Emperor Marcus Aurelius Antoninus.

Anulus. (See Annulus.)

Anvil. In Christian art the attribute of St. Adrian, and of St. Eloy, the patron saint of the smiths.

Apalare, R. A kitchen utensil; a sort of large metal spoon or ladle.

Ape. In Christian art the emblem of malice and of lust. Common in illuminations of the penitential psalms, in allusion to David’s fall.

Apex, R. (apex, the top). A piece of olive wood pointed at the end, and set in a flock of wool. It formed the head-dress of the Flamines and Salii. By analogy, the term was further used to denote a cap, and also the ridge on the top of a helmet to which the horsehair crest was attached.

Aphractus, Gr. and R. (ἄφρακτον, lit. unguarded). A vessel without a deck, or only partly decked fore and aft.

Aphrodisia, Gr. (Ἀφροδίσια). A general term under which were comprised all the festivals held in honour of Venus (Aphroditè).

Fig. 33. Aplustre and anchor of a Roman ship.—From bas-relief.

Aplustre, Gr. and R. (ἄφλαστον). An ornament placed at a ship’s stern. It was constructed of flexible wooden planks, in imitation of the feather of a bird’s wing.

Apobates, Gr. (Lat. Desultor). One who dismounts. (1) Soldiers in chariots who leaped in and out in the fight. (2) The circus riders who leaped from one horse to another.

Apodyterium, R. and Gr.-R. (from ἀπὸ δύω, to put off). In a general sense, an undressing-room, and more particularly the apartment in the baths where the bathers undressed. As little light penetrated from without, there was generally a lamp burning in a niche. An apodyterium such as that just described may still be seen at Pompeii.

Apollino, It. The name usually given to the beautiful “Apollo of Florence,” attributed to Praxiteles.

Apophyge or Apophysis, Arch. The small fascia or band at the top and base of the shaft of columns.

Fig. 34. Apostle Mug.

Apostle Mug. The mug or tankard shown in the engraving is of Nanconian or Nuremberg stone-ware, with figures of the twelve apostles enamelled in colours upon it. (Fig. [34].) Apostle Spoons are well known to have received their names from the figures of the Apostles forming the handles.

Apostyls Coats, O. E. Probably garments used for mystery plays.

Apotheca, Gr. and R. (ἀποθήκη, a granary). A store-room or magazine for containing any kind of stock. The Romans also applied the term specially to a wine store-room situated in the upper part of the house; this was sometimes called the fumarium. Here the wine was placed in amphoræ to ripen it more quickly, whereas when stored in the cella vinaria, it was placed in Cupæ and Dolia (q.v.).

Apotheosis, Gr. (ἀπὸ, θεὸς god, to deify). A deification; the ceremony by which a mortal was introduced among the number of the gods. The proper term in Latin is consecratio (q.v.). The funeral pile, in such cases, was built several stories in height, and an eagle was let loose from the top storey, to carry the soul of the emperor from earth to heaven. This is commemorated upon the medals struck on the occasion, which represent an altar with a fire on it, from which an eagle ascends.

Apparel, Chr. Embroidered additions to the vestments of the clergy.

Appaumée, Her. Said of a hand, open, erect, and showing the palm.

Appianum, Lat. Appian green, a pigment used by the ancients, prepared from green earth, now known as Cyprus or Verona green, because the best is found at those places.

Apple. The emblem in classical art of victory, and in Christian art of the fall of man.

Appliqué, Fr. Applied ornament, as of metal or porcelain upon wood. In embroidery, Appliqué work is used, when a pattern cut out of one colour or stuff is applied, or laid on, to another.

Fig. 35. Apse of St. William in the Desert, a monastery in the South of France.—Built about A. D. 820.

Apse, Apsis, or Chevet (ἁψὶς, bow or vault). The termination of a church. It is generally of semicircular form, and surmounted by a demicupola, but there are instances of rectangular apses. Fig. [35] represents the apse of St. William in the Desert. (See Absis.)

Apsis gradata, Chr. The chair occupied by bishops in the early Christian basilicas.

Apteral, Arch. Without wings. A temple without columns on the sides.

Aqua fortis (nitric acid). Used by engravers and etchers for biting-in on copper and steel.

Aqua marina. A transparent green stone, frequently used by the gem engravers of antiquity.

Aquæmanalis. (See Aquiminarium.)

Aquamanile, Chr. The basin used for washing the hands of the celebrant in the liturgy. A. of great splendour are frequently mentioned in the ancient records. The corresponding ewer was called Urceus.

