FOOTNOTES:
Published by the Record Office, 1848.
Published by the Royal Academy of Berlin. Vol. VII. contains the Romano-British Inscriptions.
His later books only survive in the epitome of Xiphilinus, a Byzantine writer of the 13th century.
See p. 171.
See p. 256.
In the British (?) village near Glastonbury the bases of shed antlers are found hafted for mallets.
This name is simply given for archaeological convenience, to indicate that these aborigines were non-Aryan, and perhaps of Turanian affinity.
Skeat, however, traces "ogre" (the Spanish "ogro") to the Latin Orcus.
The latest excavations (1902) prove Stonehenge to be a Neolithic erection. No metal was found, but quantities of flint implements, broken in the arduous task of dressing the great Sarsen monoliths. The process seems to have been that still used for granite, viz. to cut parallel channels on the rough surface, and then break and rub down the ridges between. This was done by the use of conical lumps of Sarsen stone, weighing from 20 to 60 lbs., several of which were discovered bearing traces of usage, both in pounding and rubbing. The monoliths examined were found to be thus tooled accurately down to the very bottom, 8 or 9 feet below ground. At Avebury the stones are not dressed.
Sarsen is the same word as Saracen, which in mediaeval English simply means foreign (though originally derived from the Arabic sharq = Eastern). Whence the stones came is still disputed. They may have been boulders deposited in the district by the ice-drift of the Glacial Epoch.
Professor Rhys assigns 600 B.C. as the approximate date of the first Gadhelic arrivals, and 200 B.C. as that of the first Brythonic.
Whether or no this word is (as some authorities hold) derived from the Welsh Prutinach (=Picts) rather than from the Brythons, it must have reached Aristotle through Brythonic channels, for the Gadhelic form is Cruitanach.
A certain amount of British folk-lore was brought back to Greece, according to Plutarch ('De defect. orac.' 2), by the geographer Demetrias of Tarsus about this time. He refers to the cavern of sleeping heroes, so familiar in our mediaeval legends.
The word is said to be derived from the root kâsh, "shine." Some authorities, however, maintain that it came into Sanscrit from the Greek.
'Hist.' III. 112.
See p. 48.
For a full notice of Pytheas see Elton, 'Origins of English History,' pp. 13-75. See also Tozer's 'Ancient Geography,' chap. viii.
Posidonius of Rhodes, the tutor of Cicero, visited Britain about 100 B.C., and wrote a History of his travels in fifty volumes, only known to us by extracts in Strabo (iii. 217, iv. 287, vii. 293), Diodorus Siculus (v. 28, 30), Athenaeus, and others. See Bake's 'Posidonius' (Leyden, 1810).
The ingots of bronze found in the recent [1900] excavations at Gnossus, in Crete, which date approximately from 2000 B.C., are of this shape. Presumably the Britons learnt it from Phoenician sources.
Saxon coracles are spoken of even in the 5th century A.D. See p. 245.
'Coins of the Ancient Britons,' p. 24.
This familiar feature of our climate is often touched on by classical authors. Minucius Felix (A.D. 210) is observant enough to connect it with our warm seas, "its compensation," due to the Gulf Stream.
'Nat. Hist.' xviii. 18.
Ibid. xvii. 4.
Solinus (A.D. 80) adds that bees, like snakes, were unknown in Ireland, and states that bees will even desert a hive if Irish earth be brought near it!
Matthew Martin, 'Western Isles,' published 1673. Quoted by Elton ('Origins of English Hist.,' p. 16), who gives Martin's date as 1703.
Strabo, iv. 277. The word basket is itself of Celtic origin, and passed into Latin as it has passed into English. Martial ('Epig.' xiv. 299) says: "Barbara de pictis veni bascauda Britannis." Strabo wrote shortly before, Martial shortly after, the Roman Conquest of Britain.
One of these primitive mortars, a rudely-hollowed block of oolite, with a flint pestle weighing about 6 lbs., was found near Cambridge in 1885.
Diod. Siculus, 'Hist.' v. 21.
'British Barrows,' p. 750.
'Geog.' IV.
'Legend of Montrose,' ch. xxii.
Diod. Sic. v. 30: "Saga crebris tessellis florum instar distincta." This sagum was obviously a tartan plaid such as are now in use. The kilt, however, was not worn. It is indeed a comparatively quite modern adaptation of the belted plaid. Ancient Britons wore trousers, drawn tight above the ankles, after the fashion still current amongst agricultural labourers. They were already called "breeches." Martial (Ep. x. 22) satirizes a life "as loose as the old breeches of a British pauper."
Pliny, 'Nat. Hist.' viii. 48.
Id. xxviii. 2. Fashions about hair seem to have changed as rapidly amongst Britons (throughout the whole period of this work) as in later times. The hair was sometimes worn short, sometimes long, sometimes strained back from the forehead; sometimes moustaches were in vogue, sometimes a clean shave, more rarely a full beard; but whiskers were quite unknown.
Tozer ('Ancient Geog.' p. 164) states that amber is also exported from the islands fringing the west coast of Schleswig, and considers that these rather than the Baltic shores were the "Amber Islands" of Pytheas.
'Nat. Hist.' xxxvii. 1.
See p. 128.
A lump weighing nearly 12 lbs. was dredged up off Lowestoft in 1902.
A.D. 50.
Seneca speaks of the blue shields of the Yorkshire Brigantes.
See Elton, 'Origins of English History,' p. 116.
Thurnam, 'British Barrows' (Archaeol. xliii. 474).
Propertius, iv. 3, 7.
'Celtic Britain,' p. 40.
This seems the least difficult explanation of this strange name. An alternative theory is that it = Cenomanni (a Gallic tribe-name also found in Lombardy). But with this name (which must have been well known to Caesar) we never again meet in Britain. And it is hard to believe that he would not mention a clan so important and so near the sphere of his campaign as the Iceni.
See p. 109.
These tribes are described by Vitruvius, at the Christian era, as of huge stature, fair, and red-haired. Skeletons of this race, over six feet in height, have been discovered in Yorkshire buried in "monoxylic" coffins; i.e. each formed of the hollowed trunk of an oak tree. See Elton's 'Origins,' p. 168.
This correspondence, however, is wholly an antiquarian guess, and rests on no evidence. It is first found in the forged chronicle of "Richard of Cirencester." The names are genuine, being found in the 'Notitia,' though dating only from the time of Diocletian (A.D. 296). But, on our theory, the same administrative divisions must have existed all along. See p. 225.
General Pitt Rivers, however, in his 'Excavations in Cranborne Chase' (vol. ii. p. 237), proves that the ancient water level in the chalk was fifty feet higher than at present, presumably owing to the greater forest area. "Dew ponds" may also have existed in these camps. But these can scarcely have provided any large supply of water.
The word is commonly supposed to represent a Celtic form Mai-dun. But this is not unquestionable.
'De Bello Gall.' vi. 13.
'De Bell. Gall.' vi. 14.
