FOOTNOTES:
[1] L. Grasberger, Erziehung und Unterricht im klassischen Alterthum, Würzburg, 1864, vol. i, p. 23. See also Colozza’s compilation Il Guioco nella Psicologia e nella Pedagogia, Turin, 1895, p. 36.
[2] Die Spiele der Thiere, Jena, 1896. English translation by E. L. Baldwin. D. Appleton and Company, New York, 1898.
[3] This is a modification of my former view. For particulars, see the section on Imitative Play.
[4] Jodl, Lehrbuch der Psychologie, Stuttgart, 1896, p. 425.
[5] He speaks (Psychology des Sentiments, Paris, 1896, p. 195) of an instinctive impulse “à depenser un superflu d’activité.” If, as I believe, this does not mean actual superfluity (Spencer’s “surplus” energy), then it must refer to our natural impulse to seek action and experience. See also Paolo Lombroso, Piacere di esplicare la propria activita. (Saggi di Psicologia del Bambino, Turin, 1894, p. 117.)
[6] Acquired impulses are all developed from natural ones.
[7] In Ribot’s classification these impulses become instincts belonging to the second group (Psychologie des Sentiments, p. 194).
[8] The terms “private” and “public” (or “social”) are used by Baldwin, Social and Ethical Interpretations, section 30, to cover a similar distinction. The terms “autonomic” and “socionomic” impulses would possibly answer.—Ed.
[9] W. Preyer. Die Seele dee Kindes, 4to Auf., Leipsic, 1895, p. 64.
[10] See the writings of J. Mark Baldwin on the importance of repetition for development. They are frequently cited in what follows.
[11] B. Perez. Ses trois premières années de l’enfant, fifth edition, Paris, 1892, pp. 38, 45.
[12] See G. Stanley Hall, Some Aspects of the Early Sense of Self. American Journal of Psychology, vol. ix, No. 3, 1898.
[13] Op. cit., p. 162.
[14] L. Strümpell, Psychologische Pädagogik, Leipsic, 1880, pp. 359, 360.
[15] Op. cit., p. 357.
[16] Dr. Sikorski, L’évolution physique de l’enfant, Revue Philosophique xix (1885). p. 418.
“The wolves’ eyes burned in their heeds like fire,
But the boy in his folly fled not before the foe;
He went up to one of them and seized it with his hand
Where he saw the glittering eyes glowing in its head.”
I. V. Zingerle, Das Deutsche Kinderspiel, second edition, Innsbruck, 1873. p. 51.
[18] Les trois premières années, etc., p. 46. In regard to the words “sensations agreeable or even indifferent,” I would say that this distinction between pleasure in sensation as such, and pleasure in agreeable sensation, recurs again and again. In the most advanced play, æsthetic enjoyment, it appears as the difference between æsthetic effect and beauty.
[19] G. Compayré, L’évolution intellectuelle et morale de l’enfant, Paris, 1893.
[20] H. Wölfflin, Prolegomena zu einer Psychologie der Architektur, Munich, 1886, p. 47.
[21] W. Joest, Allerlei Spielzeug, Internationales Archiv für Ethnographie, vol. vi (1893).
[22] Deutsche Colonialzeitung, 1889, No. 11.
[23] Croker’s Boswell’s Johnson, p. 215.
[24] Op. cit., p. 65.
[25] Perez, Les trois premières années, p. 16.
[26] Op. cit., p. 87.
[27] Compayré, indeed, maintains that kissing in no more than a “ressouvenir” of the lip movements on the maternal breast.
[28] L. Grasberger, op. cit., Part I, p. 35. Fig. 282 in Maurice Emmanuel’s book. La danse Grecque antique (Paris, 1896), furnishes a pictorial representation of this movement.
[29] Miss Romanes’s account of the capuchin ape perhaps furnishes an example from the animal world: “He pulls out hot cinders from the grate, and passes them over his head and chest, evidently enjoying the warmth, but never burning himself. He also puts hot ashes on his head” (Animal Intelligence, fifth edition, London, 1892, p. 493). The context favours the supposition of playful experimentation.