Aqua-tint. A method of engraving with the help of mastic. (Consult Fielding’s “Art of Engraving.”)

Fig. 36. Pont-du-Gard, a Roman aqueduct near Nismes. (Restored)

Aqueduct, Gen. (aqua, water, and duco, to lead). An artificial canal for conveying water from one point to another, and often to a considerable distance from the source. Many ancient nations have executed works of this description, but the Roman aqueducts are especially celebrated. The most perfect is that which still exists, in a ruined state, over the river Gard, near Nismes in the South of France, called Pont-du-Gard. (Fig. [36].) Aqueducts were often discharged into reservoirs.

Aquilæ, R. The eagles, or ensigns, of the Roman legion under the Empire. They were of silver or bronze, and had the wings outstretched. As an architectural term aquila denotes the triangular face formed by the tympanum of a pediment, because the latter was often ornamented with an eagle. (See Ensign.)

Aquiminarium, R. An ewer for pouring water over the hands of the guests after a banquet. Other terms for this ewer were aquæmanalis and aquimanale.

Ara, R. The Latin term for Altar. (See this word and Altare.)

Arab Pottery. (See Gargoulette.)

Arabesque, Gen. An ornament of a pattern more or less intricate, composed of stems, foliage, leaves, fruits, scrolls, or leafage, as well as of curious and fantastic animals. It is an error to suppose that arabesque, as its name might seem to indicate, was an Arab invention; it was known to the Greeks and Romans, and was largely employed in Græco-Roman architecture.

Aræostylé, Arch. An order of temples, in which the space between the columns is four diameters in width.

Arbalest. (See Cross-bow.)

Arca, R. (arceo, to enclose, preserve). (1) A kind of box or strong chest used by the ancients as a receptacle for money, clothes, or any valuable effects. (2) A strong box or money chest; (3) a rough chest used for a coffin; (4) a cage for criminals, made of oak; (5) a wooden caisson, answering the purpose of a modern coffer-dam.

Arcade. A series of arches.

Arcadi. A Literary Academy established at Rome in 1690. The members adopted pastoral names. Their device was a Pandæan pipe, surrounded by a wreath of olive and pine.

Arcatures, Arch. A series of blind arcades represented on a wall, in relief or painting. Carved arcatures are those forming a kind of screen; they are detached from the wall, and have an inner and outer face.

Arcera, R. A cart boarded all over so as to resemble a huge chest (arca). The inmate reclined on cushions and pillows covered with drapery; and the exterior was covered with hangings, the richness of which varied with the rank and fortune of the owner.

Arch (arcus, a bow). A structure the form of which is based on the segment of a circle. The kinds of arches are named according to the curve which they make. Round-headed arches; semicircular, segmental or stilted, introduced by the Romans. Triangular arches, of very early date. Horse-shoe arches; the Moorish, the common horse-shoe and the pointed (which is also a Moorish form). Then the trefoil arch of the Early English style: with its variations, including the square-headed trefoil of the 13th century. The lancet or acute-pointed; the equilateral; the pointed trefoil; the ogee, of the 14th and 15th century; the Tudor arch, of the reigns of Henry VII. and VIII.; and the decorative forms, not used in construction; the flamboyant, the cinquefoil and the multifoil are all described under the headings printed above in Italics.

Archaic (art). The first period of Art is distinguished by stiffness and conventionality of treatment, directed much more to the symbolic representation of an idea than to beauty or true imitation. It is properly called also the hieratic type, from its intimate relation to religious symbolism. See Selinuntian; Æginetan Marbles.

Archangels. The seven angels of the Christian hierarchy who stand in the presence of God. St. Michael, sometimes in complete armour, bears a sword and scales, as the Angel of Judgment, also a rod with a cross; St. Raphael bears a fish, and a pilgrim’s staff and gourd; St. Gabriel bears a lily; Uriel carries a parchment roll and a book, as the interpreter of prophecies; Chamuel bears a cup and a staff; Zophiel a flaming sword; and Zadchiel the sacrificial knife which he took from Abraham. The Archangels are generally represented with the nimbus, and clothed as princes and warriors; their ensign is a banner and cross, and they are armed with a sword and a dart in one hand.

Arched or Archy, Her. Bent or bowed.

Arched-buttress or Flying Buttress, Arch. An incomplete arch supporting the spandrels of a roof. It springs from a Buttress (q.v.).

Archeria, Med. Lat. A vertical loophole from which arrows could be discharged.

Archibault. (See Archivolt.)