Jerome ('Quaest. in Gen.' ii.) says that Varro, Phlegon, and all learned authors testify to the spread of Greek [at the Christian era] "from Taurus to Britain." And Solinus (A.D. 80) tells of a Greek inscription in Caledonia, "ara Graecis literis scripta"—as a proof that Ulysses (!) had wandered thither (Solinus, 'Polyhistoria,' c. 22). See p. 248.
'De Bell, Gall.' vi. 16.
'Hist.' v. 31.
'Celtic Britain,' p. 69.
'Nat. Hist.' xvi. 95.
So Caesar, 'De Bell. Gall.' vi. 17.
Pliny, 'Nat. Hist.' xxiv. 62. Linnaeus has taken selago as his name for club-moss, but Pliny here compares the herb to savin, which grows to the height of several feet. Samolum is water-pimpernel in the Linnaean classification. Others identify it with the pasch-flower, which, however, is far from being a marsh plant.
Suetonius (A.D. 110), 'De xii. Caes.' v. 25.
Pliny, 'Nat. Hist.' xxx. 3.
Tacitus, 'Annals,' xiv. 30. See p. 154.
Pliny, 'Nat. Hist.' xxix. 12.
See Brand, 'Popular Antiquities,' under Ovum Anguinum. He adds that Glune is the Irish for glass.
Lampridius, in his life of Alexander Severus, tells us of a "Druid" sorceress who warned the Emperor of his approaching doom. Another such "Druidess" is said to have foretold Diocletian's rise. See Coulanges, 'Comme le Druidisme a disparu,' in the Revue Celtique, iv. 37.
See Professor Rhys, 'Celtic Britain,' p. 70. The Professor's view that the "schismatical" tonsure of the Celtic clergy, which caused such a stir during the evangelization of England, was a Druidical survival, does not, however, seem probable in face of the very pronounced antagonism between those clergy and the Druids. That tonsure was indeed ascribed by its Roman denouncers to Simon Magus [see above], but this is scarcely a sufficient foundation for the theory.
They may very possibly have been connected with the Veneti of Venice at the other extremity of "the Gauls."
See p. 37.
Caesar, 'Bell. Gall.' iii. 9, 13.
Elton, 'Origins of English Hist.,' p. 237. Though less massive, these vessels are built much as the Venetian. But it is just as probable they may really be "picts." See p. 232.
This opening of Britain to continental influences may perhaps account for Posidonius having been able to make so thorough a survey of the islands. See p. 36.
Elton ('Origins of English Hist.') conjectures that these tribes did not migrate to Britain till after Caesar's day. But there is no evidence for this, and my view seems better to explain the situation.
Solinus (A.D. 80) says of Britain, "alterius orbis nomen mereretur." This passage is probably the origin of the Pope's well-known reference to St. Anselm, when Archbishop of Canterbury, as "quasi alterius orbis antistes."
A Roman legion at this date comprised ten "cohorts," i.e. some six thousand heavy-armed infantry, besides a small light-armed contingent, and an attached squadron of three hundred cavalry. Each of Caesar's transports must thus have carried from one hundred and fifty to two hundred men, and at this rate the eighteen cavalry vessels (reckoning a horse as equivalent to five men, the usual proportion for purposes of military transport) would suffice for his two squadrons.
An ancient ship could not sail within eight points of the wind (see Smith, 'Voyage of St. Paul'). Thus a S.W. breeze, while permitting Caesar to leave Boulogne, would effectually prevent these vessels from working out of Ambleteuse.
Hence the name Dubris = "the rivers."
The claims of Richborough [Ritupis] to be Caesar's actual landing-place have been advocated by Archdeacon Baddeley, Mr. G. Bowker, and others. But it is almost impossible to make this place square with Caesar's narrative.
This was four days before the full moon, so that the tide would be high at Dover about 6 p.m.
The "lofty promontory" rounded is specially noticed by Dio Cassius.
The principle of the balista that of the sling, of the catapult that of the bow. Ammianus Marcellinus (xv. 12) speaks of "the snowy arms" of the Celtic women dealing blows "like the stroke of a catapult."
Valerius Maximus (A.D. 30) has recorded one such act of daring on the part of a soldier named Scaeva, who with four comrades held an isolated rock against all comers till he alone was left, when he plunged into the sea and swam off, with the loss of his shield. In spite of this disgrace Caesar that evening promoted him on the field. The story has a suspicious number of variants, but off Deal there is such a patch of rocks, locally called the Malms; so that it may possibly be true ('Memorabilia,' III. 2, 23).
Valerius Maximus (A.D. 30) states that the Romans landed on a falling tide, which cannot be reconciled with Caesar's own narrative (see p. 88). The idea may have originated in the fact that it was probably the approaching turn of the tide which forced him to land at Deal. He could not have reached Richborough before the ebb began.
Every soldier was four feet from his nearest neighbour to give scope for effective sword-play. No other troops in history have ever had the morale thus to fight at close quarters.
See Plutarch, 'De placitis philosophorum.'
Each chariot may have carried six or seven men, like those of the Indian King Porus. See Dodge, 'Alexander,' p. 554.
Pomponius Mela ('De Situ Orbis,' I) tells us that by his date (50 A.D.) it had come in: "Covinos vocant, quorum falcatis axîbus utuntur."
It is thus represented by Giraldus Cambrensis, who gives us the story of Caesar's campaigns from the British point of view, as it survived (of course with gross exaggerations) in the Cymric legends of his day.
Lucan, the last champion of anti-Caesarism, sung, two generations after its overthrow, the praises and the dirge of the Oligarchy.
See my 'Alfred in the Chroniclers,' p. 44.
'Ad Treb.' Ep. VI.
'Ad Treb.' Ep. VII.
Ep. 10.
Ep. 16.
Ep. 17.
IV. 15.
III. 1.
II. 16.
II. 15.
III. 10.
Wace ('Roman de Ron,' 11,567) gives 696 as the exact total.
'Strategemata,' viii. 23.
This was probably not Deal, which had not proved a satisfactory station, but Richborough, where the Wantsum, then a broad arm of the sea between Kent and Thanet, provided an excellent harbour for a large fleet. It was, moreover, the regular emporium of the tin trade (see p. 36), and a British trackway thus led to it.
Otherwise Cadwallon, which, according to Professor Rhys, signifies War King, and may possibly have been a title rather than a personal name. But it remained in use as the latter for many centuries of British history.
Vine, 'Caesar in Kent,' p. 171. The spot is "in Bourne Park, not far from the road leading up to Bridge Hill."
See p. 244.
See II. G. 8. The tradition of this sentiment long survived. Hegesippus (A.D. 150) says: "Britanni ... quidesse servitus ignorabant; soli sibi nati, semper sibi liberi" ('De Bello Judiaco,' II. 9).
Polyaenus (A.D. 180) in his 'Strategemata' (viii. 23) ascribes their panic to Caesar's elephant. See p. 107.
At Ilerda. See Dodge, 'Caesar,' xxviii.