[30] “Un aveugle, voulant exprimer la volupté que lui causait cette chaleur du soleil invisible pour lui, disait quil croyait entendre le soleil comme une harmonie” (M. Guyan, Les problèmes de l’esthétique contemporaine, third edition, p. 61).
[31] A. Kussmaul, Untersuchungen über das Seelenleben des neugeborenen Menschen, 1859, p. 16.
[32] Les yeux et les narines étant fermés, dit Longet, on ne distinguera pas une crème à la vanille d’une crème au café; elles ne produiront qu’une sensation commune de saveur douce et sucrée (Perez, Les trois années, etc., p. 14).
[33] R. Semon, Im australischen Busch und an den Kusten des Korallenmeeres, Leipsic, 1896, p. 512.
[34] Op. cit., p. 18.
[35] Op. cit., p. 66.
[36] Mario Pilo, La psychologie de beau et de l’art, Paris, 1895, p. 15.
[37] This section has been published under the title Ueber Hör-Spiele, in the Vierteljahrsschrift f. wiss. Philos., xxii.
[38] Descent of Man, vol. ii, p. 228.
[39] E. and L. Selenka, Soninge Welt, Wiesbaden, 1896, p. 55. The cry is said to be less like a melody than a sort of exulting call. One of the Swiss hunters in the expedition said that the ape jodeled back to him.
[40] W. Preyer, Die Seele des Kindes, p. 56. See Miss Shinn’s Notes on the Development of the Child, p. 115.
[41] J. Sully, Studies of Childhood, London, 1896, p. 409.
[42] B. Perez, Ses trois premières années des enfant, p. 34.
[43] E. Gurney, The Power of Sound, London, 1880, p. 102.
[44] B. Sigismund, Kind und Welt, 1897, p. 60.
[45] Miss Shinn’s small niece displayed very little appreciation for rhythm. Loc. cit., 120.
[46] This instance is subsCituted for a parallel one of Professor Groos’s, as the point of the latter would of course vanish in the attempt to translate it.—Tr.
[47] See Gurney, op. cit., pp. 35, 306.
[48] Darwin, op. cit., vol. ii. p. 321.
[49] Streifzüge eines Unzeilgemässen, vol. viii, p. 122.
[50] P. Souriau, La Suggestion dans l’art, Paris, 1893. Of course this means only a more or less remote approach to narcosis on the one hand, and hypnosis on the other. Perhaps the idea of ecstasy meets our case even better, as Mantegazza has figured it:
[51] Karl Büchner’s pregnant hypothesis is that acquaintance with rhythm is chiefly derived from physical labour (Arbeit und Rhythmus, Leipsic, 1896).
[52] See B. O. Stoll, Suggestion und Hypnose in der Völkerpsychologie, and J. Lippert, Kulturgeschichte der Menschheit, vol. i, p. 632, where this idea is set forth with great clearness.
[53] Schopenhauer says, Rhythm (and rhyme) is “partly a means of keeping our attention—since we gladly follow it—and partly the occasion of a blind unreasoning submission in us to leadership, which by this means attains a certain authoritative and apparently unaccountable power over us.”
[54] Op. cit., p. 67.
[55] According to R. Wallaschek, it is the demand for distinct rhythm which first elevates the state of transport to the appreciation of melody, and leads to the proper valuation of the interval (Primitive Music, London, 1893, p. 232).
[56] E. Hanslick, Vom Musikalisch-Schönen, Leipsic, 1896, p. 153.
[57] Op. cit., pp. 168, 171.
[58] Stumpf has treated the question most exhaustively (Tonpsychologie, vol. i. p. 202).
[59] H. Siebeck, Das Wesen der Aesthetischen Anschauung, Berlin, 1875, p. 153.
[60] Köstlin, Aesthetik, p. 560.
[61] “Primitive music can not have grown out of the voice modulation in excited speech, because in many cases it has no modulation of tone, but is simply rhythmic movement in a single tone” (Wallaschek, Primitive Music, p. 252).
[62] Op. cit., p. 272.
[63] In a celebrated Chinese poem the effect of music is thus described: “Now soft as whispered words, now soft and loud together—like pearls falling on marble—now coaxing as the call of birds, now complaining like a brook, and now like a mountain stream bursting its icy bounds.” When we recall the great difference in form between Chinese music and our own, the similarity of emotional effect is astonishing.