Architrave, Gr. and R. (ἀρχὸς, chief; and Ital. trave, a beam). That part of a structure which rests immediately on the capital of a column or pilaster. Architraves are surmounted by a frieze and a cornice.

Archivium, Gr. and R. A building in which archives (charters and records) of a city or state were deposited. It was also called Archeion or Tabularium (q.v.).

Archivolt or Archibault, (arcus, and volutus, rolled round). The whole of the mouldings decorating an arch or arcade, and following the contour of the same.

Archlute, old Eng. A kind of theorbo, or double-necked lute. 16th century.

Archy. (See Arched.)

Arcosolium, Chr. (arcus, and solium, a coffin). An arched or vaulted sepulchral chamber in the catacombs, sanctified by the interment of martyrs and holy persons; and in later generations often richly decorated, as with marble incrustations, paintings, and mosaics. The arcosolia in which Christians of small means were buried are constructed in the walls of the passages in the catacombs. The wealthier Christians, however, had arcosolia specially excavated for their family and friends; the following inscription is frequently found on them: Nobis et nostris et amicis.

Arcuatio, R. A structure formed by means of arches or arcades, and employed to support a construction of any kind, such as a bridge, aqueducts, &c.

Arcubalista, R. (βάλλω, to throw). A machine for hurling arrows, somewhat similar to a cross-bow.

Arcubus. (See Arquebus.)

Arcula, R. Diminutive of Arca (q.v.). (1) A small chest. (2) A colour-box used by encaustic painters. (3) A small sepulchre, or stone coffin.

Arculum, R. A garland which the Dialis (Priest of Jupiter) wore on his head while sacrificing; it consisted of one or two pomegranate boughs bent into a circle and fastened with fillets of white or red wool.

Arcuma, R. A small carriage constructed to hold only one person. (See Plaustrum, Chiramaxium, Vehiculum.)

Arcus, R. (1) A bow for discharging arrows. There were many kinds in use among the ancients. Those of the Greeks and Romans presented on the whole much analogy with each other, while the Scythian bow differed entirely from both. (2) An arch of masonry; the arcus triumphalis was a triumphal arch. The Romans never used any other form of arch than the semicircle.

Ardenti. Literary Academies of this name existed at Pisa, at Naples, and at Viterbo.

Area, R. (1) Any broad, open and level space, and so a square or parade. Areæ were adorned with fountains and statues set up in honour of some divinity, who frequently gave his name to the spot. Thus at Rome there were the area Apollinis, area Mercurii, &c. (2) A threshing-floor in a field.

Arena, R. (1) Sand; a material employed in building. (2) The level space forming the area of an amphitheatre.

Arenaria, R. A Roman game of ball for two persons; it derived its name from the fact that the ball was made to rebound from the ground (arena).

Areste. A cloth of gold, elaborately figured, used for vestments. 13th century. It is not to be confounded with arras.

Fig. 37. Arezzo vase.

Arezzo Vase. Many fine examples of old Etruscan pottery have been found in or near the town of Arezzo in Tuscany. They are of red lustred ware ornamented in relief, and show evident traces of Greek origin. (Fig. [37].)

Argei, R. (1) Certain sites at Rome, having a small temple attached to them. (2) Images or lay-figures made of bulrushes, which were cast into the Tiber, on the Ides of May, from the Sublician bridge. This custom is still kept up in the south of France, where, in certain towns, on Ash-Wednesday, they drown an image called Caramentran who represents the god of the carnival.

Argent, Her. The metal silver, represented in engravings by a plain white.

Fig. 38. Point d’Argentan.

Argentan, Point d’. Lace made much in the same way as Point d’Alençon, but having the flowers bolder and larger in pattern and in higher relief; the foundation, called the bride-ground, is also coarser. It takes its name from the little town of Argentan in Normandy, where it was made. (Fig. [38].)

Fig. 39. Argentella lace.

Argentella. A name given to a lace made in Genoa, but worked much like Point d’Alençon.

Argive. A school of sculpture, contemporary with the Attic School of Pheidias; of which Polycletus was the head. He was the author of the Canon, or law of proportion in sculpture, exemplified in his Doryphorus (spear-bearer); he worked principally in bronze, and was famous for his chryselephantine statues. A specimen of the Argive school of sculpture is the Discobolus of Myron (a contemporary of Polycletus) in the British Museum. It is an ancient copy in marble from the original bronze statue. Closeness to Nature is a distinguishing characteristic of the Argive School.

Fig. 40. Battering-ram.