Frontinus (A.D. 90), 'Strategemata II.' xiii. II.
Coins of all three bear the words COMMI. F. (Commii Filius), but Verica alone calls himself REX. Those of Eppillus were struck at Calleva (Silchester?).
See p. 54.
This is the spelling adopted by Suetonius.
The lion was already a specially British emblem. Ptolemy ('de Judiciis II.' 3) ascribes the special courage of Britons to the fact that they are astrologically influenced by Leo and Mars. It is interesting to remember that our success in the Crimean War was prognosticated from Mars being in Leo at its commencement (March 1854). Tennyson, in 'Maud,' has referred to this—"And pointed to Mars, As he hung like a ruddy shield on the Lion's breast."
See p. 38.
The site of this town is quite unknown. Caesar mentions the Segontiaci amongst the clans of S.E. Britain.
In S.E. Essex, near Colchester. See p. 176.
See pp. 109, 122.
Aelian (A.D. 220), 'De Nat. Animal.' xv. 8.
Ελεφάντινα ψάλια καὶ, περιαυχένια, καὶ νιγγούρια καὶ ὑαλᾶ σκεύη ὑαλᾶ σκεύη, καὶ ῥῶπος τοίουτος [Elephantina psalia, kai periauchenia, kai lingouria kai huala skeuê, kai rhôpos toioutos]. Strabo is commonly supposed to mean that these were the imports from Gaul. But his words are quite ambiguous, and such of the articles he mentions as are found in Britain are clearly of native manufacture. British graves are fertile (see p. 48) in the "amber and glass ornaments" (the former being small roughly-shaped fragments pierced for threading, the latter coarse blue or green beads), and produce occasional armlets of narwhal ivory. Glass beads have been found (1898) in the British village near Glastonbury, and elsewhere.
Strabo, v. 278.
Propertius, II. 1. 73: Esseda caelatis siste Britanna jugis.
Ibid. II. 18. 23. See p. 47.
Virgil, 'Georg.' III. 24.
Virgil, 'Eccl.' I. 65; Horace, 'Od.' I. 21. 13, 35. 30, III. 5. 3; Tibullus, IV. 1. 147; Propertius, IV. 3. 7.
Suetonius, 'De XII. Caes.' IV. 19.
The lofty spur of the Chiltern Hills which overhangs the church of Ellsborough is traditionally the site of his tomb.
This whole episode is from 'Dio Cassius' (lib. xxxix. Section 50).
He places Cirencester in their territory, while both Bath and Winchester belonged to the Belgae. To secure Winchester, where they would be on the line of the tin-trade road (see p. 36), would be the first object of the Romans if they did land at Portsmouth. Their further steps would depend upon the disposition of the British armies advancing to meet them,—the final objective of the campaign being Camelodune, the capital of the sons of Cymbeline.
This is stated by both Geoffrey of Monmouth and Matthew of Westminster.
For three centuries this legion was quartered at Caerleon-upon-Usk, and the Twentieth at Chester. See Mommsen, 'Roman Provinces,' p. 174.
This was the honorary title of several legions; as there are several "Royal" regiments.
Tac, 'Hist.' III. 44.
The Flavian family was of very humble origin.
Bede, from Suetonius, tells us that Vespasian with his legion fought in Britain thirty-two battles and took twenty towns, besides subduing the Isle of Wight ('Sex. Aet.' A.D. 80).
If the Romans were advancing eastward from the Dobunian territory it may have been the Loddon. Mommsen cuts the knot in true German fashion by refusing to identify the Dobuni of Ptolemy with those of Dion, and placing the latter in Kent on his own sole authority. ('Roman Provinces,' p. 175.)
δυσδιέξοδα [dusdiexoda.]
See p. 139.
'Orosius,' VII. 5.
A victorious Roman general was commonly thus hailed by his troops after any signal victory. But by custom this could only be done once in the same campaign.
Suet. v. 21.
Dio Cassius, lx. 23. The boy, who was the child of Messalina, had previously been named Germanicus.
Suet. v. 28.
Suet. v. 21.
Tac., 'Ann.' xii. 56.
Dio Cassius, lx. 30.
Suet. v. 24.
Dio Cassius, lx. 30.
Eutropius, vii. 13.
Muratori, Thes. mcii. 6.
'De XII. Caesaribus,' v. 28.
Dio Cassius, lx. 23.
See Haverfield in 'Authority and Archaeology,' p. 319
'Laus Claudii' (Burmann, 'Anthol.' ii. 8).
See p. 152.
The inscription runs thus:
NEPTVNO. ET. MINERVAE
TEMPLVM
pro SALVTE. DO mus DIVINAE
ex AVCTORITATE. Ti. CLAVD
Co GIDVBNI. R. LEGATI. AVG. IN. BRIT.
Colle GIVM. FABRO. ET. QVI. IN. E.
. . . . . D.S.D. DONANTE. AREAM.
Pud ENTE. PVDENTINI. FILiae
(The italics are almost certain restoration of illegible letters.)
See p. 256.
Claudia, the British Princess mentioned by Martial as making a distinguished Roman marriage, may very probably be his daughter.
See p. 130.
Thus in St. Luke ii. we find Cyrenius Pro-praetor (ἡγεμων [hêgemôn]) of Syria, but in Acts xviii. Gallio Pro-consul (ὰνθύπατος [hanthupatos]) of Achaia.
See p. 131.
See p. 170.
His reputation for strength, skill, and daring cost him his life a few years later, under Nero (Tac, 'Ann.' xvi. 15).
Pigs of lead have been found in Denbighshire stamped CANGI or DECANGI. Mr. Elton, however, locates the tribe in Somerset. Coins testify to Antedrigus, the Icenian, being somehow connected with this tribe.
A Roman "Colony" was a town peopled by citizens of Rome (old soldiers being preferred) sent out in the first instance to dominate the subject population amid whom they were settled. Such was Philippi.
Tacitus, 'Annals,' xii. 38.
The distinction of an actual triumph was reserved for Emperors alone.
Tacitus, 'Annals,' xii. 39.
See p. 239. Uriconium alone has as yet furnished inscriptions of the famous Fourteenth Legion, "Victores Britannici." (See p. 160.)
'Ep. ad Atticum,' vi. 1.
See Dio Cassius, xii. 2.
The Procurator of a Province was the Imperial Finance Administrator. (See Haverfield, 'Authority and Archaeology,' p. 310.)
An inscription calls the place Colonia Victricensis.
Tacitus, 'Ann.' xiv. 32.
Demeter and Kore. M. Martin ('Hist. France,' i. 63) thinks there is here a confusion between the Greek Kore (Proserpine) and Koridwen, the White Fairy, the Celtic Goddess of the Moon and also (as amongst the Greeks) of maidenhood. But this is not proven.
The former is Strabo's variant of the name (which may possibly be connected with σεμνός [semnos]), the latter that of Dionysius Periegetes ('De Orbe,' 57). In Caesar we find a third form Namnitae, which Professor Rhys connects with the modern Nantes.
