Chapter XXI.—THREAD CUTTING.—BROACHING PRESS.
In [Fig. 1809] is represented a front view of a patent die stock for threading pipe up to six inches in diameter. In the figure the three bits or chasers are shown locked in position by the face plate, which is shown removed in [Fig. 1810]. [Fig. 1811] shows the machine with the face plate removed, the bit or chasers having pins in them which fit into the slots in the face plate, so that by rotating the plate the chasers may be set to size.
Fig. 1809.
Fig. 1810.
Fig. 1811.
Fig. 1812.
The head carrying the chasers is revolved by means of the gear-wheel and pinion, and [Fig. 1812] represents a ratchet lever for revolving the pinion, and is useful when the pipe is in the ground and the die stock is used to cut it off and thread it without lifting it from its position.
Fig. 1813.
The method of gripping the pipe is shown in [Fig. 1813], in which the machine is represented as arranged for operating by belt power, the pinion being operated by a worm and worm-gear.
Fig. 1814.
Referring to the pipe-gripping vice it is seen in the figure that the back of the machine is provided with ways in which the gripping jaws slide. The lower jaw is adjusted for height to suit the size of pipe to be operated upon, and is firmly locked in its adjusted position. It is provided with an index pointer, and the face of the slideway is marked by lines to suit the different diameters of pipe, so that this jaw may at once be set to the proper height to bring the pipe central to the bits. The lower jaw being set, all that is necessary is, by means of the hand wheel, to operate the upper one to firmly grip the pipe. [Fig. 1814] shows the front of the machine when arranged for belt power.
The No. 1 die stock threads pipe from one to two inches in diameter, but has no cut-off. The large gear has cut teeth, and the pinion is of steel, working in gun-metal bearings. The gripping jaws are fitted with cast-steel faces, hardened.
By a simple change the stock may be used to cut left-hand as well as right-hand threads, this change consisting in putting in left-hand bits and in replacing the right-hand screw ring with a left-hand one. After a piece of pipe has been threaded, all that is necessary is to turn the head in the opposite direction, and the bits retire from the pipe thread, so that the pipe may at once be withdrawn, which preserves the cutting edges of the bits as well as saves the time usually lost in winding the dies back.
In threading machines the bolt (or pipe, as the case may be) may be revolved and the die held stationary, or the die may be revolved and the pipe held from revolving, the differences between the two systems being as follows, which is from The American Machinist:—
Fig. 1815.
Fig. 1816.
[Fig. 1815] may be taken to represent a machine in which the pipe is held and the die revolved, and [Fig. 1816] one in which the pipe is revolved and the dies are held in a head, which allows them to move laterally to suit the pipe that may not run true, while it prevents them from revolving.
In the former figure the bolt or pipe is shown to be out of line with the die driving spindle, and the result will be that the thread will not be parallel with the axis of the pipe. Whereas in [Fig. 1816] the thread will be true with the axis of the work, because the latter revolves, and as the die is permitted more lateral motion it can move to accommodate itself to the eccentric motion of the work, if the latter should not run true.
If the end of a piece of pipe is not cut off square or at a right angle to the pipe axis, and the die has liberty to move, it will thread or take hold of one part, the longest one, of the pipe circumference first, and the die will cant over out of square with the pipe axis, and the thread cut will not be in line with the pipe axis.
The two important points in operating threading machines is to keep the dies sharp and to well lubricate them with oil. When dies are run at a maximum speed and continuously at work they should be sharpened once or, if the duty is heavy, twice a day, a very little grinding sufficing.
In nut tapping the oil lubrication is of the utmost importance, and is more difficult because the cuttings are apt to clog the tap flutes and prevent the oil from flowing into the cutting teeth.
When the tap stands vertical and the nuts are put on at the upper end (the point of the tap being uppermost), the cuttings are apt to pass upwards and prevent perfect lubrication by the descending oil. When the taps stand horizontally, gravity does not assist the oil to pass into the nut, and it falls rapidly from the tap, hence it is preferable that the tap should stand vertical with its point downwards, and running in oil and water.
In machines which cut the bolt threads with a solid die, it is obvious that after the thread is cut upon the bolt to the required distance, the direction of rotation of the bolt or die, as the case may be, requires to be reversed in order to remove the bolt from the die, and during this reversal of rotation the thread upon the bolt is apt to rub against and impair the cutting edges of the chasers or die teeth.
To obviate this difficulty in power machines the dies are sometimes caused to open when the bolt is threaded to the required distance, which enables the instant removal of the finished work, and this saves time as well as preserving the cutting edges of the die or chaser teeth.
In machines in which the bolt rotates, the machine must be stopped to take out each finished bolt and insert the blank one, which is unnecessary when the bolt is stationary, because so soon as the bolt is threaded to the required distance the dies may open automatically, the carriage holding the bolt at once withdrawn and a new one inserted.
When the dies open automatically the further advantage is secured that the bolts will all be threaded to an equal distance or length without care on the part of the operator.
Fig. 1817.
A hand machine for threading bolts from 1⁄4 inch to 3⁄4 inch in diameter is shown in [Fig. 1817]. It consists of a head carrying a live spindle revolved by hand, by the lever shown at the right-hand end of the machine, being secured to the live spindle by a set-screw, so that the handle may be used at a greater or less leverage to suit the size of the thread to be cut; on the front end of this spindle are the dies, consisting of four chasers held in a collet that is readily removable from the spindle, being held by a spring bolt which, when pressed downwards, frees the collet from the spindle.
The work is held in a pair of vice jaws operated by the hand wheel shown, and this vice is moved endwise in its slideways on the bed by means of the vertical lever shown. The bolt being stationary, the small diameter of the die enables it to thread bent or crooked pieces, such as staples, &c.
For bolts of larger diameter requiring more force than can be exerted by a hand lever, a geared hand bolt cutter is employed.
Fig. 1818.
In [Fig. 1818] is represented a hand bolt cutter. In this cutter the bolt is rotated, being held in a suitable chuck. The revolving spindle is hollow in order to receive rods of any length, and is operated by bevel-wheels as shown, so as to increase the driving power of the spindle by decreasing its speed of rotation. To provide for a greater speed of rotation than that due to the diameters of the bevel-pinion and wheel, the lever is made to slide through the pinion, effecting the same object and convenience as described for the machine shown in [Fig. 1817].
The threading dies are held in collets carried by a head or cylinder mounted horizontally on a carriage capable of being moved along the bed by means of a rack and pinion, the latter being operated by a handle passing through the side of the bed as shown. The cylinder also carries a collet adapted for recessed plates so as to receive square or hexagon nuts of different sizes for tapping purposes, the taps being held in the rotating chuck. The collets are capable of ready and separate extraction, and by removing the collet that is opposite to the one that is at work, the end of a bolt may pass if necessary entirely through the head or cylinder threading the work to any required length or distance.
To insure that the die shall stand axially true with the revolving spindle, bolt holes are drilled in the lower part of the cylinder, and a pin passes through the carriage carrying the head, and projects into these holes, which are so situated that when the pin end projects into a hole and locks the head a collet is in line with the spindle.
The dies consist of four chasers inserted in radial slots in collets held in place and bound together by a flat steel ring, which is let into the face of the collet and the external radial face of the chasers, and secured to the collet by screws. One chaser only is capable of radial motion for adjusting the diameter of thread the die will cut, and this chaser is adjusted and set by a screw in the periphery of the collet.
The other two chasers being held rigidly in a fixed position in the ring act as back rests and cut to the diameter or size to which they are made, or according to the adjustment of the first chaser. The shanks of the collets are secured in the cylindrical head by means of either a bolt and key or by a set-screw.
The chasers are sharpened by grinding the face on an ordinary grindstone or emery wheel.
The chasers are numbered to their places and are so constructed that if a single chaser of a set of three should require renewal, a chaser can be obtained from the manufacturers that will match with the remaining two of the set, the threads on the one falling exactly in line with those on the other two, whereas in other dies the renewal of one chaser involves the renewal of the whole number contained in the die. This is accomplished by so threading the dies that the thread starts from the same chaser (as No. 1) in each set.
Fig. 1819.
In [Fig. 1819] is represented one of these machines, which is intended for threads from 3⁄8 to 1 inch in diameter. It is arranged to be driven by belt power, being provided with a pulley having three steps; on this pulley spindle is a pinion operating a gear-wheel on the die driving spindle, as shown.
The oil and cuttings fall into a trough provided in the bed of the machine, but the oil drains through a strainer into the cylindrical receiver shown beneath the bed, whence it may be drawn off and used over again.
Fig. 1820.
In [Fig. 1820] is represented a bolt threading machine which is designed for bolts from 3⁄16 to 1 inch in diameter.
The bolt to be threaded is gripped in the vice l, operated by hand by the hand wheel m, and is moved by hand up to the head d, by the hand wheel q operating the pinion in the rack shown at the back of the machine. When the dies or chasers have cut or threaded the bolt to the required distance, the threading dies are opened automatically as follows:—-
At h is a clutch ring for opening and closing the threading chasers, and at n is the lever operating the shoes in the groove of the clutch ring. This lever is upon a shaft running across the machine and having at its end the catch piece p; at z is a catch for holding p upright against the pressure of a spring that is beneath the bed of the machine, and presses on an arm on the same shaft as the catch piece p. On the back jaw of the vice l is a bracket carrying a rod r, and the bolt or work is threaded until the end of rod r lifts catch z, when the before-mentioned spring pulls lever n and clutch ring h forward, opening the dies and therefore stopping the threading operation. The length of thread cut upon the work is obviously determined by adjusting the distance rod r projects through v. The handle w is upon the same shaft as catch piece p and clutch lever n, and therefore affords means of opening the dies by hand.
The operation of the machine obviously consists of gripping the work in vice l, moving it up to the head d by the hand wheel q, setting the rod r to open the dies when the bolt is threaded to the required length, and moving the vice back to receive a subsequent piece of work.
The construction of the head d and clutch and ring h is shown in [Figs. 1821] and [1822].
Fig. 1821.
Fig. 1822.
The body f is bolted by the flange i to a face plate in the live spindle or shaft of the machine, and through slots in this body pass the holders or cases c containing the chasers or dies. Upon f is the piece d provided with a slot to receive the die cases and a tongue to move them. This slot and tongue, which are shown at e′, are at an angle to the axis of f; hence if d be moved endways upon f the cases and dies are operated radially in or through the body f. To operate d laterally or endwise upon f the clutch ring h and the toggles g are provided, the latter being pivoted in the body f, and h being operated endwise upon f by the lever shown at n in the general view, [Fig. 1820]. The amount to which the dies will be closed is adjustable by means of the adjusting screws e, which are secured in their adjusted position by the set-screws r, [Fig. 1821]; it being obvious that when h meets the shoulder s of g and depresses that end of the toggle, head d is moved to the right and the dies are closed when the end of g meets e, and ceases to close when g has seated itself in f and can no longer move e. The backward motion of the clutch ring h, and therefore the amount to which the dies are opened, is regulated by the screw b and stop a in [Fig. 1822], it being obvious that when b meets a the motion of h and d to the left upon f ceases and the dies are fully opened. The amount of their opening is therefore adjustable by means of screw b. j is simply a cap to hold the dies and cases in their places.
Fig. 1823.
In the end view, [Fig. 1823], e, e are the adjustment screws for the amount of die closure, and b, b those for the amount they will open to, t representing the screws for the cap j, which is removed for the insertion and extraction of the dies and die cases.
Fig. 1824.
The construction of the dies p and cases c is shown in [Fig. 1824]. Two screws at n secure the dies in their cases and a screw m adjusts them endways so as to set them forward when recutting them. By inserting the dies in cases they may be made of simple pieces of rectangular steel, saving cost in their renewal when worn too short.
Fig. 1825.
[Fig. 1825] shows the machine arranged with back gear for bolts from 2 to 21⁄2 inches in diameter, the essential principles of construction being the same as in [Fig. 1820].
Fig. 1826.
Fig. 1827.
In [Fig. 1826] is represented a single and in [Fig. 1827] a double “rapid” machine, constructed for sizes up to 5⁄8 inch in diameter, the double machine having a pump to supply oil to the dies. This pump is operated by an eccentric upon the end of the shaft of the cone pulley.
Fig. 1827a.
The construction of the head of this machine is shown in [Fig. 1827a]. z is the live or driving spindle, upon which is fast the head a. In a are pivoted at m the levers l which carry the dies d, which are secured in place in the levers by the set-screws b and adjusted to cut to the required diameter by the screws e. The levers l are closed upon the clutch c by means of the springs r and s, each of these springs acting upon two diametrically opposite levers, hence the action of the springs is to open the dies d. The clutch c has a cone at t and slides endways upon the live spindle z. The clutch lever and shoes are upon a shaft running across the machine and actuated by a rod corresponding to the rod r in [Fig. 1820]. When the clutch and levers l are in the position shown in the figures the dies are closed for threading the bolt, and when this threading has proceeded to the required distance along the work, clutch c is moved by the aforesaid rod and lever in the direction of arrow w, and the springs r, s close the ends p of lever l down upon the body x of the clutch opening the dies and causing the threading to cease.