Aries or Ram. A battering-ram. It consisted of a stout beam, furnished at one end with an iron head, shaped like that of a ram, and was used to batter the walls of a city till a breach was effected. The battering-ram was at first worked by men, who simply carried it in their arms, but in course of time it was suspended from a wooden tower (Fig. [40]), or a vertical beam, and worked with the aid of ropes. When the battering-ram was enclosed in a kind of wooden shed bearing some resemblance to the shell of a tortoise, it was called by the name of that animal (testudo) (Fig. [41]).

Fig. 41. Battering-ram in testudo.

Ark, Chr. A symbol of the church.

Armanahuasi, Peruv. The baths of the ancient Peruvians. They were remarkable for the elegance and luxury displayed in their ornamentation. They were furnished with magnificent fountains, some of which threw their jets upwards (huraea), others in a horizontal direction (paccha).

Armarium, R. A cabinet, cupboard, or bookcase. Originally a place for keeping arms. Some were ornamented with plates of brass set in links of gold; others were made of gold inlaid with precious stones of various shapes. (See also Almery.)

Armatura, R. (1) In a general sense, armour of every kind. Thus armatura levis denoted the light infantry; and soldiers armed only with a hasta, and the dart, gæsa (of Gallic invention) were called leves milites. (2) The art of fencing. (3) The pieces of iron or bronze which connect stones or the parts of a structure. (4) The iron framework in a window or casement.

Armed, Her. Having natural weapons of offence, &c. A lion is armed of his claws and teeth, a bull of his horns, &c.

Armenian Green. (See Chrysocolla.)

Armet, Old Eng. A kind of helmet of the 16th century, worn with or without the beaver.

Armilausa, Lat. A classical garment adopted in England and elsewhere, worn by knights over their armour. Strutt describes it as “a round curtal weed, which they called a cloak, and in Latin armilausa, as only covering the shoulders.”

Fig. 42. Armilla. Celtic Bracelet.

Fig. 43. Armilla. Gaulish Bracelet.

Armilla. In general, any circlet of gold or silver which forms a bracelet for men or women, whether worn on the wrist, arm, or ankle. Bracelets worn by men often consisted of three or four massive bands of bronze, silver, or gold, and thus covered a considerable portion of the arm. Bracelets were worn by the Assyrians, the Babylonians, the Medes, the Persians, the Celts (Fig. [42]), and the Gauls (Fig. [43]). The Egyptians in some instances employed ivory and porcelain in their manufacture.

Armillum, R. A kind of urceolus, or small pitcher for holding a particular kind of wine. It was among the number of the sacrificial vessels, and was well known from the Latin proverb: Anus ad armillum (an old woman returns to her bottle).

Armilustrium. A Roman festival for the purification of arms.

Arming Points. The “points” or ties of armour.

Armins. Cloth or velvet coverings for pikehandles.

Armory, Her. (1) Heraldry. (2) A list of names and titles with the arms belonging to them.

Fig. 44. Primitive Roman Armour.

Armour, Arms. In almost every deposit where prehistoric remains are buried, we find clubs, hatchets, arrows, hammers, or other arms, mostly, even in the stone age, carefully ornamented. The ancient Egyptians were armed with “the bow, spear, two species of javelin, sling, a short and straight sword, dagger, knife, falchion, axe or hatchet, battle-axe, pole-axe, mace or club, &c. Their defensive arms consisted of a helmet of plate, or quilted head-piece, a cuirass, or coat of armour made of metal plates, or quilted with metal bands, and an ample shield” (Wilkinson). Among the Greeks, the heavy-armed warrior wore the greaves, cuirass, with the mitra underneath, and the zone or cingulum above; his sword, ensis or gladius, hung on his left side, and the large round shield, sacus, aspis, clipeus or scutum, hung from his shoulder; his helmet, corys, cunea, cassis or galea; his spear, enkus, doru or hasta, or two spears. The defensive armour, the shield and thorax, were called hopla, and the man hoplites. The light-armed, psiloi, anoploi, gymnai, gymnetai, had a slighter covering of skins, or cloth, and fought with darts, stones, bows and arrows or slings. There were also the peltastæ, so called from their small shield pelte. All the above-mentioned parts of classical armour, and their modifications in that of mediæval times are described under their respective headings; as well as much of mediæval armour.

Arnis, Gr. and R. An expiatory festival held in honour of Linus and his mother Psamathê, the daughter of Crotopus, king of Argos. Various legends are extant regarding the origin of this festival, which was called Arnis from the sheep (ἀρνειὸς) that were sacrificed.