See p. 127.
As Agricola, his father-in-law, was actually with Suetonius, Tacitus had exceptional opportunities for knowing the truth.
Suetonius probably retreated southward when he left London, and reoccupied its ruins when the Britons, instead of following him, turned northwards to Verulam.
The Roman pilum was a casting spear with a heavy steel head, nine inches long.
Tac., 'Agricola,' c. 12.
That the well-known coins commemorating these victories and bearing the legend IVDAEA CAPTA are not infrequently found in Britain, indicates the special connection between Vespasian and our island. The great argument used by Titus and Agrippa to convince the Jews that even the walls of Jerusalem would fail to resist the onset of Romans was that no earthly rampart could compare with the ocean wall of Britain (Josephus, D.B.J., II. 16, vi, 6).
The spread of Latin oratory and literature in Britain is spoken of at this date by Juvenal (Sat. xv. 112), and Martial (Epig. xi. 3), who mentions that his own works were current here: "Dicitur et nostros cantare Britannia versus."
Mr. Haverfield suggests that Silchester may also be an Agricolan city (see p. 184).
Juvenal mentions these designs (II. 159):
"—Arma quidem ultra
Litora Juvernae promovimus, et modo captas
Orcadas, et minima contentos nocte Britannos" (i.e. those furthest north).
According to Dio Cassius this voyage of discovery was first made by some deserters ('Hist. Rom.' lxix. 20).
The little that is known of this rampart will be found in the next chapter (see p. 198).
Sallustius Lucullus, who succeeded Agricola as Pro-praetor, was slain by Domitian only for the invention of an improved lance, known by his name (as rifles now are called Mausers, etc.).
See p. 117.
All highways were made Royal Roads before the end of the 12th century, so that the course of the original four became matter of purely antiquarian interest.
Where it struck that sea is disputed, but Henry of Huntingdon's assertion that it ran straight from London to Chester seems the most probable.
The lines of these roads, if produced, strike the Thames not at London Bridge, but at the old "Horse Ferry" to Lambeth. This may point to an alternative (perhaps the very earliest) route.
Guest ('Origines Celticae') derives "Ermine" from A.S. eorm=fen, and "Watling" from the Welsh Gwyddel=Goidhel=Irish. The Ermine Street, however, nowhere touches the fenland; nor did any Gaelic population, so far as is known, abut upon the Watling Street, at any rate after the English Conquest. Verulam was sometimes called Watling-chester, probably as the first town on the road.
The distinction between "Street" and "Way" must not, however, be pressed, as is done by some writers. The Fosse Way is never called a Street, though its name [fossa] shows it to have been constructed as such; and the Icknield Way is frequently so called, though it was certainly a mere track—often a series of parallel tracks (e.g. at Kemble-in-the-Street in Oxfordshire)—as it mostly remains to this day.
This may still be seen in places; e.g. on the "Hardway" in Somerset and the "Maiden Way" in Cumberland. See Codrington, 'Roman Roads in Britain.'
Camden, however, speaks of a Saxon charter so designating it near Stilton ('Britannia,' II. 249).
The whole evidence on this confused subject is well set out by Mr. Codrington ('Roman Roads in Britain').
It is, however, possible that the latter is named from Ake-manchester, which is found as A.S. for Bath, to which it must have formed the chief route from the N. East.
See p. 144. Bradley, however, controverts this, pointing out that the pre-Norman authorities for the name only refer to Berkshire.
Thus Iter V. takes the traveller from London to Lincoln viâ Colchester, Cambridge, and Huntingdon, though the Ermine Street runs direct between the two. The 'Itinerary' is a Roadbook of the Empire, giving the stages on each route set forth, assigned by commentators to widely differing dates, from the 2nd century to the 5th. In my own view Caracalla is probably the Antoninus from whom it is called. But after Antoninus Pius (138 A.D.) the name was borne (or assumed) by almost every Emperor for a century and more.
See p. 237.
Ptolemy also marks, in his map of Britain, some fifty capes, rivers, etc., and the Ravenna list names over forty.
The longitude is reckoned from the "Fortunate Isles," the most western land known to Ptolemy, now the Canary Islands. Ferro, the westernmost of these, is still sometimes found as the Prime Meridian in German maps.
Thus the north supplies not only inscriptions relating to its own legion (the Sixth), but no fewer than 32 of the Second, and 22 of the Twentieth; while at London and Bath indications of all three are found.
The Latin word castra, originally meaning "camp," came (in Britain) to signify a fortified town, and was adopted into the various dialects of English as caster, Chester, or cester; the first being the distinctively N. Eastern, the last the S. Western form.
Amongst these, however, must be named the high authority of Professor Skeat. See 'Cambs. Place-Names.'
Pearson's 'Historical Maps of England' gives a complete list of these.
This industry flourished throughout the last half of the 19th century. The "coprolites" were phosphatic nodules found in the greensand and dug for use as manure.
These are of bronze, with closed ends, pitted for the needle as now, but of size for wearing upon the thumb.
There seems no valid reason for doubting that the horseshoes found associated with Roman pottery, etc., in the ashpits of the Cam valley, Dorchester, etc., are actually of Romano-British date. Gesner maintains that our method of shoeing horses was introduced by Vegetius under Valentinian II. The earlier shoes seem to have been rather such slippers as are now used by horses drawing mowing-machines on college lawns. They were sometimes of rope: Solea sparta pes bovis induitur (Columella), sometimes of iron: Et supinam animam gravido derelinquere caeno Ferream ut solam tenaci in voragine mula (Catullus, xvii. 25). Even gold was used: Poppaea jumentis suis soleas ex auro induebat (Suet., 'Nero,' xxx.). The Romano-British horseshoes are thin broad bands of iron, fastened on by three nails, and without heels. See also Beckmann's 'History of Inventions' (ed. Bohn).
This is true of the whole of Britain, even along the Wall, as a glance at the cases in the British Museum will show. There may be seen the most interesting relic of this class yet discovered, a bronze shield-boss, dredged out of the Tyne in 1893 [see 'Lapid. Sept.' p. 58], bearing the name of the owner, Junius Dubitatus, and his Centurion, Julius Magnus, of the Ninth Legion.
The wall of London is demonstrably later than the town, old material being found built into it. So is that of Silchester.
York was not three miles in circumference, Uriconium the same, Cirencester and Lincoln about two, Silchester and Bath somewhat smaller.
Roman milestones have been found in various places, amongst the latest and most interesting being one of Carausius discovered in 1895, at Carlisle. It had been reversed to substitute the name of Constantius (see p. 222.). It may be noted that the earliest of post-Roman date are those still existing on the road between Cambridge and London, set up in 1729.
See p. 117. When the existing bridge was built, Roman remains were found in the river-bed.
The Thames to the south, the Fleet to the west, and the Wall Brook to the east and north.
See p. 233. The city wall may well be due to him.
See p. 233.
On this functionary, see article by Domaszewski in the 'Rheinisches Review,' 1891. His appointment was part of the pacificatory system promoted by Agricola.