[64] Compayré, op. cit., p. 41.
[65] H. Gutzmann (Das Kindes Sprach und Sprachfehler, 1894, p. 7) shown that crying is good practice for talking, because, in contrast to the habitual method of breathing, a short, deep inhalation is followed by lingering exhalation, as in speech.
[66] Loc. cit., p. 368. It is, of course, difficult to say at what moment the automatic babbling attains the dignity of speech.
[67] Somewhat akin to inspiratory sounds are the clicking noises which children often produce. These are well known to play a considerable part in the language of the Hottentots. For the influence of the self-originated language of children on the speech of adults, and for the analogy between child-language and that of the lower races, see H. Gutzmann, Die Sprachlaute des Kindes und der Naturvölker, Westermann’s Monatshefte, December, 1895.
[68] Lubbock and Tylor have pointed out that reduplication is used much more in the speech of savages than in that of civilized peoples.
[69] Op. cit., p. 311. These citations are somewhat curtailed.—Tr.
[70] L. Beeq de Fouquières, Les jeus des anciens, Paris, 1869, p. 278.
[71] Croker’s Boswell’s Johnson, p. 215.
[72] See K. Bücher, Arbeit und Rhythmus, p. 75.
[73] In subjective rhythm, a scale which is properly without accent is, as a rule, conceived of as having some tones emphasized to mark time. See E. Meumann, Untersuchungen zur Psychologie und Aesthetik des Rhythmus (Philos. Studien, vol. x, p. 286).
[74] Loc. cit., p. 301.
[75] R. M. Meyer, Ueber den Refrain, Zeitschrift f. vgl. Litt-Gesch., i, 1887, p. 34. Marie G——, for example, sang in her seventh year, when first awakened, wólla, wólla, budscha, incessantly and melodiously.
[76] Loc. cit., p. 62.
[77] “Le rythme ... vant surtout par son effet d’entrainement,” Souriau, La suggestion dans l’art, p. 47.
[78] W. Joest, Maylayische Lieder und Tänze aus Ambon und den Uliase (Molukken), Internat. Arch. f. Ethnogr., v, 1892, p. 23.
[79] The application of the principle of thirds to rhyme is interesting, since the echo-like ring of the triple rhyme has an effect very similar to that of chain rhymes.
[80] Miss Shinn, loc. cit., p. 134. With the mentally deranged the stringing of senseless rhymes is very common. One patient wrote on a sheet of paper. “Nelke, welke, Helge; Hilde, Tilde, Milde; Hand, Wand, Sand.” Kräpelin, Psychiatrie, Leipsic, 1896, p. 599.
[81] Rochholz, Alemannisches Kinderlied und Kinderspiel, Leipsic, 1857, p. 124.
[82] J. Mark Baldwin, Mental Development in the Child and the Race, 1895, p. 132.
[83] Rather a free translation of the verse in J. D. Georgens’s Mutter Büchlein. p. 170.
[84] F. M. Böhme, Deutsches Kinderlied und Kinderspiel, 1897, p. 302.
[85] A. Bastian, Die Völker des östlichen Asien, vol. iii, 1867, p. 227.
[86] See H. Ploss, Das Kind in Brauch and Sitte der Völker, 1882, vol. ii, p. 285.
[87] Op. cit., p. 57.
[88] L. Strümpell, Psychologische Pädagogik, p. 358.
[89] Sully, loc. cit., p. 415.
[90] Op. cit., p. 58.
[91] Op. cit., p. 33.
[92] Op. cit., p. 212.
[93] “Cracking the fingers,” writes Schellong from Kaiserwilhelmsland, “is a familiar practice with the little Papuan.” Zeitschrift für Ethnologie, xxi (1889), p. 16.
[94] G. A. Colozza does not sufficiently consider this versatility when he says in his interesting hook on play, “I giocattoli dei bambini poveri non sono che delle pietre; esse si divertono non poco nel sentire il rumore che si ha battendo pietra contra pietra.” Il Gienoco nella Psychologia e nella Pedagogia, p. 70.
[95] E. Grosse, Die Anfänge der Kunst, 1894, pp. 275, 277.