Arotoi-Hieroi, Gr. Literally: sacred labours, a term used to denote three agricultural festivals which took place in Attica; the first was held in commemoration of the first sowing; the second, on occasion of reaping the earliest crop of barley in a field near Eleusis; the third, by way of invoking the blessings of Ceres on the field of corn specially set apart for the worship of Athena.

Arquebus. A hand-gun, larger than a musket. The man using it was called an arquebusier.

Arra or Arrha, R. A deposit, or earnest-money to a contract.

Arras. Tapestry. Textile hangings for walls; first made at Arras in the 14th century. It was originally called Opus Saracenicum.

Arrhæ Sponsalitiæ, called also Arrabo, was the name of the betrothal money paid to the parents of a bride; a practice of the Hebrews, continued by Christians.

Arrhephoria, Gr. (Ἀρρηφόρια). A festival held at Athens in the month of June or Scirophorium. The maidens who took part in it were called ἑροηφόροι or ἑροηφόροι. Four little girls and a priestess carried some sacred vessels to a grotto.

Arricciate, Ital. One of the coats of mortar laid on to a wall to receive fresco-painting.

Arrondie, Her. Curved, round.

Arrows, in Christian art, are the emblems of pestilence, death, and destruction.

Arsenicon, Greek for orpiment (q.v.).

Artemisia, Gr. A general term to denote all the festivals of Diana Artemis. The most celebrated were those held at Ephesus, Delphi, and Syracuse.

Articulation. The anatomical study of the juncture of the bones.

Artolaganus, R. (ἀρτο-λάγανον, i. e. bread-cake). A kind of dough-cake made with wine, milk, oil, and pepper. Cicero, in one of his letters, asserts that it was delicious.

Artophorium (bread-bearer), Chr. Another name for the ciborium or costly box prepared to contain the consecrated Host.

Artopta, Gr. and R. (from ἀρτάω, to bake). A mould in which bread and pastry were baked.

Artopticius, R. (sc. parús). A roll or loaf of bread baked in an artopta, many examples of which may be seen in the small museum at Pompeii; owing to their having become hardened, these loaves have retained their shape perfectly when taken from the oven after eighteen centuries.

Fig. 45. Arundel device.

Arundel Device. A chapeau or, and gules, surmounted by a fret or, and an acorn leaved vert. This is only one of the numerous badges of the house of Arundel, which is peculiarly rich in armorial bearings.

Arundel Marbles. A collection of ancient sculptures found in Greece and Asia Minor in the early part of the 17th century and brought to England at the expense of Thomas Howard, Earl of Arundel. In 1667 his grandson presented them to the University of Oxford.

Arundo, R. A term with various significations. (1) A reed or cane. (2) An arrow or bow made of cane. (3) A fishing-rod. (4) A cane rod tipped with bird-lime for catching birds. (5) A reed pen for writing. (6) A Pan’s pipe in which the reeds were joined together by wax; whence its name arundo cerata. (See Calamus.)

Arx, R. (arceo, to enclose). A citadel or fortress. Arx is almost equivalent to Acropolis (q.v.), since citadels were usually built on elevated sites, thus forming an upper city (ἀκρόπολις).

Fig. 46. Greek Aryballos.

Aryballos. A Greek flask or vase used for oil or wine. It was commonly of a bladder shape with a thin neck. The example engraved (Fig. [46]) is painted in the Asiatic style. On some of these vases the ornament is engraved.

Arystichos, Gr. and R. (from ἀρύω, to draw water). A vessel for drawing water, especially from the Amphora (q.v.). It was also called ephebos (ἔφηβος), because, at banquets, it was the duty of youths to mix the wine with water before handing it to the guests. This term has as synonyms aruter, arusane, arustis and oinerusis.

Arzica. (1) An artificial pigment of a yellow colour, used for miniature painting. (2) A yellow lake made from the herb “reseda luteola.” (3) A yellow earth for painting, of which the moulds for casting brass are formed; it yields an ochreous pigment of a pale yellow colour, which, when burned, changes to an orange colour.

Arzicon. A contraction of Arsenicon, for orpiment (q.v.).

As, R. The unit of value in the bronze currency of the Romans. Originally the as weighed one pound, whence its name as liberalis; and as it was composed of a mixture of copper and tin (æs), it was also called æs grave. At a later period the as had much declined in value; under Augustus it was only worth somewhat less than a penny.