An archigubernus (master pilot) of this fleet left his property to one of his subordinates in trust for his infant son. The son died before coming of age, whereupon the estate was claimed by the next of kin, while the trustee contended that it had now passed to him absolutely. He was upheld by the Court. Another York decision established the principle that any money made by a slave belonged to his bonâ fide owner. And another settled that a Decurio (a functionary answering to a village Mayor in France) was responsible only for his own Curia.
Inscriptions of the Twentieth have been found here.
Legra-ceaster, the earliest known form of the name, signifies Camp-chester (Legra = Laager). In Anglo-Saxon writings the name is often applied to Chester. This, however, was the Chester, par excellence, as having remained so long unoccupied. In the days of Alfred it is still a "waste Chester" in the A.S. Chronicle. The word Chester is only associated with Roman fortifications in Southern Britain. But north of the wall, as Mr. Haverfield points out, we find it applied to earthworks which cannot possibly have ever been Roman. (See 'Antiquary' for 1895, p. 37.)
Bath was frequented by Romano-British society for its medicinal waters, as it has been since. The name Aquae (like the various Aix in Western Europe) records this fact. Bath was differentiated as Aquae Solis; the last word having less reference to Apollo the Healer, than to a local deity Sul or Sulis. Traces of an elaborate pump-room system, including baths and cisterns still retaining their leaden lining, have here been discovered; and even the stock-in-trade of one of the small shops, where, as now at such resorts, trinkets were sold to the visitors.(See 'Antiquary,' 1895, p. 201.)
Similar excavations are in progress at Caergwent, but, as yet, with less interesting results. Amongst the objects found is a money-box of pottery, with a slit for the coins. A theatre [?] is now (1903) being uncovered.
See II. F. 4; also Mr. Haverfield's articles in the 'Athenaeum' (115, Dec. 1894), and in the 'Antiquary' (1899, p. 71).
Mr. Haverfield notes ('Antiquary,' 1898, p. 235) that British basilicas are larger than those on the Continent, probably because more protection from weather was here necessary. Almost as large as this basilica must have been that at Lincoln, where sections of the curious multiple pillars (which perhaps suggested to St. Hugh the development from Norman to Gothic in English architecture) may be seen studding the concrete pavement of Ball Gate.
A plan of this "church" is given by Mr. Haverfield in the 'English Hist. Review,' July 1896.
An inspection of the Ordnance Map (1 in.) shows this clearly. It is the road called (near Andover) the Port Way.
See p. 46.
The water supply of Silchester seems to have been wholly derived from these wells, which are from 25 to 30 feet in depth, and were usually lined with wood. In one of them there were found (in 1900) stones of various fruit trees (cherry, plum, etc.), the introduction of which into Britain has long been attributed to the Romans, (See Earle, 'English Plant Names.') But this find is not beyond suspicion of being merely a mouse's hoard of recent date.
Roman refineries for extracting silver existed in the lead-mining districts both of the Mendips and of Derbyshire, which were worked continuously throughout the occupation. But the Silchester plant was adapted for dealing with far more refractory ores; for what purpose we cannot tell.
See paper by W. Gowland in Silchester Report (Society of Antiquaries) for 1899.
A glance at the maps issued by the Society of Antiquaries will show this. The massive rampart, forming an irregular hexagon, cuts off the corners of various blocks in the ground plan.
The well-known Cambridge jug of Messrs. Hattersley is a typical example.
"Samian" factories existed in Gaul.
See p. 43.
TI. CLAVDIVS CAESAR AVG. P.M. TRIB. P. VIIII. IMP, XVI. DE BRITAN. This was found at Wokey Hole, near Wells.
Haverfield, 'Ant.' p. 147.
See 'Corpus Inscript. Lat.' Vol. VII.
A specially interesting touch of this old country house life is to be seen in the Corinium Museum at Cirencester—a mural painting whereon has been scratched a squared word (the only known classical example of this amusement):
ROTAS
OPERA
TENET
AREPO
SATOR
The word mansio, however, at this period signified merely a posting-station on one or other of the great roads.
Selwood, Sherwood, Needwood, Charnwood, and Epping Forest are all shrunken relics of these wide-stretching woodlands, with which most of the hill ranges seem to have been clothed. See Pearson's 'Historical Maps of England.'
Classical authorities only speak of bears in Scotland. See P. 236.
Cyneget., I. 468.
Ibid. 69.
In II. Cons. Stilicho, III. 299: Magnaque taurorum fracturae colla Britannae.
'Origins of English History,' p. 294.
A brooch found at Silchester also represents this dog.
Symmachus (A.D. 390) represents them as so fierce as to require iron kennels (Ep. II. 77).
Prudentius (contra Sab. 39): Semifer, et Scoto sentit cane milite pejor.
Proleg. to Jeremiah, lib. III.
Flavius Vopiscus (A.D. 300) tells us that vine-growing was also attempted, by special permission of the Emperor Probus.
The Lex Julia forbade the carrying of arms by civilians.
See Elton's 'Origins,' p. 347.
Proem, v.
See Fronto,'De Bello Parthico', I. 217. The latest known inscription relating to this Legion is of A.D. 109 [C.I.L. vii. 241].
Spartianus (A.D. 300), 'Hist. Rom.'
About a fifth of the known legionary inscriptions of Britain have been found in Scotland.
See p. 233.
At the Battle of the Standard, 1138.
That Hadrian and not Severus (by whose name it is often called) was the builder of the Wall as well as of the adjoining fortresses is proved by his inscriptions being found not only in them, but in the "mile-castles" [see C.I.L. vii. 660-663]. Out of the 14 known British inscriptions of this Emperor, 8 are on the Wall; out of the 57 of Severus, 3 only.
Hadrian divided the Province of Britain [see p. 142] into "Upper" and "Lower"; but by what boundary is wholly conjectural. All we know is that Dion Cassius [Xiph. lv.] places Chester and Caerleon in the former and York in the latter. The boundary may thus have been the line from Mersey to Humber; "Upper" meaning "nearer to Rome."
Neilson, 'Per Lineam Valli,' p.I.
See further pp. 203-212.
The figure has been supposed to represent Rome seated on Britain. But the shield is not the oblong buckler of the Romans, but a round barbaric target.
So Tacitus speaks of "Submotis velut in aliam insulam hostibus" by Agricola's rampart. And Pliny says, "Alpes Gcrmaniam ab Italia submovent."
Corpus Inscript. Lat, vii. 1125.
Dio Cassius, lxxii. 8.
Aelius Lampridius, 'De Commodo,' c. 8.
Inscriptions in the Newcastle Museum show that bargemen from the Tigris were quartered on the Tyne.
Dio Cassius, lxxii. 9.
Julius Capitolinus, 'Pertinax,' c. 3.
Orosius, 'Hist' 17.
Herodian, 'Hist.' iii. 20.
Lucius Septimus Severus.
Herodian, 'Hist. III.' 46. He is a contemporary authority.