[96] G. Reischel, Aus allen Welttheilen, 1896, No. 2. Wallaschek did not believe that the drum is a primitive instrument chiefly because of our failure to find them among prehistoric relics, though the fife is frequently found among those of the stone age. Here we have an instance, however, which, while it belongs to the close of the period, is of such a complicated and well-developed form as to point to long use. Moreover, as Grosse points out in a letter to me, Wallaschek’s argument is not conclusive, inasmuch as the material used for primitive drums was perishable.
[97] Our bells, too, may be derived from the rattle.
[98] Les jeux des anciens, pp. 6, 12.
[99] See Rich. Andree, Ethnog. Parallellen und Vergleichen, 1889, p. 86.
[100] Alwin Schultz, Alltagsleben einer deutschen Frau zu Anfang des 18 Jahrhundert, 1890, p. 207.
[101] A formidable objection seems to me to lie in the fact that manual labour is almost entirely wanting among the tribes who subsist by the chase, and that what little they have is conducted by the women, while it is the men who indulge in the song and dance. Grosse, moreover, assures me that even their swimming and marching are not calculated to support this theory. It should be added that Bücher has now considerably modified his view by deriving work itself from play (Die Entstehung der Volkswirtschaft, 1890, p. 92). “The order formerly laid down must be directly reversed; play is older than work, art older than production for utility.”
[102] This is too baldly stated.
[103] Op. cit., p. 91.
[104] E. Raehlmann, Physiol.-psychol. Studien über die Entwickelung der Gesichtswahrnehmungen bei Kindern und bei operirten Blindgeborenen. Zeitsch. für Psychol. und Physiol. der Sinnesorgane, vol. ii (1891), p. 69. Raehlmann maintains in this article that those who are born blind and attain the power of vision by operation pass through a process of development quite like that of the child.
[105] It is otherwise with those born blind. Johann Ruben, who was nineteen when operated on, at once made distance the subject of his investigation. “For example, he pulled off his boot and threw it some distance, and then tried to estimate how far off it was. He walked some steps toward it, and tried to pick it up; finding that he could not reach it he went a little farther, until he finally got it.” Raehlmann, ibid., p. 81.
[106] Die Seele des Kindes, p. 4.
“Then he forgot how cold he was, and played with the ring.
The little child forgot all his woe.
He seized upon the ring and said, ‘What is this?’”
—Zingerle, p. 51.
[108] Kind und Welt, pp. 58, 61.
[109] In Nacht und Eis, vol. i, p. 222.
[110] J. G. Romanes, Animal Intelligence, p. 493. See, too, Ellendorf’s beautiful description of the monkey playing with matches, Gartenlaube, 1862, p. 300.
“There, see, the curtain dark already rolls away!
The night must fly, now dreams the glorious day;
The crimson lips that lay fast closed so long,
Breathe now, half ope’d, a sweet, low song;
Once more the eye gleams bright, and, like a god, the day
Bounds forward to begin again his royal way.”
[112] W. James, Principles of Psychology, vol. i, p. 268.
[113] Die Anfänge der Kunst, p. 99.
[114] O. Külpe, Grundriss der Psychologie, 1893, p. 126.
[115] “Shade,” says Schelling, “is the painter’s stock in trade, the body into which he must try to breathe the fleeting soul of light; and even the mechanics of his art show him that the black which is at his service comes far nearer to the effect of darkness than does white to that of light.” Leonardo da Vinci has said, “Painter, if you desire the brilliance of fame, do not shrink from the gloom of shadow.” Sammtl. Werke, vol. v, p. 533.
[116] Die Seele des Kindes, p. 6.
[117] Studies in Childhood, pp. 402, 300.
[118] Ibid.
[119] Op. cit., p. 67.
[120] See also Miss Shinn, op. cit., pp. 29, 33, and F. Tracy, The Psychology of Childhood, Boston, 1897, p. 14.
[121] Mental Development, p. 50.
[122] See also Baldwin’s reply to Preyer in the German and French translations of his book.—Ed.
[123] Op. cit., 13. Sully’s boy, on the contrary, in the eighth month of his third year at once called a light greenish gray, green. Studies of Childhood, p. 437.