Fig. 1828.
[Fig. 1828] represents a “double” rapid machine for threading work up to four inches in diameter, and therefore having back gear so as to provide sufficient power. The gauge rod from the carriage here disengages a bell crank from the end of the long lever shown, and thus prevents the spring to operate the cross shaft and open the dies.
Fig. 1829.
In [Fig. 1829] is represented a bolt threading machine or bolt cutter, which consists of a head carrying a live spindle upon which is a head carrying four bits or chasers that may be set to cut the work to the required diameter, and opened out after the work is threaded to the required length and the bolt withdrawn without losing the time that occurs when the dies require to run backward to release the work, and also preventing the abrasion and wear that occurs to the cutting edges of the die bits or chasers when revolved backward upon the work. This head is operated by the upright lever shown in the figure, this lever being connected to the clutch shown upon the live spindle. The details of construction of the clutch and of the head are shown in [Figs. 1830], [1831], [1832], and [1833]. The work to be threaded is gripped between jaws operated by the large hand wheel shown, while the vice moves the work up to or away from the head by means of the small hand wheel which operates pinions geared with racks on each side of the bed of the machine as clearly shown in the figure.
Fig. 1830.
Fig. 1831.
[Fig. 1830] is a longitudinal section of the head, and [Fig. 1831] an end view of the same. p are the threading dies or chasers held in slots in the body a by the annular ring face plate k. The ends of the dies are provided with T-shaped caps t fitting into corresponding grooves or slideways in the die ring b, and it is obvious that as the heads of their caps are at an angle therefore sliding the ring b along a and to the right of the position it occupies in the figure will cause the dies p to close concentrically towards the centre or axis of the head a. At c is a ring capable of sliding upon a and operated by the upright lever shown in the general view in [Fig. 1829].
Fig. 1832.
Fig. 1833.
The connection between the die ring b and the clutch ring c is shown in [Figs. 1832] and [1833], the former being also a longitudinal sectional view of the head, but taken in a different plane from that in [Fig. 1830]. The barrel or body a a of the head is provided with two diametrically opposite curved rocking levers which are pivoted in recesses in a a. The clutch ring c envelops body a and passes between the curved ends of these rocking levers. The upper of the two rocker levers shown in the engraving connects with a lever e, which connects to a stud or plunger p, threaded to receive the adjusting screw i, which is threaded into the die ring b. Obviously when c is moved to the right along a it operates the rocking lever and causes b to move to the right and to close the dies upon the work. The amount of die closure, and therefore the diameter to which the dies will thread the work, is adjustable by means of the adjusting screw i, which has a coarse thread in b and a finer one in p, hence screwing up i draws b to the left and farther over the plunger p, thus shortening the distance between the centre of the curved lever and limiting the motion of b to the right. On the other hand, unscrewing i moves b to the right, and it is obvious that in doing this the cap t in [Fig. 1830] is forced down by the groove in b and the dies are moved endwise towards the axis a a, or in other words, closed.
It will be clear that a greater amount of power will be necessary to hold the dies to their cut than to release them from it, and on that account the lower curved rocking arm d connects through e to a solid plunger g, the screw h abutting against the end of g and not threading into it, because g is only operative in pushing b forward in conjunction with p, while p pulls b backward, the duty being light. It is obvious, however, that after the adjustment screw i is operated to set the dies to cut to the proper diameter, adjustment screw h must be operated to bring the ring b fair and true upon a a and prevent any lateral strain that might otherwise ensue.
These two adjustments being made the clutch ring c is operated to the left to its full limit of motion to open the dies and to its full limit to the right to close them.
It will be seen, by the lines that are marked to pass through the pivoting pins of the rocking lever d, that the joints marked 2 in [Fig. 1832] are below these lines, and as a result the links e form in effect a toggle joint locking firmer in proportion as the strain upon them is greater.
Fig. 1834.
[Fig. 1834] represents a bolt threading machine having two heads each of which is capable of threading bolts from 1⁄2 up to 11⁄2 inches in diameter.
The levers for operating the clutch rings are here placed horizontal, so that they may extend to the end of the machine and be convenient to operate, and a pump is employed to supply oil to the dies.
The capacity of a double machine of this kind is about one ton of railroad track bolts per day of 10 hours’ working time.
In American practice it is usual to employ four cutting dies, bits, or chasers, in the heads of bolt threading machines, while in European practice it is common to employ but three. Considering this matter independently of the amount of clearance given to the teeth, we have as follows:—
Fig. 1835.
If a die or internal reamer, the cutting points of which were all equidistant from a common centre, were placed over a piece of work, as a bar of iron shown in [Fig. 1835], and set to take a certain cut, as shown by the circle outside the section, it is evident that if revolved, but left free to move laterally, or “wabble,” the cutter would tend to adjust itself at all times in a manner to equalize the cutting duty—that is, if the die had two opposite cutting edges or points, and the piece operated upon were not of circular form, then, when one cutter reached the part that was not round, it would have either more or less cutting to do than before, and hence, the opposite cutter having the same amount, the tendency would be for the two cutting edges to travel over and equalize the cuts, and hence the pressure. With three cutting points, no two being opposite, the tendency would all the while be to equalize the cuts taken by all three; with four, spaced equally, the tendency would always be to equalize the cuts of those diametrically opposite; with five, the tendency would be to equalize the duty on each, and so on. Thus it will be noticed that there is a difference between the acting principle of a die having an even or an odd number of cutters, independent of the difference in the actual number of cutting edges, or points, as we are now considering them.
Fig. 1836.
To take an example, in [Fig. 1835] is represented a die having four cutting points, placed upon a piece of iron of a round section, with the exception of a flat place, as shown. Now, in this position each one of the cutting points a, b, c, and d, is in contact with the true cylindrical part of the work only; hence, if the die were set to take the amount of cut shown, each point would enter the iron an equal distance, and the inner circle through the points would be the smallest diameter of the die. Upon revolving the die in the direction denoted by the arrow, an equal cut would continue to be taken off, and hence the circular form maintained, until cutter d had reached the edge x of the flat, the opposite one b, being at y (a at r and c at v), proceeding as d moved from x towards a, its cutting duty would continually become less and its pressure decrease, but as it is the cutting pressure of d that holds the opposite point b to its cut, as the pressure in d, after reaching x, continually becomes less, the die would gradually travel over so as to carry d toward the centre and cause it to take more cut, while b, on the opposite side, would travel out a corresponding distance and take less, thus keeping the duty equalized until the cutter d had reached h, the lowest part of the flat, when the die would have moved the greatest distance off the centre, assuming the position shown by dotted lines. Thus the cutting point at h has passed inside the true circle that all the cutters commenced to follow, while f has passed outside. Meanwhile, as h and f have shifted over, e and g have, of course, moved an equal amount and in the same direction, but the diameter of e and g being at right angles to that of h and f, the distances of e and g from the centre would be changed but an infinitesimal amount; hence, they would virtually continue to follow the true circle, notwithstanding the deviation of the other pair. As the die continues to revolve and h passes toward a, the lateral motion is reversed, the die tending to resume its original central position, which it does upon the completion of another quarter of a revolution, when the cutter that started at d has passed to h and finally to a. A cutting has now been removed from the entire circumference of the iron, leaving it of a form shown approximately in [Fig. 1836], where a z, b y, c v, and d x, are the four true circular portions cut respectively by the points a, b, c, and d, before the flat place was reached. After the flat place was reached x a is the depression cut by d, y c the elevation formed by b, and z b and v d are the arcs, differing almost imperceptibly from the true circular ones cut by a and c.
Fig. 1837.
Fig. 1838.
[Fig. 1837] represents a die having three instead of four cutting points—that is, the point c of [Fig. 1835] is left out, and the remaining ones a, b, and d, are equally spaced. This, placed upon a similar bar and taking an equal cut, would produce a truly circular form until d had reached x—with a and b at z and y—after which the die would move laterally, tending to carry d toward the centre of the work and a and b away from it, so as to equalize the cuts on all three. Hence, when d had reached h and the three-cutter die attained the position shown by dotted lines in [Fig. 1837], h would have made an indentation inside the true circle, while e and f have travelled away from it, thus forming protuberances. From h to a the lateral movement is reversed, and finally upon the completion of a third of a revolution, the die is again central and a cut has been carried completely around the bar, leaving it as shown in [Fig. 1838]. Comparing this with [Fig. 1836], it will be seen that there are three truly cylindrical portions—viz., a z, b y, and d x instead of four in [Fig. 1836], but each one is longer; that there is a depressed place, x a, of equal length to that in [Fig. 1836], and two elevations, z b and y d, each of equal length to the one (y c) in [Fig. 1836].
Fig. 1839. Fig. 1840.
Fig. 1841. Fig. 1842.
Fig. 1843. Fig. 1844.
Now, suppose the bar to have an equal flat place on its opposite side, becoming of a section shown in [Fig. 1839], upon applying the dies and pursuing a similar course of reasoning, the die with four points would reduce the bar to the size and shape shown in [Fig. 1840], or a true cylinder, while the triple-pointed cutter would produce the form shown in [Fig. 1841], which is a sort of hexagon, coinciding with the true circle in six places—a, z, b, y, d, and x—while between a and z, and opposite, between y and d, there is an elevation; also from z to b and from d to x. A flattened portion, a x, with a similar one b y, opposite, completes the profile. Suppose, now, that a bar of the form shown in [Fig. 1842], having two flat places not opposite, be taken, and the four-cutter and three-cutter dies are applied. The product of the four is shown in [Fig. 1843], and that produced by the three-cutter die in [Fig. 1844]. The section cut with four coincides with the true circle at four points, a, b, c, d, and differs from it almost imperceptibly at z, y, v, and x. There are two elevations between a and b and between b and c; also two depressions between c and d and between d and a. The section from the three-cutter die is the perfect circular form between a z, b y, and d x, with a projection from z to b and two depressions from y to d and from x to a. The four-die, applied to a section having three flats like [Fig. 1845], would produce [Fig. 1846], which does not absolutely coincide with the true circle at any point, although the difference is inconsiderable at a, z, y, c, v and x; three equidistant sections a z, y c, and v x, are elevated and the three alternate ones depressed.
Fig. 1845. Fig. 1846.
Fig. 1847.
The three-cutter die would in this case cut the perfectly circular form of [Fig. 1847].
Fig. 1848.
Now, suppose both of the dies to have been made or set to some certain diameter—in fact, presume them to be made by taking a ring of steel having a round hole of the required diameter, say 1 inch, and removing the metal shown by the dotted lines, [Fig. 1848], and leaving only the four cutting points in one case (and the three in the other). Then it is evident that our dies are both of the same diameter, and likewise both of the assumed diameter, or 1 inch; then it is fair to presume that the plugs or sections just cut by either one of the dies should enter a round hole of the same diameter as the dies; but it is obvious that only two, [Figs. 1840] and [1847], will do so, all the rest being considerably too large, from their irregularity of form, notwithstanding the fact that the diameter of any of those cut by four cutters is never more than that of the die, while any one of the equal radii, taken at equal distances on any of the forms cut by the three-cutter die, will not exceed the radius of the die. Now, six of the pieces being too large when referred to the standard of a round hole of the size of the die, while two are of the correct size, it is obvious that if the four-die, for example, which cut [Fig. 1846], were reduced enough to make [Fig. 1843] just enter the standard, that, [Fig. 1840], which is now just correct in size and form, would, when cut, be altogether too small. The same would be the case also with the three-cutter die.
Now let us consider the two productions ([Figs. 1840] and [1847]) that answer the requirements, the two different sections ([Figs. 1839] and [1845]) from which they were cut, and also the other two pieces ([Figs. 1841] and [1846]) that were cut from the same bars at the same time. The general shape of [Fig. 1839], is oval or four-sided, and while the four cutters operated upon it to produce perfectly circular work, the three cutters reproduced the general shape started with, only somewhat modified, as [Fig. 1841] plainly shows. Upon the blank, [Fig. 1845], the general shape of which is triangular, the very opposite is the case, for the three cutters now produce a perfect circle, while the four modify only the figure that they commenced to operate upon.