Asaminthos, Gr. (ἀσάμινθος). A large vase of the Homeric epoch, large enough to admit of a person bathing in it. It is supposed that this was the tub of Diogenes.

Asbestus. (See Amiantus.)

Ascendant, Her. Issuing upwards, as a flower.

Ascia, Gr. and R. A term applied to instruments of various shapes and employed for different purposes, but all bearing a general resemblance to a carpenter’s adze. The expression sub ascia dedicavit, which is frequently found engraved on tombs together with the representation of an ascia, has given rise to numerous interpretations. It is supposed that this expression signified: This tomb [never before used] has been dedicated to the memory of the person in whose honour it was erected; or possibly the formula implied that the plot upon which the memorial stood had been granted in perpetuity. After all the discussion to which the formula has given rise, these are the two hypotheses most generally accepted. (See Acisculus.)

Ascopera, Gr. and R. (ἀσκὸς, leathern bag or wine-skin; πήρα, a pouch). A large bag made of undressed leather, carried as knapsack by foot-travellers, and thus distinguished from the Hippopera (q.v.).

Ascolia, Ascolias, Gr. and R. (from ἀσκὸς, a wine-skin). An Athenian game which consisted in leaping upon a wine-skin, filled with wine and greased over with oil, during the festivals in honour of Dionysus.

Ashlar, Achelor, &c.; also Astler or Estlar, O. E. Hewn stone for the facings of walls. “Clene hewen Ashler.”

Asilla, R. A yoke, like a milkman’s, or the Malay picol, for carrying burdens; is a common object in Egyptian and all other ancient representations of domestic appliances.

Asinarii. A term of reproach inherited by the early Christians from the Jews, who were accused of worshipping an ass.

Askos, Gr. and R. (ἀσκός). A vessel, originally shaped like a leather bottle (uter) for holding water or wine. It was furnished with a handle at the top, and had sometimes two mouths, one of which served to fill, the other to empty it. Later on, the askos assumed the form of an earthenware pitcher.

Asor, Heb. A musical instrument of ten strings played with the plectrum.

Asp. In Egyptian art the emblem of royalty; in Christian art, under the feet of saints, of conquered malice.

Aspectant, Her. Looking at one another.

Asperges, Aspergillum, Chr. The rod for sprinkling holy water.

Aspersed, Her. Scattered over,—the same as Semée.

Aspersorium, Chr. The stoup, or holy water basin.

Asphaltum. A brown carbonaceous pigment used in painting. It is found in various parts of the world, more particularly in Egypt, China, Naples, and Trinidad. The best is the Egyptian. (See Bitumen, Mummy.)

Aspic. (See Oil of Spike.)

Ass, Chr. An emblem of patience and sobriety; but also of idleness and obstinacy; sometimes of the Jewish nation.

Ass, Festival of the. A grotesque Christian festival of the Middle Ages, connected with the prominence of the ass in religious history.

Asser, R. (1) A beam, pole, or joist. (2) The rafters of a wooden roof. (3) Asser falcatus was a kind of ram which was launched, with the aid of machinery, by the garrison of a fortified town, against the enemy’s siege works.

Assett, O. E. A salver.

Assommoir, Fr. A sort of gallery built over a door or passage of a fortified place, from which stones, lead, and other heavy objects could be hurled down to overwhelm (assommer) the besiegers. Hence the name.

Asterisk, Chr. Sometimes called Stellula. A kind of crossed framework made of gold or silver, consisting of two arched bands which are sometimes surmounted, at the point of intersection, by a cross. The asterisk is placed upon the patera for the purpose of keeping up the cloth which covers the consecrated wafers of the host.

Astler. (See Ashlar.)

Astragal (ἀστράγαλος, knuckle-bone). A small semicircular moulding, so called from its resemblance to a row of knuckle-bones placed side by side. As it is decorated with beads, or berries of laurel or olive, separated by discs, it is now commonly known as a chaplet. Astragals are placed at the top of a column, beneath the capital, and divide the architrave into two or three parts. They are also used to decorate any kind of base. (See Torus.)

Astragalus, R. The ancient game of knuckle-bones; a common subject in classical sculpture, called also Tali.

Astreated, Arch. Star-shaped ornaments, used in Norman mouldings.

Asylum, Gr. and R. (ἄ-συλον, safe from violence). A place of refuge, to which was attached the privilege of inviolability called asulia. This privilege belonged to certain temples, woods, or other sacred enclosures. There were a considerable number of such retreats in Greece and the Greek colonies.