Also called Bassianus. His throne name was Marcus Aurelius Antoninus Pius.
Publius Septimus Geta Antoninus Pius.
Aelius Spartianus, 'Severus,' c. 23.
Dion Cassius, lxxvi. 12.
Severus gave as a mot d'ordre to his soldiers the "No quarter" proclamation of Agamemnon. ('Iliad,' vi. 57): τῶν μήτις κφύγοι αἰπὺν ὄλεθρον [ton mêtis hupekphugoi aipun olethron].
Dion Cassius, lxxvi. 12.
See p. 195.
Aurelius Victor (20) makes him (as Mommsen and others think) restore Antonine's rampart: "vallum per xxxii. passuum millia a mari ad mare." But more probably xxxii. is a misreading for lxxii.
The very latest spade-work on the Wall (undertaken by Messrs. Haverfield and Bosanquet in 1901) shows that the original wall and ditch ran through the midst of the great fortresses of Chesters and Birdoswald, which are now astride, so to speak, of the Wall; pointing to the conclusion that Severus rebuilt and enlarged them. In various places along the Wall itself the stones bear traces of mortar on their exterior face, showing that they have been used in some earlier work.
This is the number per lineam valli given in the 'Notitia.' Only twelve have been certainly identified. They are commonly known as "stations."
Antiquaries have given these structures the name of "mile-castles." They are usually some fifty feet square.
The familiar name of "Wallsend" coals reminds us of this connection between the Tynemouth colliery district and the Wall's end.
So puzzling is the situation that high authorities on the subject are found to contend that the work was perfunctorily thrown up, in obedience to mistaken orders issued by the departmental stupidity of the Roman War Office, that in reality it was never either needed or used, and was obsolete from the very outset. But this suggestion can scarcely be taken as more than an elaborate confession of inability to solve the nodus.
It should be noted that the "Vallum" is no regular Roman muris caespitius like the Rampart of Antoninus, though traces have been found here and there along the line of some intention to construct such a work (see 'Antiquary,' 1899, p. 71).
In more than one place the line of fortification swerves from its course to sweep round a station.
Near Cilurnum the fosse was used as a receptacle for shooting the rubbish of the station, and contains Roman pottery of quite early date.
See p. 233.
See p. 232.
The existing military road along the line of the Wall does not follow the track of its Roman predecessor. It was constructed after the rebellion of 1745, when the Scots were able to invade England by Carlisle before our very superior forces at Newcastle could get across the pathless waste between to intercept them.
Mithraism is first heard of in the 2nd century A.D., as an eccentric cult having many of the features of Christianity, especially the sense of Sin and the doctrine that the vicarious blood-shedding essential to remission must be connected with a New Baptismal Birth unto Righteousness. The Mithraists carried out this idea by the highly realistic ceremonies of the Taurobolium; the penitent neophyte standing beneath a grating on which the victim was slain, and thus being literally bathed in the atoning blood, afterwards being considered as born again [renatus]. It thus evolved a real and heartfelt devotion to the Supreme Being, whom, however (unlike Christianity), it was willing to worship under the names of the old Pagan Deities; frequently combining their various attributes in joint Personalities of unlimited complexity. One figure has the head of Jupiter, the rays of Phoebus, and the trident of Neptune; another is furnished with the wings of Cupid, the wand of Mercury, the club of Hercules, and the spear of Mars; and so forth. Mithraism thus escaped the persecution which the essential exclusiveness of their Faith drew down upon Christians; gradually transforming by its deeper spirituality the more frigid cults of earlier Paganism, and making them its own. The little band of truly noble men and women who in the latter half of the 4th century made the last stand against the triumph of Christianity over the Roman world were almost all Mithraists. For a good sketch of this interesting development see Dill, 'Roman Society in the Last Century of the Western Empire.'
Of the 1200 in the 'Corpus Inscript. Lat.' (vol. vii.), 500 are in the section Per Lineam Valli.
'Corpus Inscript. Lat.' vol. vii., No. 759.
Some authorities consider him to have been her own son.
See p. 126.
The Gelt is a small tributary joining the Irthing shortly before the latter falls into the Eden.
Polybius (vi. 24) tells us that in the Roman army of his day a vexillum or manipulum consisted of 200 men under two centurions, each of whom had his optio. Vegetius (II. 1) confines the word vexillatio to the cavalry, but gives no clue as to its strength.
On this inscription see Huebner, C.I.L. vii. 1. A drawing will be found in Bruce's 'Handbook to the Wall' (ed. 1895), p. 23.
The name Cilurnum may be connected with this wealth of water. In modern Welsh celurn = caldron.
"All hast thou won, all hast thou been. Now be God the winner." (These final words are equivocal, in both Latin and English. They might signify, "Now let God be your conqueror," and "Now, thou conqueror, be God," i. e. "die"; for a Roman Emperor was deified at his decease.) Spartianus, 'De Severo,' 22.
Aelius Spartianus, 'Severus,' c. 22.
See p. 46.
Dio Cassius, lxxvi. 16.
Ibid. lxxvii. I.
In 369. See p. 230.
Constans in 343. See p. 230.
See Bruce, 'Handbook to Wall' (ed. 1895), p. 267.
Such tablets, called tabulae honestae missionis ("certificates of honourable discharge"), were given to every enfranchised veteran, and were small enough to be carried easily on the person. Four others, besides that at Cilurnum, have been found in Britain.
None of the above-mentioned tabulae found are later than A.D. 146, which, so far as it goes, supports the contention that Marcus Aurelius was the real extender of the citizenship; Caracalla merely insisting on the liabilities which every Roman subject had incurred by his rise to this status.
See pp. 175, 176. Only those fairly identifiable are given; the certain in capitals, the highly probable in ordinary type, and the reasonably probable in italics. For a full list of Romano-British place-names, see Pearson, 'Historical Maps of England.'
Probus was fond of thus dealing with his captives. He settled certain Franks on the Black Sea, where they seized shipping and sailed triumphantly back to the Rhine, raiding on their way the shores of Asia Minor, Greece, and Africa, and even storming Syracuse. They ultimately took service under Carausius. [See Eumenius, Panegyric on Constantius.] The Vandals he had captured on the Rhine, after their great defeat by Aurelius on the Danube.
This name may also echo some tradition of barbarians from afar having camped there.
Eutropius (A.D. 360), 'Breviarium,' x. 21.
By the analogy of Saxon and of Lombard (Lango-bardi = "Long-spears"), this seems the most probable original derivation of the name. In later ages it was, doubtless, supposed to have to do with frank = free. The franca is described by Procopius ('De Bell. Goth.' ii. 25.), and figures in the Song of Maldon.
See Florence of Worcester (A.D. 1138); also the Song of Beowulf.
Eutropius, ix. 21.
The Franks of Carausius had already swept that sea (see p. 219).
Mamertinus, 'Paneg. in Maximian.'
Caesar, originally a mere family name, was adapted first as an Imperial title by the Flavian Emperors.