Considering that every irregular form may be approximated by a square, an equilateral triangle, or in general by either a parallelogram or a regular polygon, it will be found that from a flat, oval, or square piece of metal the four cutters will produce a true circle; from a triangular piece the three; from a heptagon neither will do so, while from a hexagon both the three and four cutters are calculated to do so. Following in the same manner, and increasing the sides, it will be found that the four cutters will produce a true circle from every parallelogram, whether all the sides are equal or not, while the three cutters will produce a true circle also from every regular polygon the number of sides of which is a multiple of three—that is, four cutters would operate correctly upon a figure having 4, 6, 8, 10, 12, &c., parallel sides, while the three would do so upon a figure having 3, 6, 9, 12, 15, &c., equal sides. Thus, for regular forms varying between these two series neither one would be adapted. Hence, if the general form of the work is represented by the first series, the four cutters are the best; if the general and average form of the material to be operated upon corresponds to the second series, then the three dies are the best adapted, so far as their two principles of action, mentioned at the outset, are concerned; hence, if it is considered that the material or bars of metal to be wrought vary from a circular form indifferently, then there is no choice between an even and an odd number merely on that account.
Placing the same dies that cut these six irregular figures upon their respective productions would not serve to correct their form; as, for instance, if the die that cut [Fig. 1846] were revolved around it—even if set up or reduced in diameter to take a cut—it would remove an equal amount all round and leave the same figure still. Similarly with, say, [Fig. 1841], cut by the three; but if the three were run over [Fig. 1846], cut by the four, it would tend to correct the errors, and likewise if the four were run over [Fig. 1841], the tendency would be to modify the discrepancies left by the three that cut it.
Fig. 1849.
Fig. 1850.
Fig. 1851.
As regards the number of cutting points, suppose that there were a certain number, as three, shown in [Fig. 1849], all taking an equal cut; then, when the position indicated by the dotted lines was reached, where cutter h runs out, the entire duty would be only two-thirds as much as it was, and the die would shift laterally in the direction of the arrow enough to equalize this smaller amount of duty on all three, or make h, e, and d each cut two-thirds as much as at first. With four as shown in [Fig. 1850] when h reached the depression where its cut would run out, the entire duty would be three-fourths of what it was at first, and the die would travel laterally in the direction of the arrow sufficiently to equalise the pressure upon h and f, and upon e and g. With five, as shown in [Fig. 1851], in similar position the entire duty would be four-fifths as much; with six, five-sixths, and so on. Thus it can be seen that the variation between the least amount to be cut and the full amount is relatively less, the greater the number of cutting points that it is divided between, and hence the lateral movement would be less; therefore the general tendency of an increase in the number of cutting points would be to promote true work.
Hence, from these considerations it appears that it is not material whether the number is odd or even merely on that account; so four would be preferable to three only on account of being one more, and, in turn, five would be better than four, and six better than five, and so on. It is found, however, that bar iron usually inclines to the elliptical form, and that an even number is, therefore, preferable.
Thus far the cutting edges of the die have been assumed to be points equidistant about a circle—that is, it has been supposed to have absolute clearance, so that its movements would be regulated entirely by the depth of cut taken, in order to ascertain the inherent tendency to untruth caused by an odd or an even, a greater or a less, number of cutters. This tendency is, of course, modified in each case by the amount of clearance.
Fig. 1852.
Fig. 1853. Fig. 1854.
The position of the dies in the head and with relation to the work is, in bolt cutting machines, a matter of great importance, and in all cases the dies should be held in the same position when being hobbed (that is, having their teeth cut by the hob or master tap) as they will stand in when put to work, and the diameter of the hob must be governed by the position of the dies in the head. If they are placed as in [Fig. 1852] the diameter of the hob must be 1⁄32 inch larger than the diameter of bolt the dies are intended to thread, so that the point or cutting edge may meet the work first and the heel may have clearance, it being borne in mind that the clearance is less at the tops than it is at the bottoms of the teeth, because of their difference in curvature. In this position the teeth are keen and yet retain their strength, acting somewhat as a chaser. If placed in the position shown in [Fig. 1853] the hob or master tap must be 1⁄32 inch smaller than the diameter of bolt they are to thread, so as to give the teeth clearance. In this case the dies are somewhat harder to feed into their cut and do not cut quite so freely, but on the other hand they work more steadily as the bolt is better guided, while left-hand dies may be used in the same head. If placed as in [Fig. 1854] they must be cut with a hob 1⁄32 inch larger in diameter than the bolt they are to thread, so that the teeth will have less curvature than the work, and will, therefore, have clearance. In this position the dies do not cut so freely as in [Fig. 1852].
The dies should be broad enough to contain at least as many teeth as there are in a length of bolt equal to its diameter, and should be thick enough to withstand the pressure of the cut without perceptible spring or deflection.
Fig. 1855.
The cutting edges of dies may be brought in their best cutting position and the dies placed in radial slots in the head by forming the dies as in [Fig. 1855]. Face x is at an angle of 18° to the leading or front face of the die steel, and the heel is filed off at an angle of 45° and extends to the centre line of the die. This gives a strong and a keen die, and by using a hob 1⁄32 inch smaller than the diameter of bolt to be cut, the clearance is sufficiently maintained.
Fig. 1856.
The heel of the die should not when the cutting edge is in front extend past the axis of the work, but should be cut off so as to terminate at the work axis as denoted by the dotted line g in [Fig. 1856].
Fig. 1857.
In hobbing the dies it is necessary that they be all of equal length so that the hob may cut an equal depth in each, and may, therefore, work steadily and hob them true. After the dies are hobbed their front ends should be reamed with a taper reamer as in [Fig. 1857], chamfering off not more than three threads, and the chamfered teeth must then be filed, just bringing the front edges up to a cutting edge, but filing nothing off them, the reamed chamfer acting as a guide to file them by.
This will cause each tooth to take its proper share of the cut, thus preserving the teeth and causing the dies to cut steadily. Back from the cutting edge towards the heels of the teeth the clearance may gradually increase so that the heel will not meet the work and cause friction.
The chasers or dies are obviously changed for each diameter of bolt, and it follows that as the chasers all fit in the same slots in the head they must all be made of the same size of steel whatever diameter of bolt they are intended to cut, and this leads to the following considerations.
Suppose the capacity of the machine is for bolts between 1⁄4 inch and 11⁄4 inches in diameter, and the size of the chaser or die will be 11⁄4 inches wide and 1⁄2 inch thick.
The width of a die or chaser should never be less than the diameter of bolt it is to thread, so that it may contain as many threads as are contained in a length of bolt equal to the bolt diameter. Now the 11⁄4-inch chaser equals in width the diameter of bolt it is to cut, viz. 11⁄4 inches; but if the chaser for 1⁄4-inch bolts was threaded parallel and left its full width it would be five times as wide as the diameter of the bolt and the thread cut would be imperfect, because the chasers alter their pitches in the hardening process, as was explained with reference to taps, and it is found that the error induced in the hardening varies in amount and sometimes in direction: thus of the four chasers three may expand and become of coarser pitch, each varying in degree from the other two, and the other may remain true, or contract and become of finer pitch.
Fig. 1858.
As a rule the dies expand, but do not so equally. The more teeth there are in the die the more the pitch error from the hardening; or in other words, there is obviously more error in an inch than there is in half an inch of length. Suppose then that we have a die for 20 threads per inch, and as the chaser is 11⁄4 inches wide, it will contain 25 teeth, and the amount of pitch error due to 11⁄4 inches of length; and this amount not being equal in all the chasers, the result is that the dies cut the sides of the thread away, leaving it sharp at the top but widened at the bottom, as shown in [Fig. 1858], weakening it and impairing its durability while placing excessive duty on the dies and on the machine.
Fig. 1859.
Fig. 1860.
Fig. 1861.
A common method of avoiding this is to cut away all the teeth save for a width of die equal to the diameter of the bolt, as shown in [Fig. 1859]. An equally effective and much simpler plan is to form the dies as in [Fig. 1860], the diameter at the back b being slightly larger than that at the mouth a, so that the back teeth are relieved of cutting duty. This enables the dies to undergo more grindings and still retain sufficient teeth. For example, the chamfer at a may be ground farther towards b, and still leave in action sufficient teeth to equal in width of chaser the diameter of the bolt. To enable the threading of dies in this manner the hobs or master taps employed to thread them are formed as in [Fig. 1861], the proportions of the master taps for the different sizes of bolts being as given in the following table:—
| Diameter of bolt. | —— | —— | Length at A. | Length at B. | Length at C. | Length at D. | Length at E. | ||||||||||
| 1⁄4 | Dia. from | G to H | 15⁄64 | At J | 7⁄32 | 1⁄2 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 1⁄2 | 1⁄2 | ||||||
| 5⁄16 | „ | „ | 19⁄64 | „ | 9⁄32 | 1⁄2 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 1⁄2 | 1⁄2 | ||||||
| 3⁄8 | „ | „ | 23⁄64 | „ | 11⁄32 | 1⁄2 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 1⁄2 | 1⁄2 | ||||||
| 7⁄16 | „ | „ | 27⁄64 | „ | 13⁄32 | 1⁄2 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 1⁄2 | 1⁄2 | ||||||
| 1⁄2 | „ | „ | 31⁄64 | „ | 15⁄32 | 1⁄2 | 1 | 1⁄2 | 1 | 1⁄2 | 1 | 1⁄2 | 3⁄4 | ||||
| 5⁄8 | „ | „ | 39⁄64 | „ | 19⁄32 | 1⁄2 | 1 | 1⁄2 | 1 | 1⁄2 | 1 | 1⁄2 | 3⁄4 | ||||
| 3⁄4 | „ | „ | 47⁄64 | „ | 23⁄32 | 1⁄2 | 1 | 1⁄2 | 2 | 1 | 1⁄2 | 3⁄4 | |||||
| 7⁄8 | „ | „ | 55⁄64 | „ | 27⁄32 | 1⁄2 | 1 | 1⁄2 | 2 | 1 | 1⁄2 | 3⁄4 | |||||
| 1 | Dia. at G | 31⁄32 | At J 1⁄100 less | 1⁄2 | 4 | 4 | 1 | 1⁄2 | 1 | ||||||||
| 1 | 1⁄8 | „ | 1 | 3⁄32 | —— | 1 | 4 | 4 | 1 | 1⁄2 | 1 | ||||||
| 1 | 1⁄4 | „ | 1 | 7⁄32 | —— | 1 | 4 | 4 | 1 | 1⁄2 | 1 | ||||||
| 1 | 3⁄8 | „ | 1 | 11⁄32 | —— | 1 | 4 | 4 | 1 | 1⁄2 | 1 | ||||||
| 1 | 1⁄2 | „ | 1 | 15⁄32 | —— | 1 | 4 | 4 | 1 | 1⁄2 | 1 | 1⁄4 | |||||
| 1 | 5⁄8 | „ | 1 | 19⁄32 | —— | 1 | 5 | 5 | 2 | 1 | 1⁄2 | ||||||
| 1 | 3⁄4 | „ | 1 | 23⁄32 | —— | 1 | 5 | 5 | 2 | 1 | 1⁄2 | ||||||
| 1 | 7⁄8 | „ | 1 | 27⁄32 | —— | 1 | 6 | 6 | 2 | 1 | 3⁄4 | ||||||
| 2 | „ | 1 | 31⁄32 | —— | 1 | 6 | 6 | 2 | 1 | 3⁄4 | |||||||
| All over 2 in. same length as the 2 in. Shanks J turned to bottom of last thread. | |||||||||||||||||
The cutting speeds for the dies and taps are as given in the following table, in which it will be seen that the speeds for bolt factories are greater than for machine shops. This occurs on account of the greater experience of the operators and the greater care taken in lubricating the dies and keeping them sharp:—
| Diameter of bolt. | Revolutions of dies for machine shops. | Revolutions of dies for bolt factories. | Diameter of bolt. | Revolutions of dies for machine shops. | Revolutions of dies for bolt factories. | ||
| inch. | inch. | ||||||
| 1⁄8 | 450 | 600 | 1 | 5⁄8 | 33 | 48 | |
| 1⁄4 | 230 | 300 | 1 | 3⁄4 | 30 | 45 | |
| 3⁄8 | 150 | 200 | 1 | 7⁄8 | 28 | 40 | |
| 1⁄2 | 100 | 150 | 2 | 25 | 38 | ||
| 5⁄8 | 75 | 125 | 2 | 1⁄8 | 23 | 36 | |
| 3⁄4 | 65 | 100 | 2 | 1⁄4 | 22 | 34 | |
| 7⁄8 | 55 | 85 | 2 | 3⁄8 | 21 | 32 | |
| 1 | 45 | 75 | 2 | 1⁄2 | 20 | 30 | |
| 1 | 1⁄8 | 42 | 65 | 2 | 5⁄8 | 18 | 25 |
| 1 | 1⁄4 | 40 | 60 | 2 | 3⁄4 | 15 | 20 |
| 1 | 3⁄8 | 38 | 55 | 2 | 7⁄8 | 12 | 18 |
| 1 | 1⁄2 | 35 | 50 | 3 | 10 | 15 | |
| Taps same speed as dies. | |||||||
Fig. 1862.