At Gaze, Her. Said of animals of the chase “standing still and looking about them.”

Atach-gah, Pers. The fire-altar of the ancient Persians; mentioned in the writings of Pausanias and Strabo.

Atellanæ (sc. fabulæ), R. A farce, so called from its having originated in Atella, a city of the Osci, in Campania. Hence the name of Oscan games (ludi Osci). Atellanæ were played by youths of good family, on the conclusion of a tragedy. They were introduced into Rome in the fourth century B.C. These farces were distinguished by their refinement, and freedom from low buffoonery.

Athenæum. A university for literary and scientific studies at Rome, on the Capitoline Hill.

Athyr, Egyp. One of the months of the ancient Egyptians. It was the third of the four months called the months of inundation.

Fig. 47. One of the Atlantes of the Theatre of Bacchus at Athens.

Atlantes, Gr. and R. (from τλῆναι). Human figures so called, in allusion to the story of the Titan Atlas, which were employed instead of columns to support entablatures (Fig. [47]). The Latin equivalent for the term is Telamones. Similar female figures were Caryatides.

Fig. 48. Atlas, a device used by Philip II. of Spain.

Atlas. One of the several devices adopted by Philip II. of Spain was a figure of Hercules bearing on his shoulders and kneeling beneath, the weight of the world; a feat recorded to have been performed by him in order to give relief to Atlas from his customary burden. The motto “Ut quiescat Atlas,” is written on a ribbon.

Atramentale, Atramentarium, Gr. and R. (atramentum, q.v.). An inkstand, of any shape or material whatsoever. Inkstands were made of terra-cotta, bronze, and silver. There is a Pompeian painting in which a double inkstand is represented, one side of which contains black ink, the other an ink of some different colour. There were also portable inkstands called theca. (See Theca.)

Atramentum, Gr. and R. (ater, black). A general term to denote any kind of black liquid; such were atramentum scriptorum, atramentum librarium, or simply atramentum—all terms for writing ink; atramentum sutorum, the black used by shoemakers for dyeing their leather, another name for which was chalcamentum (q.v.); and atramentum tectorium, a kind of ink used for writing inscriptions with a brush. In ancient times, all descriptions of ink were made with soot and gum, forming a kind of Indian ink which was diluted with water. Vitruvius (Book VII.) thus describes the process by which atramentum was obtained: “Soot is first procured by burning rosin in a vaulted chamber, and the black (atramentum) thus obtained is then mixed with gum.”

Atriolum, R. (dimin. of Atrium). (1) A small atrium. It might be either a smaller atrium adjoining the principal one in a house, or the atrium of a dwelling of inferior size. (2) A small antechamber forming the entrance of a tomb.

Fig. 49. Atrium, with Ionic columns.

Atrium, R. and Mod. A term perhaps derived from Atria, a city of Tuscany in which structures of this description were first built. It consisted of a kind of covered court (cavædium), round which were grouped the different apartments of the house. In the centre of the roof was an aperture with sloping sides called the compluvium, and in the court beneath, a basin which collected the rain-water from the roof. This was called the impluvium. There were besides, the atrium displuviatum and the atrium testudinatum. The atrium was unquestionably the most essential and the most interesting part of a Roman mansion; it was here that numbers assembled daily to pay their respects to their patron, to consult the legislator, to attract the notice of the statesman, or to derive importance in the eyes of the public from an apparent intimacy with a man in power.—Moule.

Fig. 50. Atrium, with Doric columns.

During the Middle Ages the term atrium was used to denote the open plot of ground surrounding a church, which served for a cemetery, and the close or courtyard of certain churches.

Attegia, R. A hut or cabin made of reeds, and covered with thatch.

Attic-order, Arch. An arrangement of low pilasters, surmounting a building.

Fig. 51. Atticurge doorway at Agrigentum.

Atticurge, Arch. (Ἀττικουργὴς, wrought in Attic fashion). A doorway, the uprights of which, instead of being perpendicular, inclined slightly inwards, so that the opening was wider at the threshold than immediately under the lintel. Fig. [51] represents the doorway of an ancient monument at Agrigentum, in Sicily.

Attires, Attired, Her. The antlers of a stag or “hart” having antlers.

Attributes. Conventional symbols of the character, or the agency, or the history, of subjects of art representation.

Auditorium, R. (a place for hearing). A lecture-room, assembly-room, court of justice, or generally any place in which orators, poets. &c., were heard. The Basilicæ contained halls so named, in which courts of justice were held.

Augmentation, Her. An honourable addition to a coat of arms.