Henry of Huntingdon makes her the daughter of Coel, King of Colchester; the "old King Cole" of our nursery rhyme, and as mythical as other eponymous heroes. Bede calls her a concubine, a slur derived from Eutropius (A.D. 360), who calls the connection obscurius matrimonium (Brev. x. 1).
Eumenius, 'Panegyric on Constantine,' c. 8.
Eumenius, 'Panegyric on Constantius,' c. 6.
Salisbury Plain has been suggested as the field.
The historian Victor, writing about 360 A.D., ascribes the recovery of Britain to this officer rather than to the personal efforts of Constantius. The suggestion in the text is an endeavour to reconcile his statement with the earlier panegyrics of Eumenius.
See p. 59. An inscription found near Cirencester proves that place to have been in Britannia Prima. It is figured by Haverfield ('Eng. Hist. Rev.' July 1896), and runs as follows: Septimius renovat Primae Provinciae Rector Signum et erectam prisca religione columnam. This is meant for two hexameter lines, and refers to Julian's revival of Paganism (see p. 233).
Specimens of these are given by Harnack in the 'Theologische Literaturzeitung' of January 20 and March 17, 1894.
See Sozomen, 'Hist. Eccl.' I, 6.
See p. 123.
The name commonly given to the really unknown author of the 'History of the Britons.' He states that the tombstone of Constantius was still to be seen in his day, and gives Mirmantum or Miniamantum as an alternative name for Segontium. Bangor and Silchester are rival claimants for the name, and one 13th-century MS. declares York to be signified.
The Sacred Monogram known as Labarum. Both name and emblem were very possibly adapted from the primitive cult of the Labrys, or Double Axe, filtered through Mithraism. The figure is never found as a Christian emblem before Constantine, though it appears as a Heathen symbol upon the coinage of Decius (A.D. 250). See Parsons, 'Non-Christian Cross,' p. 148.
Hilary (A.D. 358), 'De Synodis,' § 2.
Ammianus Marcellinus, 'Hist.' XX. I.
Jerome calls her "fertilis tyrannorum provincia." ['Ad Ctesiph.' xliii.] It is noteworthy that in all ecclesiastical notices of this period Britain is always spoken of as a single province, in spite of Diocletian's reforms.
See p. 202.
These Scotch pirate craft (as it would seem) are described by Vegetius (A.D. 380) as skiffs (scaphae), which, the better to escape observation, were painted a neutral tint all over, ropes and all, and were thus known as Picts. The crews were dressed in the same colour—like our present khaki. These vessels were large open boats rowing twenty oars a side, and also used sails. The very scientifically constructed vessels which have been found in the silt of the Clyde estuary may have been Picts. See p. 80.
Henry of Huntingdon, 'History of the English,' ii. I.
Murat, CCLXIII. 4.
See p. 225.
Jerome, in his treatise against Jovian, declares that he could bear personal testimony to this.
See p. 194.
Marcellinus dwells upon the chopping seas which usually prevailed in the Straits; and of the rapid tide, which is also referred to by Ausonius (380), "Quum virides algas et rubra corallia nudat Aestus," etc.
To him is probably due the reconstruction of the "Vallum" as a defence against attacks from the south, such as the Scots were now able to deliver. See p. 207.
Marcellinus, 'Hist.' XXVIII. 3. See p. 202.
'De Quarto Consulatu Honorii,' I. 31.
Theodosius married Galla, daughter of Valentinian I.
For the later migrations to Brittany see Elton's 'Origins,' p. 350. Samson, Archbishop of York, is said to have fled thither in 500, and settled at Dol. Sidonius Apollinaris speaks of Britons settled by the Loire.
'In Primum Consulatum Stilichonis,' II. 247.
Alone amongst the legions it is not mentioned in the 'Notitia' as attached to any province.
'Epithalamium Paladii,' 85.
The first printed edition was published 1552.
See p. 90.
Portus Adurni. Some authorities, however, hold this to be Shoreham, others Portsmouth, others Aldrington. The remaining posts are less disputed. They were Branodunum (Brancaster), Garianonum (Yarmouth), Othona (Althorne[?] in Essex), Regulbium (Reculver), Rutupiae (Richborough), Lemanni (Lyminge), Dubris (Dover), and Anderida.
There were six "Counts" altogether in the Western Empire, and twelve "Dukes." Both Counts and Dukes were of "Respectable" rank, the second in the Diocletian hierarchy.
See p. 237.
This word, however, may perhaps signify Imperial rather than London.
Olympiodorus (A.D. 425).
'Hist. Nov.' vi. 10. He is a contemporary authority.
Tennyson, 'Guinevere,' 594. The dragon standard first came into use amongst the Imperial insignia under Augustus, and the red dragon is mentioned by Nennius as already the emblem of Briton as opposed to Saxon. The mediaeval Welsh poems speak of the legendary Uther, father of Arthur, as "Pendragon," equivalent to Head-Prince, of Britain.
See Rhys, 'Celtic Britain,' pp. 116, 136.
Gildas (xxiii,) so calls him.
"The groans of the Britons" are said by Bede to have been forwarded to Aetius "thrice Consul," i.e. in 446, on the eve of the great struggle with Attila.
Nennius (xxviii.) so calls them, and they are commonly supposed to have been clinker-built like the later Viking ships. But Sidonius Apollinaris (455) speaks of them as a kind of coracle. See p. 37.
"Quin et Armorici piratam Saxona tractus
Sperabant, cui pelle salum sulcare Britannum
Ludus, et assuto glaucum mare findere lembo."
('Carm.' vii. 86.)
See Elton, 'Origins,' ch. xii.
Henry of Huntingdon, 'Hist. of the English,' ii. 1.
Nennius, xlix. This is the reading of the oldest MSS.; others are Nimader sexa and Enimith saxas. The regular form would be Nimap eowre seaxas.
A coin of Valentinian was discovered in the Cam valley in 1890. On the reverse is a Latin Cross surrounded by a laurel wreath.
Cymry signifies confederate, and was the name (quite probably an older racial appellation revived) adopted by the Western Britons in their resistance to the Saxon advance.
Arthur is first mentioned (in Nennius and the 'Life of Gildas') as a Damnonian "tyrant" (i.e. a popular leader with no constitutional status), fighting against "the kings of Kent." This notice must be very early—before the West Saxons came in between Devon and the Kentish Jutes. His early date is confirmed by his mythical exploits being located in every Cymric region—Cornwall, Wales, Strathclyde, and even Brittany.
The ambition of Henry V. for Continental dominion was undoubtedly thus quickened.
Procopius, 'De Bello Gothico,' iv. 20.
These presumably represent the Saxons, who were next-door neighbours to the Frisians of Holland. But Mr. Haverfield's latest (1902) map makes Frisians by name occupy Lothian.
Ptolemy's map shows how this error arose; Scotland, by some extraordinary blunder, being therein represented as an eastward extension at right angles to England, with the Mull of Galloway as its northernmost point.