In [Fig. 1862] is represented a nut threading or tapping machine. The vertical spindles have spring sockets in which the taps are held, so that they can be inserted or removed without stopping the machine. The nuts are fed down the slots of the inclined plates shown on the upper face of the circular base, and the spindles are raised and lowered by the pivoted levers shown. The nuts lie in a dish that contains water up to the level of the bottom of the nuts, the object being to prevent the taps from getting hot and therefore expanding in diameter. Upon the top of the water floats a body of oil about 1⁄2 inch deep, which lubricates the cutting edges of the tap. These machines are also made with six instead of four spindles, which in both machines run at different speeds to suit different sizes of nuts, and which are balanced by weights hanging inside the central hollow column or frame.
Fig. 1863.
[Fig. 1863] represents the socket for driving the tap, so devised that when the tap is strung for its intended length with nuts, the top nut releases the tap of itself, the construction being as follows: s is the socket that fits into the driving spindle of the machine; its bore, which fits the stem of the tap easily, receives two headless screws b, a pin p, which is a sliding fit, and the screw a. r is a ring or sleeve fitting easily to the socket, and is prevented from falling off by screw a. The tap is provided with an annular groove g. The flattened end of the tap passes up between and is driven by the ends of screws b, the weight of the collar ring or sleeve r forcing pin p into the groove g, thus holding the tap up. When the tap is full of nuts the top nut meets face v of ring r, lifting this ring upon the socket and relieving pin p of the weight of r, the weight of the tap and the nuts then causes the tap to be released. By this construction the tap can be inserted or removed while the machine is in motion.
In [Fig. 1864] is represented a rotary nut tapper, and in [Fig. 1865], is also represented a sectional view of the same machine.
The tap driving spindles are driven from a central vertical shaft s, driven by bevel-gear b. The horizontal driving shaft operates a worm c, to drive a worm-wheel in a vertical shaft, which drives a pinion a, driving a spur wheel w in the base of the spindle head, by which means this head is revolved so as to bring the successive spindles in front of the operator. A trough is provided at t to cool the tap with oil and water after it has passed through the nut.
[Fig. 1866] represents a nut tapping machine designed for light work, the spindles are raised after each nut is tapped by the foot levers and rods shown, the latter connecting to a shoe fitting into a groove in a collar directly beneath the driving pulleys of the spindles.
[Fig. 1867] represents a three-spindle nut tapping machine, in which the spindles are horizontal and the nuts are held in three separate heads or horizontal slideways and are traversed by the ball levers shown, and a self-acting pump supplies them with oil. The three spindles are driven by a cone pulley having four changes of speed to suit different diameters of taps.
Fig. 1868.
Fig. 1869.
Pipe Threading Machinery.—In [Fig. 1868] is represented a machine for threading and cutting off pipe of large diameter. This machine consists of a driving head corresponding to the headstock of a lathe, but having a hollow spindle through which the pipe may pass. The pipe is driven by a three-jawed chuck, and the threading and cutting off tools are carried on a carriage which has a threading head for ordinary lengths of pipe, and one for short pieces such as nipples, the latter swinging out of the way when not in use. Between these two is a pair of steadying jaws for the pipe. A side view of the front of the carriage is shown in [Fig. 1869], h h, &c., representing the threading dies used for nipples. It is movable along a slideway e and pivoted upon its slider. The dies are carried in a chuck g, and are opened or closed by the lever n; at l is the handle for the screw that operates the guide jaws a a.
Fig. 1870.
Fig. 1871.
The threading head at h (right-hand end of [Fig. 1868]), is represented in [Fig. 1870], being pivoted so that it also can be swung out of the way to permit of the removal of the pipe. The dies c are opened or closed by the hand wheel b, operating a worm meshing into a segment of a worm-wheel upon the body of the head, the amount of motion being regulated by the stop screw at f, which therefore regulates the size to which the dies can be closed, and therefore the diameter of thread the dies will cut. The construction of the cutting-off head is shown in [Fig. 1871], t representing the cutting tool which is operated by the hand wheel k. The carriage is fed or traversed by means of two pinions operated by the six-handled wheel shown at w, [Fig. 1868]; these two pinions engaging racks beneath the carriage, and near the inside edges of the bed, one of them being seen at the extreme right-hand end of [Fig. 1868].
Fig. 1872.
In [Fig. 1872] is represented a machine for threading or tapping the fittings for steam and gas pipe. The tap is carried in the end of the vertical spindle, and the work may be held in the vice upon the work table, or if too large the table may be swung out of the way.
The general design of the machine corresponds somewhat to that of a drilling machine.
Broaching Press.—Broaching consists in forcing cutters through keyways or apertures, to dress their sides to shape.
Fig. 1873.
In [Fig. 1873] is represented a broaching press. Its driving gear which is within the box frame is so constructed that it may be started and stopped instantly, notwithstanding its heavy fly wheel.
[Figs. 1874] to [1877] represent the method of cutting out a keyway by broaching.
Fig. 1874.
In [Fig. 1874] a represents the end of a connecting rod having three holes, b, c, and d, pierced through it, their diameters nearly equalling the total finished width of keyway required. The punch d′ is first forced through, thus making the three holes into one.
Fig. 1875.
The V-shape of the end of the cutting punch d′ tends to steady it while in operation, forces the cut outwards into the next hole, preventing them from jambing, and causes the strain upon the punch to begin and end gradually; thus it prevents violent action during the ingress and egress of the cutting punch. This roughing out process dispenses with the use of the hammer and chisel, and saves much time, since it is done at one stroke of the press. The next part of the process is the introduction of a series of broaches such as shown in [Fig. 1875], the principles involved being as follow: It is obvious that from the large amount of cutting edge possessed by a single tooth extending all around such a broach, it would be impracticable to take much of a cut at once; hence a succession of broaches is used, some of them performing duty on the sides only, others at the ends only, but the last and final broach is usually made to take a very fine cut all over. All these broaches are made slightly taper; that is to say, the breadth of the lower tooth at a in [Fig. 1875] is made less than that at b, the amount allowed varying according to the dimensions and depth of the keyway.
The smallest of the set of broaches is entered first and forced through until its end stands level with the upper face of the work. Each broach is provided with a conical teat at one end and a corresponding conical recess at the other, so that when the second broach is placed on top of the first, the teat fitting into the recess below it, will hold the two broaches central one to the other.
The head of each broach is made somewhat conical or tapered, and sets in a corresponding recess in the driving head in the machine, which, therefore, holds the broaches parallel one to the other. A succession of these broaches is used, each requiring one stroke of the press to force it within the keyway, and another to force it out.
Fig. 1876.
Fig. 1877.
The following is an example of broaching, relating to which, the dotted lines shown on the broaches, [Fig. 1876], indicate the depths and shapes of the teeth. The small end of each broach corresponds to the large end of the one that preceded it, which is necessary in order to permit it to enter easily. Of the ten broaches used the first two operate to straighten the side walls of the hole, No. 3 being the first to operate upon the circular corners, which are not cut to the rectangle until No. 8 has passed through. But as the duty in cutting out the corners diminishes, the walls and ends of the hole are operated upon to finish them to size; thus broach No. 3 leaves the hole 11⁄8 or 1.125 inches wide, and 2.7501 inches long, which No. 4 increases to 1.1354 inches wide and 2.7605 inches long. This increase of width and depth, or breadth, as it may more properly be termed, continues up to the last or tenth cutter, which is parallel and of the same dimensions as the large end of cutter No. 9. [Fig. 1877] gives two views of the No. 10 broach.
Broaches require a very free lubrication in order to prevent them from tearing the walls of the hole, and to enable them to cut easily and smoothly; hence it is found highly advantageous after the teeth are cut to cut out grooves or passages lengthways of the broach, and extending nearly to the bottom of the teeth, which eases the cut as well as affords the required lubrication; but it is obvious that the finishing cutter must not have such oil ways.
MODERN
MACHINE-SHOP
PRACTICE
VOL. II.MODERN MACHINE‑SHOP PRACTICE.FRONTISPIECE
COMPOUND MARINE ENGINE.
Modern
Machine-Shop Practice
BY
JOSHUA ROSE, M.E.
ILLUSTRATED WITH MORE THAN 3000 ENGRAVINGS
VOLUME II.
NEW YORK
CHARLES SCRIBNER’S SONS
1888
Copyright, 1887, 1888 by
CHARLES SCRIBNER’S SONS
Press of J. J. Little & Co.
Astor Place, New York.
[Table of
contents
for
Volume I.]
CONTENTS.
Volume II.
| PAGE | ||||
| CHAPTER XXII. | ||||
| MILLING MACHINERY AND MILLING TOOLS. | ||||
| The Milling Machine; Advantages possessed by | [1] | |||
| The hand milling machine | [1] | |||
| Power milling machine | [2] | |||
| Universal milling machines | [2], [3] | |||
| The Brown and Sharpe Universal Milling Machine, general view of | [4] | |||
| The construction of the bearings and of the head | [5] | |||
| Sectional view of head | [6] | |||
| The dividing mechanism | [6] | |||
| The index plate | [7] | |||
| Table of index holes for gear cutting | [7] | |||
| The automatic feed motion | [8], [9] | |||
| Special index plate for gear cutting | [9] | |||
| The Brainard Milling Machine | [9] | |||
| The various attachments of | [10] | |||
| The rotary vise | [10] | |||
| Universal head and back centre | [10] | |||
| Universal head for gear cutting | [11] | |||
| The head for cutting spirals | [12] | |||
| The cam cutting attachment | [12] | |||
| The Lipe Universal Milling Machine | [12] | |||
| Sectional view of the Lipe machine | [13] | |||
| The feed motions of the Lipe machine | [13] | |||
| The index head of the Lipe machine | [14] | |||
| The adjustable centre rest | [14] | |||
| The Universal Milling Machine for heavy work | [15] | |||
| Construction of the driving gear and feed motion | [15] | |||
| Pratt and Whitney’s double spindle milling machine | [16] | |||
| Milling Cutters or Mills | [16] to [24] | |||
| Cutters with spiral teeth | [17] | |||
| Table of sizes of Brown and Sharpe standard cutters | [17] | |||
| Table of standard sizes of Brainard cutters | [17] | |||
| Face cutters | [17] | |||
| Twin cutters and right and left hand cutters | [18] | |||
| Advantages and disadvantages of face cutters | [18] | |||
| Angular cutters | [19] | |||
| Right and left angular cutters | [19] | |||
| The Brown and Sharpe patent cutters | [19] | |||
| Shank cutters | [19] | |||
| The direction of the feed for shank cutters | [20] | |||
| Applications of shank cutters | [21] | |||
| Sizes of shank cutters | [21] | |||
| Fly cutters | [21] | |||