Augurale, R. (augur, a soothsayer). In a Roman camp the augurale was a place situated to the right of the general’s tent or Prætorium (q.v.). It was so called because the augurs there took their station to observe the flight of birds. In Greece, the oracles were consulted; but in Rome questions were addressed to Jupiter, who answered simply “Do” or “Do not,” by his messengers the birds. They gave no prophecies.

Augustine’s Oak, at Aust on the Severn; the scene of the conference between St. Augustine and the British bishops, A. D. 602.

Aula, Gr. and R. (αὐλή). (1) An open court attached to a house. It was usually in front, and on either side of it were the stables and offices. When it belonged to a farm it was round this courtyard that the stabling, sheepfolds, and other outhouses were arranged. (2) Aula regia was the central part of the scene in a Greek or Roman theatre.

Aulæa or Aulæum, R. (aula, a hall). (1) Hangings or tapestry used to decorate the dining-room or triclinium, or generally, any piece of tapestry used as a curtain, whether to cover a doorway, act as a screen, or hide the stage in a theatre. (2) The covering of a sofa or dining-couch, also called, from the way in which it hung all round it, peristroma (περίστρωμα). Aulæa is almost synonymous with Velum (q.v.).

Fig. 52. Aulmonière.

Aulmonière. The Norman name for the pouch, bag, or purse appended to the girdle of noble persons, and derived from the same root as “alms” and “almoner.” It was more or less ornamented and hung from long laces of silk or gold; it was sometimes called Alner. (Fig. [52].) (See Allouyère.)

I will give thee an alner

Made of silk and gold clear.

(Lay of Sir Launfal.)

Aulos, Gr. The Greeks gave this name to all wind instruments of the flute, or oboe, kind; it was not blown at the side like a flute, but by a vibrating reed in the mouthpiece, like a clarionet. The single flute was called monaulos, and the double one diaulos.

Aumbrie, Aumery, Almery, O. E. A cupboard or closet.

Aumery of Here, O. E. A cupboard with hair-cloth sides for ventilation. A meat-safe.

Aureola, Chr. (aurum, gold). A quadrangular, circular, or elliptic halo surrounding the bodies of Christ, the Virgin, or certain saints. Another name for this ornament is the mystical almond or Vesica Piscis (q.v.). When it envelopes the head only it is called the Nimbus.

Aureole. (See Aureola.)

Aureus, R. (sc. nummus, golden). The unit of value for gold currency under the Roman emperors, worth about a guinea.

Auripetrum. A cheap imitation of gold leaf; made of tinfoil coloured with saffron.

Auspicium, R. (aves aspicio). Divination from observation of the flight of birds. (Auspicium ex avibus, signa ex avibus.) There was also the auspicium cœleste or signa ex cœlo, of which the most important was a flash of lightning from a clear sky. Besides these there were the auspicia pullaria, or auspices taken from the sacred chickens; the auspicia pedestria, caduca, &c. (See Augurale.)

Authepsa, Gr. and R. (αὐθέψης). Literally a self-boiler; it was a sort of kettle or cauldron, which was exposed to the rays of the sun, to heat the water within it; whether, however, the ancients had attained the art of raising water to boiling heat, in this manner, it is impossible to say. The apparatus is mentioned by Cicero and Lampridius, but neither of them gives any description of it.

Avellane. A variety of the heraldic cross. (See Crosses.)

Avena, R. (oats). A Pandæan pipe, made of the stalk of the wild oat.

Aventail, Fr. (avant taille). The movable front of a helmet.

Aventurine. A kind of brown glass, mixed with bright copper filings, formerly made at Venice.

Averta, R. A trunk, bag, or portmanteau, carried on the crupper by travellers who rode on horseback.

Aviarium, R. (avis, a bird). (1) A poultry-yard. (2) An aviary in which birds—and more particularly those of rare breeds—were kept.

Axis, R. (1) The axle-tree of a carriage. (2) Axis versatilis was a cylinder worked by a crank, and used for drawing water from a well by means of a cord which rolled round it as it revolved. (3) The upright pivot upon which a door turned. It worked in two sockets, placed respectively in the upper and lower lintels.

Azarcon. The Spanish name for red lead.

Azure. A blue colour known from the very earliest times. Azure stone was the name given to the lapis lazuli. The name is given also to Cobalt. In heraldry it is the name for the blues in the arms of persons whose rank is below that of a baron; it is represented in heraldic engraving by regular horizontal lines.

Azyme, Chr. Unleavened bread.