This fable probably arose from the mythical visit of Ulysses (see p. 64 n.), who, as Claudian ('In Rut.' i. 123) tells, here found the Mouth of Hades.
Procopius, 'De Bello Gothico,' ii. 6.
See my 'Alfred in the Chroniclers,' p. 6.
See p. 175.
See p. 168.
'Anglo-Saxon Chronicle,' A. 491: "This year Ella and Cissa stormed Anderida and slew all that dwelt therein, so that not one Briton was there left."
Chester itself, one of the last cities to fall, is called "a waste chester" as late as the days of Alfred ('A.-S. Chron.,' A. 894).
In the districts conquered after the Conversion of the English there was no such extermination, the vanquished Britons being fellow-Christians.
For the British survival in the Fenland see my 'History of Cambs.,' III., § 11.
Romano-British relics have been found in the Victoria Cave, Settle.
'Comm. on Ps. CXVI.' written about 420 A.D.
'Epist. ad. Corinth.' 5.
Catullus, in the Augustan Age, refers to Britain as the "extremam Occidentis," and Aristides (A.D. 160) speaks of it as "that great island opposite Iberia."
'Menol. Graec.,' June 29. A suspiciously similar passage (on March 15) speaks of British ordinations by Aristobulus, the disciple of St. Paul.
Nero. This would be A.D. 66.
It is less generally known than it should be that the head of St. Paul as well as of St. Peter has always figured on the leaden seal attached to a Papal Bull.
Tennyson, 'Holy Grail,' 53. This thorn, a patriarchal tree of vast dimensions, was destroyed during the Reformation. But many of its descendants exist about England (propagated from cuttings brought by pilgrims), and still retain its unique season for flowering. In all other respects they are indistinguishable from common thorns.
See also William of Malmesbury, 'Hist. Regum,' § 20.
See p. 62.
See Introduction to Tennyson's 'Holy Grail' (G.C. Macaulay), p. xxix.
See Bp. Browne, 'Church before Augustine,' p. 46.
Chaucer, 'Sumpnour's Tale.'
Epig. xi. 54: "Claudia coeruleis ... Rufina Britannis Edita."
See p. 141.
Epig. v. 13.
Tacitus, 'Ann.' xiii. 32.
See p. 69.
Lanciani, 'Pagan and Christian Rome,' p. 110. The house was bought by Pudens from Aquila and Priscilla, and made a titular church by Pius I.
Homily 4 on Ezechiel, 6 on St. Luke.
'Adversus Judaeos,' c. 7.
'Eccl. Hist.' iv.
Pope from 177-191.
Haddan and Stubbs, i. 25. The 'Catalogus' was composed early in the 4th century, but the incident is a later insertion.
See p. 225.
He is mentioned by Gildas, along with Julius and Aaron of Caerleon. These last were already locally canonized in the 9th century, as the 'Liber Landavensis' testifies; and the sites of their respective churches could still be traced, according to Bishop Godwin, in the 17th century.
Eborius of York, Restitutus of London, and Adelfius of "Colonia Londinensium." The last word is an obvious misreading. Haddan and Stubbs ('Concilia,' p. 7) suggest Legionensium, i.e. Caerleon.
It is more reasonable to assume this than to imagine, with Mr. French, that these three formed the entire British episcopate. And there is reason to suppose that York, London, and Caerleon were metropolitan sees.
Canon x.: De his qui conjuges suas in adulterio deprehendunt, et iidem sunt fideles, et prohibentur nubere; Placuit ... ne viventibus uxoribus suis, licet adulteris, alias accipiant. [Haddan, 'Concilia,' p. 7.]
'Ad Jovian' (A.D. 363).
'Contra Judaeos' (A.D. 387).
'Serm. de Util. Lect. Script.'
Hom. xxviii., in II. Corinth.
This text seems from very early days to have been a sort of Christian watchword (being, as it were, an epitome of the Faith). The Coronation Oath of our English Kings is still, by ancient precedent, administered on this passage, i.e. the Book is opened for the King's kiss at this point. In mediaeval romance we find the words considered a charm against ghostly foes; and to this day the text is in use as a phylactery amongst the peasantry of Ireland.
Ep. xlix. ad Paulinum. These pilgrimages are also mentioned by Palladius (420) and Theodoret (423).
Ep. lxxxiv. ad Oceanum.
Ep. ci. ad Evang.
Whithern (in Latin Casa Candida) probably derived its name from the white rough-casting with which the dark stone walls of this church were covered, a strange sight to Pictish eyes, accustomed only to wooden buildings.
The practice, now so general, of dedicating a church to a saint unconnected with the locality, was already current at Rome. But hitherto Britain had retained the more primitive habit, by which (if a church was associated with any particular name) it was called after the saint who first built or used it, or, like St. Alban's, the martyr who suffered on the spot. Besides Whithern, the church of Canterbury was dedicated about this time to St. Martin, showing the close ecclesiastical sympathy between Gaul and Britain.
The cave is on the northern shore of the Thuner-See, near Sundlauenen. Beatus is said to have introduced sailing into the Oberland by spreading his mantle to the steady breeze which blows down the lake by night and up it during the day. The name of Justus is preserved in the Justis-thal near Merlingen.
This name is merely the familiar Welsh Morgan, which signifies sea-born, done into Greek.
See Orosius, 'De Arbit. Lib.,' and other authorities in Haddan and Stubbs.
Sidonius, Ep. ix. 3.
Constantius, the biographer of Germanus, says they were sent by a Council of Gallican Bishops; but Prosper of Aquitaine (who was in Rome at the time) declares they were commissioned by Pope Celestine. Both statements are probably true.
The lives of Germanus, Patrick, and Ninias will be found in a trustworthy and well-told form in Miss Arnold-Foster's 'Studies in Church Dedication.'
See p. 185.
Bede, 'Eccl. Hist.' I. xxvi.
Many existing churches are more or less built of Roman material. The tower of St. Albans is a notable example, and that of Stoke-by-Nayland, near Colchester. At Lyminge, near Folkestone, so much of the church is thus constructed that many antiquaries have believed it to be a veritable Roman edifice.
See Lanciani, 'Pagan and Christian Rome,' p. 115.
At Frampton, near Dorchester, and Chedworth, near Cirencester, stones bearing the Sacred Monogram have been found amongst the ruins of Roman "villas."
The British rite was founded chiefly on the Gallican, and differed from the Roman in the mode of administering baptism, in certain minutiae of the Mass, in making Wednesday as well as Friday a weekly fast, in the shape of the sacerdotal tonsure, in the Kalendar (especially with regard to the calculation of Easter), and in the recitation of the Psalter. From Canon XVI. of the Council of Cloveshoo (749) it appears that the observance of the Rogation Days constituted another difference.
The Mission of St. Columba the Irishman to Britain was a direct result of the Mission of St. Patrick the Briton to Ireland.
Magna Charta opens with the words Ecclesia Anglicana libera sit; and the Barons who won it called themselves "The Army of the Church."