| Different methods of making fly cutters, and the advantages and defects of each method | [21] | |||
| Circular cutters, and holders for fly cutters | [22] | |||
| Matched cutters; methods of matching cutters | [23] | |||
| Gang or composite cutters; cutters with inserted teeth | [24] | |||
| Cutter Arbors | [25] | |||
| Milling | [25] to [30] | |||
| Comparison of the advantages of end milling, face milling, and twin milling | [25] | |||
| The length of feed in face milling | [26] | |||
| Cutting grooves in cylindrical work | [27] | |||
| Angular cutters for groove cutting | [27] | |||
| The crowding of grooving cutters and how to avoid it | [27] | |||
| The direction of the feed in cutting spiral grooves | [27] | |||
| Setting angular grooving cutters | [28] | |||
| Cutting right and left hand grooves and determining the direction of the feed for the same | [29] | |||
| Fluting twist drills | [29] | |||
| Finding the angle of the cutter in cutting spiral grooves | [29] | |||
| Producing different shaped grooves with the same cutter | [29], [30] | |||
| Holding work on the milling machine; milling taper work | [30] | |||
| Chucks for Milling Machines | [31] | |||
| Vertical Milling Machine | [31] | |||
| Profiling Machine | [31], [32] | |||
| Grinding Machine, for milling cutters | [32] to [37] | |||
| Fixture for grinding parallel cutters | [32] | |||
| Errors in grinding milling cutters | [32] | |||
| Grinding thin cutters | [33] | |||
| Grinding taper cutters | [33] | |||
| Fixture for grinding taper work | [33] | |||
| Fixture for taper cutters and for face cutters | [34] | |||
| The position of the emery wheel and clearance on the cutter | [35] | |||
| Grinding the teeth of spiral cutters | [36] | |||
| Positions of emery wheels in cutter grinding as affecting the strength of the cutting edges | [36], [37] | |||
| CHAPTER XXIII. | ||||
| EMERY WHEELS AND GRINDING MACHINERY. | ||||
| Grinding Operations; Classification of | [38] | |||
| The qualifications of emery wheels | [38] | |||
| Cements used in the manufacture of emery wheels | [38] | |||
| Grades of coarseness and fineness of emery wheels | [38] | |||
| Grades of wheels and the work they are suitable for | [39] | |||
| Speeds of emery wheels | [39] | |||
| Balancing emery wheels | [39] | |||
| Emery Grinding Machines | [40] | |||
| The Sellers drill grinding machine | [41] | |||
| The construction of the drill holding chuck | [41] | |||
| Varying the drill position to suit the diameter of the drill, and thus maintain equal conditionsfor all diameters of drills | [41] | |||
| Errors of construction in ordinary drill grinding machines | [41] | |||
| The construction whereby the Sellers machine maintains an equal degree of clearance from end toend of the cutting edge upon all sizes of drills | [41], [42], [43],[44] | |||
| The Sellers attachment for thinning the points of large twist drills | [44] | |||
| The front rake of twist drills | [44] | |||
| Emery grinder for true surfaces | [45] | |||
| For engine guide bars | [45] | |||
| For car axle boxes | [45] | |||
| Emery grinder with traversing emery wheel | [46] | |||
| For rough work | [46] | |||
| For planing machine knives or cutters | [46] | |||
| Emery wheel swing frame for dressing large castings, &c. | [46] | |||
| Emery belt grinding machine | [47] | |||
| Presenting emery wheels to the work, or the work to the wheels | [47] | |||
| Annular emery wheels | [48] | |||
| Recessed emery wheel | [48] | |||
| The wear of emery wheels | [48] | |||
| Polishing Wheels | [49] to [51] | |||
| The construction of | [49] | |||
| Lapping the leather on | [49] | |||
| Method of keeping them true | [50] | |||
| Charging with emery | [50] | |||
| The speed of | [50] | |||
| Polishing materials for | [50] | |||
| Brush wheels for polishing | [50] | |||
| Speed of brush wheels | [50] | |||
| Polishing materials for brush wheels for brass work | [50] | |||
| Solid leather wheels | [51] | |||
| Rag polishing wheels | [51] | |||
| Polishing materials for rag wheels | [51] | |||
| Polishing device for engravers’ steel plates | [51] | |||
| Grindstones and Tool Grinding | [51] | |||
| The various kinds of | [51] | |||
| Suitable for wood working tools | [52] | |||
| Suitable for saws or iron plates | [52] | |||
| The speeds of | [52] | |||
| The changes of pulley diameter necessary as the diameter of the stone decreases in order tomaintain a nearly uniform circumferential speed of grindstone | [52] | |||
| Arrangement of, for saw plates | [52] | |||
| Hacking | [53] | |||
| Device for truing | [53] | |||
| Automatic traversing device for | [53] | |||
| Considerations that determine the position in which the work should be applied to | [53] | |||
| Oil-stones, the various kinds of | [54] | |||
| Truing oil-stones | [54] | |||
| Removing the feather edge left by | [54] | |||
| Oil-stoning edge tools | [54] | |||
| CHAPTER XXIV. | ||||
| GEAR CUTTING MACHINES. | ||||
| Gear Cutters—The Brainard Automatic | [55] | |||
| Plan view of the mechanism | [55] | |||
| Method of operating the cutter slide | [55] | |||
| The arrangement of the positive feed shipping motion | [55] | |||
| Arrangement and construction of the dividing mechanism | [55] | |||
| The Brainard half automatic gear cutting machine | [56] | |||
| Gear cutting engine with vertical cutter spindle | [56] | |||
| Gear planing machine | [56] | |||
| Piat’s French gear cutting machine | [56] to [61] | |||
| CHAPTER XXV. | ||||
| VISE WORK. | ||||
| Definition of Vise Work | [62] | |||
| The Vise | [62] | |||
| The height of vise jaws | [62] | |||
| The wood-worker’s vise | [62] | |||
| The Stephens vise | [62] | |||
| Swivelling vises | [62] | |||
| The Prentiss vise | [62] | |||
| Leg vise with parallel motion | [63] | |||
| Various forms of vise clamps | [64] | |||
| Hammers | [64] | |||
| The effects of the speed of a hammer blow | [65] | |||
| Experiments by Robert Sabine on the duration of a blow | [65] | |||
| Machinists’ hand hammers | [66] | |||
| Shapes of hammer eyes | [66] | |||
| The proper method of putting handles in | [67] | |||
| Paning of pening hammers | [68] | |||
| The plate straightener’s and saw maker’s hammers | [69] | |||
| The principles involved in straightening plates | [69] | |||
| The dog-head hammer | [69] | |||
| The effects of hammer blows upon plates | [69] | |||
| Saw straightening and saw hammering | [70], [71] | |||
| Machinist’s sledge hammer | [71] | |||
| The file cutter’s hammers | [71] | |||
| Riveter’s hammer | [71] | |||
| The cooper’s hammer | [71] | |||
| The mallet | [72] | |||
| Pening or paning | [72] | |||
| Applications of pening to straighten work or refit it | [72] | |||
| Riveting crank pins | [73] | |||
| Chisels | [73] | |||
| Forms of bar steel for chisels | [73] | |||
| The widths and thicknesses of the cutting ends of | [74] | |||
| Angles of the cutting edges of | [74] | |||
| Shapes of the cutting edges of | [74] | |||
| Chisel holders | [74] | |||
| Cape or cross-cut | [74] | |||
| Round nosed | [75] | |||
| The cow-mouthed | [75] | |||
| Curved or oil groove | [76] | |||
| The diamond point chisel | [76] | |||
| Applications of machinists’ chisels | [76] | |||
| The carpenter’s chisel | [77] | |||
| The angle of presentation of chisels | [77] | |||
| Plane Blades | [77] | |||
| The form of, necessary to produce a given shape of moulding | [77] | |||
| Finding the shape of knives, plane blades, or cutters necessary to produce given shapes upon the work | [78] to [83] | |||
| Scale for marking out the necessary shapes of moulding knives | [83] | |||
| Instruments for | [84] | |||
| Files | [85] | |||
| Shapes of file teeth | [85] | |||
| The cut of files | [85] | |||
| Sizes and kinds of flat files | [86] | |||
| Groubet files | [87] | |||
| Rasps, the kinds and cut of | [88] | |||
| The names of files | [88], [89] | |||
| Round, half-round, and three-square files | [90] | |||
| Knife files, cross files, reaper files, tumbler files | [91] | |||
| The selection of files | [91] | |||
| Putting handles on files | [92] | |||
| Instruction on holding files | [92] | |||
| Slim files | [92] | |||
| The warping of files | [93] | |||
| Using bent files | [93] | |||
| Cross filing | [93] | |||
| Draw filing | [94] | |||
| Cleaning files | [94] | |||
| Filing out round corners | [95] | |||
| Using round files | [95] | |||
| Files for soft metals | [95] | |||
| Resharpening files | [95] | |||
| The Sand Blast process | [96] | |||
| Red Marking for vise work | [96] | |||
| Hack Saw | [97] | |||
| Screw Drivers and their proper shape | [97] | |||
| Scrapers for true surfaces | [97] | |||
| Angles for the facets of scrapers | [97] | |||
| Various forms of scrapers | [97] | |||
| Reamers | [98] | |||
| The spacing of reamer teeth | [98] | |||
| Odd and even numbers of reamer teeth | [98] | |||
| Adjustable reamers | [98] | |||
| Taper reamers | [99] | |||
| Reamers for framing | [99] | |||
| Half-round reamers | [99] | |||
| Square reamers | [99] | |||
| CHAPTER XXVI. | ||||
| VISE WORK (Continued). | ||||
| Examples in Vise Work | [100] to [113] | |||
| The use of chisels | [100] | |||
| File cutting | [100] | |||
| Cutting key seats | [101] | |||
| Sinking feathers in shafts | [101] | |||
| Methods of securing feathers | [102] | |||
| Filing up a double eye or knuckle joint | [103] | |||
| Filing pins | [103] | |||
| Blocks for filing pins | [104] | |||
| Hand vise | [104] | |||
| Filing bolt heads and nuts | [104], [105] | |||
| Making outside calipers | [105], [106] | |||
| Fitting keys | [107] | |||
| Cutting keyways by hand | [108] | |||
| Cutting out keyways by drifts | [109] | |||
| Forms of drifts | [109] | |||
| Methods of using drifts | [109] | |||
| Templates | [110] | |||
| Making male and female templates | [110] to [112] | |||
| CHAPTER XXVII. | ||||
| VISE WORK (Continued). | ||||
| Examples in Vise Work | [113] to [127] | |||
| The various form of connecting rods | [113] | |||
| Solid ended connecting rods | [113] | |||
| Clip ended connecting rod | [114] | |||
| Strap ended connecting rod | [115] | |||
| Double gibbed connecting rod | [115] | |||
| Locomotive connecting rod | [115] | |||
| Bolted connecting rod straps | [115] | |||
| Marine engine connecting rod | [116] | |||
| Tapered connecting rod ends and their advantages | [117] | |||
| Stepped connecting rod straps and their advantages | [117] | |||
| Fitting up connecting rods | [117], [119] | |||
| Welding up stub ends of connecting rods | [118] | |||
| Aligning welded connecting rods | [118] | |||
| Fitting on connecting rod straps | [119] | |||
| Filing out connecting rod keyways | [119] | |||
| Fitting the keys and gibs | [119] | |||
| Fitting connecting rod brasses to their straps | [120], [122] | |||
| The joint faces of connecting rod straps | [121] | |||
| Disadvantages of joints left open to take up the wear | [121] | |||
| Obviating this disadvantage | [121] | |||
| Marking the lengths of connecting rods | [122] | |||
| Fitting up a fork end connecting rod | [122] | |||
| Aligning fork end connecting rods | [123] | |||
| Repairing connecting rods | [124] | |||
| Setting connecting rod brasses together | [125] | |||
| Lining up connecting rod brasses | [126] | |||
| Adjusting the lengths of connecting rods | [126] | |||
| Setting up the keys of connecting rods | [126] | |||
| Shapes of the crowns of brasses | [127] | |||
| Fitting up a link motion | [127] | |||
| Templates for filing the link slot | [127] | |||
| Case-hardening | [128] to [133] | |||
| Sheehan’s case-hardening process | [128] | |||
| Preparing work for | [129] | |||
| Setting work after | [129] | |||
| Fitting brasses to pillow blocks or axle-boxes | [130] | |||
| Bedding brasses | [132] | |||
| The proper shape for the patterns of brasses | [132] | |||
| Originating a True Plane | [133] | |||
| Finding which of three surfaces is the nearest to a true plane | [133] | |||
| Methods of testing the surfaces | [134] | |||
| A new process of originating surface plates | [134] | |||
| The deflection of surface plates | [134] | |||
| The Friction of Plane Surfaces | [135] | |||
| Oiling True Surfaces | [135] | |||
| CHAPTER XXVIII. | ||||
| ERECTING. | ||||
| Spirit-level | [136] | |||
| Plumb-level | [136] | |||
| Joints | [136] to [141] | |||
| Filing or making joints | [137] | |||
| Ground joints | [137] | |||
| Scraped joints | [137] | |||
| Cylinder covered joints | [137] | |||
| Making a scraped joint with the studs in their places | [138] | |||
| Joints for rough surfaces | [138] | |||
| Gauze wire joints | [138] | |||
| Water joints | [138] | |||
| Joints to withstand great heat | [138] | |||
| Rubber joints | [139] | |||
| Boiler fitting joints | [139] | |||
| Easily removable joints | [140] | |||
| Rust or caulked joints; caulking tools | [141] | |||
| Thimble joints | [141] | |||
| Expansion joint | [141] | |||
| Pipes, Cocks and Plugs | [141] to [145] | |||
| Pipe cutters | [141] | |||
| Pipe vises | [141] | |||
| Pipe tongs | [143] | |||
| Erecting pipe work | [144] | |||
| Refitting leaky cocks and plugs | [144] | |||
| Grinding cocks and-plugs | [145] | |||
| Boxes and Brasses | [145] to [149] | |||
| Fitting brasses to their journals | [145] | |||
| Various forms of bearings and brasses or boxes | [147] | |||
| Locomotive axle boxes | [148] | |||
| Lead lined brasses | [148] | |||
| Open brasses | [149] | |||
| Lubrication | [149] to [154] | |||
| Examples of oil cavities and oil grooves for brasses | [150] | |||
| Qualities of lubricants | [151] | |||
| Testing lubricants | [151] | |||
| Best method of using thin oils | [152] | |||
| The influence of the atmosphere on oils | [153] | |||
| Longevity of lubricants | [153] | |||
| Testing oils for salts and acids | [153] | |||
| Swiss watchmakers’ oil tests | [153] | |||
| The blotting paper oil test | [154] | |||
| Friction and Wear | [154] | |||
| Morin’s experiments on | [154] | |||
| Order of the value of metals to resist wear | [154] | |||
| White metal or babbitt metal lined boxes | [155] | |||
| Methods of babbitting boxes | [156] | |||
| The pressure on journals | [156] | |||
| Cranks | [156] | |||
| Placing at right angles | [156], [157] | |||
| Engine Cylinders | [158] to [161] | |||
| Fitting | [158] | |||
| Setting | [159] | |||
| Reboring cylinders in their places | [160] | |||
| Scraping out cylinder ends | [161] | |||
| CHAPTER XXIX. | ||||
| ERECTING ENGINES AND MACHINERY. | ||||
| Engine Guide Bars | [162] | |||
| Setting | [162] | |||
| The spring of | [162] | |||
| Testing | [163] | |||
| Setting by stretched lines | [163] | |||
| Heating and Knocking of Engines | [164] | |||
| The ordinary causes of | [164], [166] | |||
| Aligning New Engines | [166] to [171] | |||
| Classification of the errors in engine alignment | [166] | |||
| Testing the alignment of the crank | [167] | |||
| Showing separately the causes of beating and pounding | [168] | |||
| Methods of discovery and determining the errors of alignment | [169] | |||
| Errors of alignment in crank pins | [170] | |||
| Methods of discovering errors of crank pin alignment | [170] | |||
| Remedying errors of crank pin alignment | [171], [172] | |||
| Slide Valves | [173] to [175] | |||
| Finding the dead centre of the crank | [173] | |||
| Taking up the lost motion when setting the valve | [174] | |||
| Measuring the valve lead | [174] | |||
| Finding the dead centre with a spirit level | [174] | |||
| Setting Eccentrics on crank shafts | [175] | |||
| Setting double eccentrics by lines | [175] | |||
| Erecting the Framework of machinery | [176], [177] | |||
| Repairing and Patching broken frames | [178] | |||
| Erecting an Iron Planer | [179] | |||
| Foundations for an iron planer | [180] | |||
| Fitting up and erecting a lathe | [181] | |||
| Testing Lathes | [181] | |||
| Instruments for testing lathes | [182] | |||
| Testing lathe carriages | [183] | |||
| Erecting Line Shafting | [184] to [186] | |||
| CHAPTER XXX. | ||||
| LINE SHAFTING. | ||||
| Line Shafting | [187] to [190] | |||
| Sizes of | [187] | |||
| Cold rolled shafting | [187] | |||
| Distance between bearings of line shafting | [187] | |||
| Tests of hot rolled and cold rolled shafting | [188] | |||
| Collars for shafting | [189] | |||
| Diameters of line shafting | [189] | |||
| The strength of line shafting | [190] | |||
| Speeds for shafting | [190] | |||
| Counter Shafts | [191] | |||
| Friction Clutches | [192] | |||
| Shafting Hangers | [193] | |||
| Various forms of | [193] | |||
| Open-sided | [193] | |||
| Wall hangers | [194] | |||
| Pillow Blocks for shafting | [194] | |||
| Couplings | [194] to [199] | |||
| For line shafts | [194] | |||
| With split sleeves | [195] | |||
| Errors in | [196] | |||
| Self-adjusting | [196] | |||
| Plate | [196] | |||
| Clamp | [197], [198] | |||
| For light shafting | [199] | |||
| Universal | [199] | |||
| CHAPTER XXXI. | ||||
| PULLEYS. | ||||
| Classification | [200], [201] | |||
| Wood pulleys | [200] | |||
| Solid and split pulleys | [200] | |||
| Expansion pulleys | [200] | |||
| Self-oiling pulleys | [200] | |||
| Crowned pulleys | [201] | |||
| Fastening pulleys to their shafts | [201] | |||
| Balancing pulleys | [202] | |||
| The Transmitting Power of pulleys | [204] | |||
| Size of pulleys for countershafts | [205] | |||
| Calculating the Speeds of pulleys | [206] | |||
| CHAPTER XXXII. | ||||
| LEATHER BELTING. | ||||
| Hides | [207], [208] | |||
| The parts of a hide used for belting | [207] | |||
| The thickness and stretch of the parts of a hide | [207] | |||
| Experiments on the strength of the parts of a hide | [208] | |||
| Single and double belts | [208] | |||
| Grain Side of Leather | [208] | |||
| Weakness of the | [208] | |||
| Why the grain side should go next to a pulley | [208] | |||
| Belts | [209] to [217] | |||
| The length of | [209] | |||
| Belt clamp | [210] | |||
| The sag of belts | [210] | |||
| Belt connection at an angle | [211] | |||
| Guide pulleys for belts | [211] | |||
| The tension and creep of belts | [212] | |||
| Methods of joining the ends of belts | [213] | |||
| Forms of belt lacings | [214] | |||
| Covers for belt lacings | [215] | |||
| Lap joints for belts | [215] | |||
| Joining thin belts | [215] | |||
| Bevelled joints for belts | [215] | |||
| Pegged belts | [215] | |||
| Belt hooks and belt screws | [216] | |||
| Angular or V-belts | [217] | |||
| The line of motion of belts | [217] | |||
| Changing or shipping belts | [217] | |||
| Automatic belt replacer | [218] | |||
| Pull of a belt | [218] | |||
| The Sellers experiments on transmission of power | [218] to [225] | |||
| Belt 51⁄2′′ wideby 7⁄32′′ thick | [219] | |||
| Belt 21⁄4′′ wideby 5⁄16′′ thick | [219] | |||
| Rawhide belt 4′′ by9⁄32′′ | [220] | |||
| Double oak tanned belt 4′′ by5⁄16′′ | [220], [221] | |||
| Oak tanned belt 2′′ by3⁄16′′ | [222] | |||
| Coefficient of friction and velocity of slip | [222] | |||
| Torsional moment | [223] | |||
| Increase of tensions | [224] | |||
| CHAPTER XXXIII. | ||||
| FORGING. | ||||
| Testing Iron by bending it | [226] | |||
| Testing machines | [227], [228] | |||
| Tools for Blacksmiths | [228] to [232] | |||
| Forges | [228], [229] | |||
| Chisels, &c. | [230] | |||
| Anvils | [230] | |||
| Swages | [230], [231] | |||
| Spring swages | [231] | |||
| Swage blocks | [232] | |||
| Swaging | [232], [233] | |||
| Examples in Welding | [233], [235] | |||
| Iron | [233], [234] | |||
| Steel to iron | [234] | |||
| Best method of | [234], [237] | |||
| Examples in Forging | [238] to [252] | |||
| Device for bolt forging | [238] | |||
| Forging turn buckles | [239] | |||
| Methods of bending iron | [240] | |||
| Device for bending iron | [240], [241] | |||
| Forging steel forks | [241] | |||
| Forging under the hammer | [242], [243] | |||
| Forging rope sockets | [243], [244] | |||
| Forging wrought iron wheels for locomotives | [244], [245] | |||
| Forging rudder frames | [245], [246] | |||
| Welding scrap iron for large shafts | [247] | |||
| Construction of furnace for heating scrap | [247] | |||
| Forging crank shafts | [248], [249] | |||
| Forging large crank shafts | [249], [252] | |||
| Forging machines | [252] to [263] | |||
| Foot-power hammer or Oliver | [252], [253] | |||
| Standish’s foot-power hammer | [252], [253] | |||
| Power hammers and steam hammers | [252], [253] | |||
| Bradley’s cushioned hammer | [252], [253] | |||
| Corr’s power hammer | [254], [255] | |||
| Kingsley’s trip hammer | [255] | |||
| The drop hammer | [255], [256] | |||
| Steam hammers | [257], [258] | |||
| Double frame steam hammer | [258] | |||
| Double frame steam drop hammer | [258] | |||
| Double frame steam drop hammer for locomotive and car axles and truck bars | [259] | |||
| The Edgemore Iron Works’ hydraulic forging press | [260] | |||
| Dies for forging eye bars | [260] | |||
| Nail forging machine | [260] | |||
| Rolls for forming knife blades | [261] | |||
| Machine for forging threads on rods | [261], [262] | |||
| Finishing machine for horseshoes | [262], [263] | |||
| Circular saw for cutting hot iron | [263] | |||
| CHAPTER XXXIV. | ||||
| WOOD WORKING. | ||||
| Pattern Making | [264], [267] | |||
| Choice and preservation of wood for | [264] | |||
| Bending Timber | [265], [266] | |||
| The bending block | [265], [266] | |||
| Steaming wood for bending | [266], [267] | |||
| Wood Working Tools | [267] to [274] | |||
| Planes for pattern making | [267] | |||
| Compass planes | [268] | |||
| Stanley’s iron frame block plane | [269] | |||
| Stanley’s bull-nose rabbet plane | [269] | |||
| Bailey’s patent adjustable planes | [269] | |||
| The combination plane | [269], [270] | |||
| The beading bit | [270], [271] | |||
| Tool for cutting material into parallel slips | [271] | |||
| The chisel and chisel handles | [271] | |||
| Firmer and paring chisels and gouges | [272] | |||
| Rip saws | [272], [273] | |||
| Cross cut saw | [273] | |||
| Common gauges for marking off work | [274] | |||
| Mortise gauge | [274] | |||
| Cutting gauge | [274] | |||
| Wood Joints | [274], [275] | |||
| Mortise joint | [274] | |||
| Tenon joint | [274] | |||
| Dovetail joint | [275] | |||
| Mitre joint | [275] | |||
| Half check joint | [275] | |||
| Examples of Pattern Making | [275] to [285] | |||
| Patterns for piston gland | [275] | |||
| Construction of piston gland pattern | [276], [277] | |||
| Rapping small cast gears | [277] | |||
| Casting pillow block | [277] | |||
| Pattern for pillow block | [277] | |||
| Pulley pattern | [278], [279] | |||
| Building up segments for patterns | [278], [279] | |||
| Getting out arms for pulleys | [280] | |||
| Making pipe patterns | [280], [281] | |||
| Globe valve pattern | [281], [282] | |||
| Angle valve pattern | [283], [284] | |||
| Branch pipes | [284] to [286] | |||
| CHAPTER XXXV. | ||||
| WOOD WORKING MACHINERY. | ||||
| Classification | [287] | |||
| Circular Saws | [287] to [305] | |||
| Gauges for circular saws | [287] | |||
| Table of diameters | [287] | |||
| Thickness | [287] | |||
| Size of mandrel hole | [287] | |||
| Shingle saw | [287], [288] | |||
| Concave saw | [287], [288] | |||
| Stretching of circular saws by heat | [288] | |||
| The tension of circular saws | [288] | |||
| Causes of alteration of tension and method of discovering the same | [288] | |||
| Truth of circular saws | [288] | |||
| Various effects of circular saws heating | [288] | |||
| Truing circular saws | [288] | |||
| Sharpening the teeth of circular saws | [289], [290] | |||
| The gumming, gulleting or chamfering machine | [290] | |||
| Inserted teeth of saws | [290] | |||
| Chisel teeth saws | [290], [291] | |||
| Inserting teeth in circular saws | [290], [291] | |||
| Swing frame saws | [290], [292] | |||
| Fence for swing frame saws | [293] | |||
| Examples of work done on swing frame machine | [293] | |||
| Swing machine with fixed table | [294] | |||
| Double saw machine | [294], [295] | |||
| Gauges for sawing machine | [294] | |||
| Method of employing the mitre gauge | [294] | |||
| Cropping and gauging gauge | [296] | |||
| Bevel or mitre sawing machines | [296], [298] | |||
| Roll feed circular saw machine | [298], [300] | |||
| Segmental circular saws | [300] | |||
| Fastening saw segments to their disks | [301] | |||
| Gang edging machines | [301] | |||
| Rack feed saw bench | [301] | |||
| Construction of the feed motion | [301] to [304] | |||
| Fibrous packing for circular saw | [305] | |||
| Tubular Saw Machine | [305] | |||
| Cross Cutting or Gaining Machine | [305], [306] | |||
| Scroll Sawing Machine | [306] | |||
| Construction of various scroll sawing machines | [306], [307] | |||
| Band Sawing Machine | [308] to [312] | |||
| Various kinds of teeth for band saws | [308], [309] | |||
| Pitch of teeth for band saws | [309] | |||
| The adjustment of the saws of band saw machines | [309], [310] | |||
| Filing the teeth of band saw machines | [309] | |||
| Re-sawing band saw machine | [309], [310] | |||
| To regulate the tension of band saws | [310], [311] | |||
| Construction of band saw guides | [311] | |||
| Various band saw machines | [311], [312] | |||
| Reciprocating Cross Cutting Saw | [312] | |||
| Construction of | [312] | |||
| Horizontal Saw Frame Machine | [312] to [315] | |||
| Construction of the saw driving mechanism | [314] | |||
| Construction of the feed motion | [315] | |||
| Construction of the saw | [315] | |||
| Planing Machines | [315] to [341] | |||
| Buzz planer | [315] | |||
| Construction of the work table | [316] | |||
| Construction of the cutter head | [316] | |||
| Skew knives | [316] | |||
| Roll feed wood planing machine | [317] | |||
| The construction of the feed rolls | [317] | |||
| Adjustment of the feed rolls | [317] | |||
| Construction of the pressure bars | [317] | |||
| Adjustment of the roll pressure | [318] | |||
| Adjustment of the work table | [318] | |||
| The roll driving mechanism | [319] | |||
| The cutter head | [320] | |||
| Three feed roll wood planing machine | [322], [323] | |||
| Pony planer | [323] | |||
| Construction of the feed mechanism | [324] | |||
| Balancing cutter heads and knives | [324], [326] | |||
| Farrar planing machine | [326], [327] | |||
| Planing and matching machine | [328] | |||
| Construction of the feed rolls | [329] | |||
| Construction of the upper cylinder | [329] | |||
| Construction of the lower cylinder | [329] | |||
| Construction of a matcher hanger | [329] | |||
| The timber planer | [330], [331] | |||
| Construction of parts of the timber planer | [331] | |||
| How the timber planer operates | [331], [332] | |||
| Panel planing and trying up machine | [332], [334] | |||
| Moulding machine | [334] | |||
| Double head panel raiser and double sticker | [335], [336] | |||
| Moulding cutters | [336], [337] | |||
| Cutter heads and circular cutters | [337] | |||
| The Shimer head | [337] | |||
| Head for producing match board grooves | [337], [338] | |||
| Jointing machine | [338] | |||
| Knives of jointing machine | [338] | |||
| Speed of cutter head or disc | [338] | |||
| Stroke jointers | [338], [339] | |||
| Machine for cutting mitre joints | [339] | |||
| Moulding or friezing machines | [339] | |||
| Important points of friezing machines | [339] | |||
| Construction of moulding and friezing machines | [340], [341] | |||
| Shape of cutters for moulding and friezing machine | [341] | |||
| Rotary cutters for all kinds of work, and for edge moulding and friezing machine | [341] to [343] | |||
| Boring Machines | [342] | |||
| Fences for | [342] | |||
| Augers or bits for | [342] | |||
| Boring machines for heavy work | [343] | |||
| Mortising Machines | [344] | |||
| Tools used in mortising machines | [344] | |||
| Motion of chisel bar and auger | [344] | |||
| Construction of bed | [344] | |||
| Adjustment of carriage | [344] | |||
| Tenoning Machines | [344], [345] | |||
| Construction of revolving heads | [344], [345] | |||
| Tenoning machine for heavy work | [346] | |||
| Sand-papering Machines | [346], [349] | |||
| Construction of sand-papering machines | [347], [348] | |||
| Movements of sand-papering machine | [347] | |||
| Cylinder sand-papering machines | [348] | |||
| Self-feeding sand-papering machine | [348] | |||
| Sizes of machines | [348] | |||
| Construction of feed rolls | [348] | |||
| Finishing and roughing cylinders | [348] | |||
| Brush attachment | [348] | |||
| Double wheel sanding machines | [348], [349] | |||
| CHAPTER XXXVI. | ||||
| STEAM BOILERS. | ||||
| Strength of Boiler Shells | [350] | |||
| Strength of Boiler Plate | [351] | |||
| Explanation of pressure in steam boilers | [351] | |||
| Boiler Joints or Seams | [351] to [357] | |||
| Forms of rivet joints | [351] | |||
| Single riveted lap joint | [351] | |||
| Double riveted lap joint | [352] | |||
| Single riveted butt joint with straps | [352] | |||
| Double riveted butt joint with straps zigzag riveted | [352] | |||
| Triple riveted lap joint zigzag riveted | [352] | |||
| Lap joint with covering plate | [352] | |||
| Double riveted lap joint chain riveted | [353] | |||
| Double riveted butt joints with double straps | [353] | |||
| Treble riveted butt joint with double straps | [353], [354] | |||
| Rules for spacing the rivets in boiler seams | [353] | |||
| Rule for finding diagonal pitch of riveted joints | [353] | |||
| High percentage joint | [353] | |||
| Rivets unevenly pitched | [354] | |||
| Rule for calculating the percentage strength of joint with unevenly pitched rivets | [354] | |||
| Strength of circumferential seams of stationary engine boilers | [354], [355] | |||
| Table of additions to be made to the factor of safety for various constructions of riveted joints | [355] | |||
| Table of diameter of rivets for single riveted lap joints | [356] | |||
| Rule for making rivet and plate area equal | [336] | |||
| Table of rivet diameter and pitch for single riveted lap joints | [356] | |||
| Rule for finding the pitch for double, diagonal riveted lap joints | [356] | |||
| Example in the use of rule for diagonal pitch of rivets | [356] | |||
| Rule for finding distance V where the diagonal pitch has been found | [357] | |||
| Comparing chain with zigzag riveted joints | [357] | |||
| Interior of Boilers | [358] to [364] | |||
| The internally fired flue boiler | [358], [359] | |||
| Boiler with Field tubes | [350] | |||
| Vertical water tube boiler | [360] | |||
| Construction of field tubes | [360] | |||
| Arrangement of field tubes | [360] | |||
| Vertical boilers with external uptakes | [361] | |||
| Horizontal return tubular boiler | [361], [362] | |||
| Construction of horizontal return tubular boiler | [362], [363] | |||
| Various arrangements of tubes in boilers | [364] | |||
| Setting Boilers | [364], [366] | |||
| Ground plan of brickwork | [365] | |||
| Setting full arch front boilers | [365] | |||
| Table of measurements for setting tubular stationary boilers with full arch front | [366] | |||
| Table of measurements for setting stationary boilers with half arch front | [366] | |||
| The Evaporative Efficiencies of Boilers | [366] to [368] | |||
| Table of the pressure, temperature and volume of steam | [367] | |||
| Calculating the evaporation of a boiler | [368] | |||
| Care and Management of Boilers | [368] to [371] | |||
| Examining safety valves | [368] | |||
| Water gauge glass | [368] | |||
| Gauge cocks | [368] | |||
| Lighting boiler fires | [368] | |||
| The thickness of the fire for boilers | [368] | |||
| Managing the fire | [368] | |||
| Shaking grate bars | [369] | |||
| The slice bar | [369] | |||
| The hoe | [369] | |||
| The poker | [369] | |||
| The clinker hook | [369] | |||
| The rake | [369] | |||
| The quantity of water in a boiler | [369] | |||
| Leaving the fire for the night | [369] | |||
| Leaving the safety valve for the night | [369] | |||
| Regulating the boiler feed | [369] | |||
| Dirty feed water | [370] | |||
| Defective feed pumps | [370] | |||
| Scale in boilers | [370] | |||
| Preventing the formation of scale | [370] | |||
| Feed water heaters | [370] | |||
| Low water in boilers | [370] | |||
| Priming or foaming | [370] | |||
| The known causes of priming | [370] | |||
| Wastefulness of priming | [370] | |||
| The detection of priming | [370] | |||
| To prevent or stop priming | [370] | |||
| Surface blow off cock or mechanical boiler cleaner | [370] | |||
| Blowing off a boiler | [370] | |||
| Blowing down a boiler | [370] | |||
| Washing out a boiler | [371] | |||
| Cleaning a boiler | [371] | |||
| Scaling a boiler | [371] | |||
| Examining a boiler | [371] | |||
| CHAPTER XXXVII. | ||||
| STEAM ENGINES. | ||||
| Engine Cylinders | [372] to [374] | |||
| The bores of | [372] | |||
| Sizes of | [372] | |||
| Wear of | [372] | |||
| Counterbore of | [372] | |||
| Clearance in | [372] | |||
| Lubrication of | [373] | |||
| The cocks of | [373] | |||
| Relief valves of | [373] | |||
| The steam ports of | [373] | |||
| Lagging | [374] | |||
| Jacketed cylinders | [374] | |||
| Engine Pistons | [374] | |||
| The speeds of | [374] | |||
| With releasing gears | [374] | |||
| With positive valve gears | [374] | |||
| The rings of | [374] | |||
| The follower | [374] | |||
| Testing the rings of | [374] | |||
| Engine Piston Rods | [375] | |||
| Methods of securing | [375] | |||
| Packing | [375] | |||
| Glands for | [375] | |||
| Engine Cross Heads | [375] | |||
| Engine Guide Bars | [375] | |||
| Engine Connecting Rods | [375] | |||
| Connecting rod keys | [375] | |||
| Angularity of | [375] | |||
| The lengths of | [375] | |||
| Valves | [376] to [378] | |||
| The D-valve | [376] | |||
| The point of cut off | [376] | |||
| Period of expansion of the steam | [376] | |||
| Point of release of the steam | [376] | |||
| Point of compression of the steam | [376] | |||
| Lead of | [376] | |||
| Point of admission of the steam | [376] | |||
| The lip | [376] | |||
| Exhaust lap | [376] | |||
| Steam lap | [376] | |||
| Tracing the action of | [376] | |||
| Double ported valves | [377] | |||
| The Allen valve | [377] | |||
| Webb’s patent valve | [377] | |||
| Balanced valves | [377] | |||
| Circular valves | [377] | |||
| Piston valves | [378] | |||
| Separate cut off valves | [378] | |||
| Meyer’s cut off valves | [378] | |||
| Gonzenback’s cut off valve | [378] | |||
| Eccentrics | [378] | |||
| Shifting eccentrics | [378] | |||
| The action of | [378] | |||
| The angular advance of | [378] | |||
| Designing Slide Valves | [380] | |||
| Valve Motions | [381] | |||
| Diagram for designing | [381] | |||
| Link Motion | [383] | |||
| In full gear forward | [383] | |||
| In full gear backward | [383] | |||
| The action of | [383] | |||
| Setting the valves | [383] | |||
| Governors | [384] | |||
| Fly ball or throttling | [384] | |||
| Isochronal | [384] | |||
| Dancing | [384] | |||
| Speed of | [384] | |||
| Spring adjustment of | [384] | |||
| Sawyer’s valve for | [384] | |||
| Speeder for | [384] | |||
| Starting a Slide Valve Engine | [384] | |||
| Crank position in | [384] | |||
| Examination of an Engine | [385], [387] | |||
| Adjusting connecting rod brasses | [385] | |||
| Adjusting main bearing | [386] | |||
| Taking a lead | [386] | |||
| Squaring a valve | [386] | |||
| Heating, to avoid | [386] | |||
| Setting a valve | [386] | |||
| Leaky throttle valves | [386] | |||
| Freezing an engine, prevention of | [386], [387] | |||
| Pumps | [387], [388] | |||
| Lift and force | [387] | |||
| Plunger | [387] | |||
| Rotary | [387] | |||
| Single-acting | [387] | |||
| Double-acting | [387] | |||
| Displacement of | [387] | |||
| Principles of action of | [387], [388] | |||
| Speed of | [388] | |||
| Capacity of | [388] | |||
| Air chamber of | [388] | |||
| Belt | [388] | |||
| CHAPTER XXXVIII. | ||||
| THE LOCOMOTIVE. | ||||
| Modern Freight Locomotive | [389], [390] | |||
| General construction | [389] | |||
| Course of steam from boiler to smoke stack | [389] | |||
| Boiler feed | [389] | |||
| Position of parts for starting | [389] | |||
| Steam supply to injectors | [389] | |||
| Oil supply to slide valve and cylinder | [389] | |||
| Control of safety valve | [389] | |||
| Pop valve | [389] | |||
| Automatic air brake | [390] | |||
| Draught of fire | [390] | |||
| Sand valves | [390] | |||
| American Passenger Locomotive | [390] to [393] | |||
| General construction | [390] | |||
| Steam reversing gear | [390], [391] | |||
| Link motion in full gear forward | [391] | |||
| In mid gear | [392] | |||
| In full gear backward | [392] | |||
| Reversing gear | [392] | |||
| Changing gear of link motion | [393] | |||
| Running forward | [393] | |||
| Running backward | [393] | |||
| Special Operations | [394] | |||
| Setting the slide valves | [394] | |||
| Getting the length of eccentric rods | [394] | |||
| Setting the lead | [394] | |||
| Backward eccentric | [394] | |||
| Marking sector notches | [394] | |||
| Setting Allen valves | [395] | |||
| Special Parts | [395] to [400] | |||
| The injector | [395] to [397] | |||
| Westinghouse automatic air brake | [398] to [400] | |||
| Locomotive Running | [400] to [404] | |||
| General discussion | [400] | |||
| Getting the engine ready | [400] | |||
| Laying the fire | [400] | |||
| Banking the fire | [401] | |||
| Starting up a banked fire | [401] | |||
| Examining the engine | [401] | |||
| Oiling the engine | [401] | |||
| Starting the engine | [401] | |||
| Saving fuel | [402] | |||
| Methods of firing | [402] | |||
| Examples of trips | [402] | |||
| Accidents on the Road | [402] | |||
| Knocking out cylinder heads | [402] | |||
| Heating of piston rods | [403] | |||
| Throwing off a wheel tire | [403] | |||
| Throwing off a driving wheel | [403] | |||
| Breaking a spring | [403] | |||
| Bursted tubes | [403] | |||
| Slipping eccentrics | [403] | |||
| Hot axle boxes | [403] | |||
| Breaking a lifting link | [403] | |||
| Breaking the saddle pin | [403] | |||
| Adjusting the wedges of the axle boxes | [404] | |||
| CHAPTER XXXIX. | ||||
| THE MECHANICAL POWERS. | ||||
| Power | [405] | |||
| Lever | [405] | |||
| The principles of | [405] | |||
| Wheels and pulleys considered as levers | [405], [406] | |||
| Power transmitted by gear wheels and pulleys combined | [407] | |||
| Horse Power | [407] | |||
| Calculating the horse power of an engine | [407] | |||
| Testing the horse power of an engine | [408] | |||
| Safety Valve Calculations | [409] | |||
| Heat | [410] | |||
| Latent heat | [410] | |||
| Water | [410] | |||
| Steam | [410] | |||
| Saturated | [410] | |||
| Superheated | [410] | |||
| Expansion of | [411] | |||
| Absolute pressure of | [411] | |||
| Weight of | [411] | |||
| Volume and pressure of | [411] | |||
| Heat | [411] | |||
| Conversion of heat into work | [411] | |||
| Joule’s equivalent | [411] | |||
| Mechanical equivalent of heat | [411] | |||
| Mariotte’s law | [411] | |||
| Radiation of heat | [412] | |||
| Conduction of heat | [412] | |||
| Convection of heat | [412] | |||
| CHAPTER XL. | ||||
| THE INDICATOR. | ||||
| Computations from Indicator Diagrams | [413] | |||
| Indicators | [413] | |||
| Description of | [413] | |||
| Thompson indicator | [413] | |||
| Tabor indicator | [413] | |||
| Diagrams | [414] | |||
| Admission of steam to indicator | [414] | |||
| Expansion line or curve | [414] | |||
| Exhaust line | [414] | |||
| Back pressure line | [414] | |||
| Atmospheric line | [414] | |||
| Theoretical diagram | [414] | |||
| Compression line or curve | [415] | |||
| Condensing engine diagram | [415] | |||
| Vacuum line of indicator diagram | [415] | |||
| (Barometer, construction of) | [415] | |||
| (Barometer, graduation of) | [416] | |||
| Indicator springs | [416] | |||
| Tables of springs for indicators | [416] | |||
| Attachment of indicators to an engine | [416], [417] | |||
| Pantagraph motions | [417] | |||
| Expansion curve, testing of | [417], [418] | |||
| Theoretical expansion curve | [417], [418] | |||
| Calculations from diagrams | [418] to [421] | |||
| Horse power | [418], [419] | |||
| Area | [419] | |||
| Rule for calculating horse power | [419] | |||
| Mean effective pressure | [420] | |||
| Steam used in engines | [420] | |||
| Water consumption | [420], [421] | |||
| Defective diagrams of engines | [421] | |||
| Excessive lead of engines | [421] | |||
| Theoretical compression curve of engines | [422] | |||
| CHAPTER XLI. | ||||
| AUTOMATIC CUT-OFF ENGINES. | ||||
| Definition | [423] | |||
| Corliss Automatic Cut-off Engine | [423], [424] | |||
| Valve gear of | [424], [425] | |||
| Governor of | [425], [426] | |||
| Admission of steam into | [426] | |||
| Lap of valve of | [426], [427] | |||
| High Speed Automatic Engines | [427], [428] | |||
| Speed of | [427] | |||
| Wheel governors for | [427], [428] | |||
| Straight Line Automatic Engine | [428], [429] | |||
| Important details of | [429], [430] | |||
| Steam Fire Engine | [430], [431] | |||
| Boilers of | [430], [433] | |||
| Pumps | [431], [432] | |||
| Heaters for | [432], [433] | |||
| CHAPTER XLII. | ||||
| MARINE ENGINES. | ||||
| Various Kinds of Marine Engines | [434] to [451] | |||
| High pressure engines | [434] | |||
| Compound condensing engines | [434], [435] | |||
| Triple expansion engines | [436] | |||
| Donkey engines | [442] | |||
| Trunk engines | [446] | |||
| Oscillating engines | [446] | |||
| Geared engine | [446] | |||
| Compound engine of the steamship Poplar | [447], [450], [451] | |||
| Arrangement of Marine Engine Pumps | [436] | |||
| Boilers of Marine Engines, Arrangement of | [436], [437] | |||
| Various Parts of Marine Engines, etc. | [438] to [449] | |||
| Valve for intermediate cylinder of triple expansion engines | [438] | |||
| Link motions for triple expansion engines | [438] | |||
| Auxiliary or by-pass valve | [438], [439] | |||
| Oiling apparatus | [439], [440] | |||
| Surface condensers | [440] | |||
| Circulating pumps | [440] | |||
| The snifting valve | [440] | |||
| The blow-through valve | [440] | |||
| Air pumps | [441] | |||
| The air chamber | [441] | |||
| Feed escape or feed relief valve | [441] | |||
| Bilge injections for marine engines | [441], [442] | |||
| Surface condensing, advantages of | [442] | |||
| Valves of the surface condensing engine | [442] | |||
| Case hardening | [442] | |||
| Link motion for marine engines | [443] | |||
| The separate expansion valve | [443] | |||
| Friction of slide valves | [443] | |||
| Double beat valves | [443] | |||
| The siphon | [443] | |||
| Steam lubricators | [444] | |||
| Marine engine valves that are worked by hand | [444] | |||
| Vacuum gauge | [444] | |||
| Condenser, to find the total pressure in the | [444] | |||
| Paddle wheels | [444], [445] | |||
| Screw propeller | [445] | |||
| The thrust bearing | [445] | |||
| Marine engine, the principal parts of | [445] | |||
| Lagging marine engines | [446] | |||
| Propeller cylinders | [446] | |||
| Fuel required | [446] | |||
| Freezing of pipes | [446] | |||
| Failure of engine to start, causes of | [446], [447] | |||
| Defective vacuum, causes of | [447] | |||
| Heating, causes of | [447] | |||
| Construction of a triple expansion engine | [447] to [449] | |||
| CHAPTER XLIII. | ||||
| MARINE BOILERS. | ||||
| Plates for Marine Boilers | [452] | |||
| Iron | [452] | |||
| Steel | [452] | |||
| Strength of | [452] | |||
| Boiler Stays | [452] | |||
| Methods of securing | [452] | |||
| Boiler Tubes | [452] | |||
| Methods of securing | [452] | |||
| Causes of leaks | [452] | |||
| Repairing leaks | [452] | |||
| The Up-take | [453] | |||
| The Receiver | [453] | |||
| The Fittings and their Uses | [453], [454] | |||
| Valves | [453], [454] | |||
| Gauges | [453], [454] | |||
| Cocks | [454] | |||
| Important Features and Facts | [454], [455] | |||
| Boiler scale | [454] | |||
| The salinometer | [454] | |||
| Priming, the prevention of | [454] | |||
| Supplemental parts | [454], [455] | |||
| The superheater | [454] | |||
| The draught | [455] | |||
| Wasting of plates | [455] | |||
| Fuel, the quantity of | [455] | |||
| To Relieve the Boiler in Case of Accident | [455] | |||
| Steel Marine Boiler | [456] | |||
| The “Martin” Boiler | [456] | |||
| Testing and Examining Boilers | [456] to [459] | |||
| Hydraulic tests | [456] | |||
| Related to stays | [456], [457] | |||
| On new and old boilers | [456], [457] | |||
| Internal examinations | [458] | |||
| Preparation for | [458] | |||
| Safety valves | [458] | |||
| Bottom of the boiler | [458] | |||
| Bottom and sides of the furnace | [458] | |||
| Boxes and stays | [458] | |||
| Use of chipping hammer | [458] | |||
| Pit holes in the bottom of a furnace | [458] | |||
| Drilling through the plates | [458] | |||
| Flanges of furnaces | [458] | |||
| Deposits on the necks of stays | [458] | |||
| Man-hole door | [458] | |||
| Superheater | [459] | |||
| Proportions for grate surface | [459] | |||
| Outside examination | [458] | |||
| Cement beds for boilers | [458] | |||
| Proportions for circular tubular boilers | [459] | |||
| CHAPTER XLIV. | ||||
| HARDENING AND TEMPERING. | ||||
| Purposes | [460] | |||
| To resist wear | [460] | |||
| To increase elasticity | [460] | |||
| To provide a cutting edge | [460] | |||
| Manufacturer’s Temper | [460] | |||
| Blacksmith’s Temper | [460] | |||
| Color Tempering | [460] | |||
| Practical Processes | [461] to [464] | |||
| The muffle | [461] | |||
| Warping | [461] | |||
| Rapidity of reduction of temper | [461] | |||
| Brown and Sharpe’s practice | [461] | |||
| Waltham Watch Co.’s practice | [461] | |||
| Pratt and Whitney Co.’s practice | [461] | |||
| Morse Twist Drill Co.’s practice | [461] | |||
| Outside hardening | [462] | |||
| Heating in fluxes | [462] | |||
| Monitor Sewing Machine Co.’s practice | [462] | |||
| Hardening saws | [462] | |||
| Drawing the temper | [462] | |||
| 1. Lying in an open furnace | [462] | |||
| 2. Stretched in a frame | [462] | |||
| 3. Between dies | [462] | |||
| Stiffening saws | [463] | |||
| Tomlinson Carriage Spring Co.’s practice | [463] | |||
| Columbia Car Spring Co.’s practice | [463] | |||
| New Haven Clock Co.’s practice | [464] | |||
| APPENDIX. | ||||
| Part I.—Test Questions for Engineers | [467] | |||
| Part II.—Dictionary of Workshop Terms | [473] | |||
FULL-PAGE PLATES.
Volume II.
| Facing | |||
| [Frontispiece.] | COMPOUND MARINE ENGINE. | Title Page | |
| Plate | [I.] | EXAMPLE OF MILLING MACHINE. | 10 |
| „ | [II.] | EXAMPLES OF MILLING MACHINES. | 12 |
| „ | [III.] | EXAMPLES OF MILLING MACHINES. | 16 |
| „ | [IV.] | EMERY GRINDING MACHINERY. | 45 |
| „ | [V.] | GRINDSTONE GRINDING. | 54 |
| „ | [VI.] | FULL AUTOMATIC GEAR CUTTER. | 55 |
| „ | [VII.] | GEAR CUTTING MACHINES. | 56 |
| „ | [VIII.] | THE HAMMER AND ITS USES. | 71 |
| „ | [IX.] | SCRAPERS AND SCRAPING. | 97 |
| „ | [X.] | OIL-TESTING MACHINES. | 153 |
| „ | [XI.] | TESTING PLANER BEDS AND TABLES. | 180 |
| „ | [XII.] | EXAMPLES OF PULLEYS. | 200 |
| „ | [XIII.] | THE ACTION OF SAW TEETH. | 273 |
| „ | [XIV.] | EXAMPLE IN PATTERN WORK. | 276 |
| „ | [XV.] | EXAMPLES IN STEAM HAMMER WORK. | 232 |
| „ | [XVI.] | EXAMPLES IN HAND FORGING. | 239 |
| „ | [XVII.] | FORGING UNDER THE HAMMER. | 249 |
| „ | [XIX.] | DIMENSION SAWING MACHINE. | 292 |
| „ | [XIX.] | RACK-FEED SAW BENCH. | 302 |
| „ | [XX.] | PLANTATION SAW MILL. | 305 |
| „ | [XXI.] | GAINING OR GROOVING MACHINE. | 306 |
| „ | [XXII.] | BAND SAW WITH ADJUSTABLE FRAME. | 311 |
| „ | [XXIII.] | BAND SAW MILL. | 311 |
| „ | [XXIV.] | LOG CROSS-CUTTING MACHINE. | 312 |
| „ | [XXV.] | HORIZONTAL SAW FRAME. | 314 |
| „ | [XXVI.] | TRYING-UP MACHINE. | 333 |
| „ | [XXVII.] | SANDING MACHINES. | 348 |
| „ | [XXVIII.] | BOILER FOR STATIONARY ENGINES. | 360 |
| „ | [XXIX.] | AMERICAN FREIGHT LOCOMOTIVE. | 388 |
| „ | [XXX.] | AMERICAN PASSENGER LOCOMOTIVE. | 390 |
| „ | [XXXI.] | LOCOMOTIVE LINK MOTION. | 392 |
| „ | [XXXII.] | INJECTOR AS APPLIED TO A LOCOMOTIVE. | 395 |
| „ | [XXXIII.] | LOCOMOTIVE AIR BRAKES. | 396 |
| „ | [XXXIV.] | THE CORLISS VALVE GEAR. | 425 |
| „ | [XXXV.] | STEAM FIRE ENGINE. | 430 |
| „ | [XXXVI.] | COMPOUND MARINE ENGINE. | 436 |
| „ | [XXXVII.] | TRIPLE EXPANSION MARINE ENGINE. | 440 |