[124] Op. cit., p. 68.
[125] Grosse, op. cit., p. 53.
[126] O. Frass, Beiträge zur Culturgeschichte den Menschen während der Eiszeit. Nach den Funden von der Schussenquelle. Archiv für Anthropologie, vol. ii.
[127] Grosse, p. 100.
[128] It should, however, be mentioned that the Brazilian Indians observed by v. d. Steinen wore green and blue feathers also.
[129] It is undeniable that they sometimes use shades of blue in their ornaments, when they have seen Europeans do so.
[130] Op. cit., pp. 170, 171.
[131] La suggestion dans l’art, p. 95.
[132] Op. cit., pp. 170, 171.
[133] Die Seele des Kindes, p. 40.
[134] That the child first acquires a clear perception of form by means of experimentation is proved by the uncertainty of those blind persons whose sight is restored, in recognising form by the eye (even weeks after the removal of the bandages), although they already have a clear idea of the forms, acquired by touch.
[135] Prolegomena zu einer Psychologie der Architektur, p. 13.
[136] A collection of such patterns may be found in the work of L. V. Frobenius, Die Kunst der Naturvölker. 1. Die Ornamentik, Westermanns Monatshefte, December, 1895.
[137] W. Joest, Ethnolographisches und Verwandtes aus Guayana, p. 90.
[138] Die Anfänge der Kunst, p. 111.
[139] Vierteljahrsschr. für wissensch. Philos., vol. xx (1896).
[140] Op. cit., p. 14.
[141] See G. H. Schneider. Why do we notice things which are moving regularly more easily than those at rest? Vierteljahrsschr. für wissenschaft. Philos., vol. ii (1878), p. 377.
[142] L. Edinger, Die Entwickelung der Gehirnbahnen in der Thierreihe, Allgemeine medicinische Central-Zeitung, 65. Jahrgang (1896).
[143] The most thrilling ghost stories are those in which a cold hand rests on the back of the neck, or where the victim sees in a mirror the ghost behind him. Dogs, too, who are quietly lying down react with greater excitement to light touches on the hair of their backs. The opposite to this feeling is the pleasure we feel in bestowing our backs in a safe corner—of a restaurant, etc.
[144] L. William Stern, Die Wahrnehmung von Bewegungen vermittelst des Auges, Zeitschr. für Psychol. u. Physiol. d. Sinnesorgane, vol. vii (1894), p. 373.
[145] Op. cit., p. 64.
[146] Die Seele des Kindes, p. 27. Cf. Baldwin’s remarks on the child’s interest in movement in Mental Development in the Child and the Race, p. 336.—Tr.
[147] See Ploss, Das Kind, etc., vol. ii, p. 313.
[148] Grasberger, vol. i, p. 75.
[149] The Play of Animals, p. 225.
[150] Alwin Schultz, op. cit., p. 169.
“Stay now thine heart, O wanderer, held fast in powerful hands!
Mine own breaks forth in trembling joy.
Thundering masses roll, on thundering masses hurled,
How can the eye and ear escape the tumultuous roar?
“War horses of the gods at play, leaping over one another.
Dashing downward and strewing to the winds their silver manes;
Exquisite forms unnumbered follow them, never the same,
Ever the same—who can wait till the end shall be?”
[152] This is the case with our round dances, and is, perhaps, the greatest objection to them.
[153] Die Anfänge der Kunst, pp. 202, 215.
[154] Ibid.
[155] Perhaps the world-wide demand for some sort of intoxicant is another kind of sensory play, since it is calculated to excite and intensify the social feelings. Kruepelin says (Psychiatrie, p. 361) that there is scarcely a single people which does not possess some popular agency for getting rid of the petty cares of life, and that the variety of these poisonous springs of pleasure is surprisingly great. I will note only alcoholism and the morphine habit. Mild intoxication by the former creates in the subject pleasant internal temperature sensations, combined with greater facility in all motor exertion. We become freer, gayer, and braver, and feel that life has no cares or anxieties for us, our strength and ability seem enhanced, and we behave and speak with candour and commonly without caution. The effect of morphine, on the contrary, seems to be rather a pleasant deadening of the motor impulses and a quickening of the intellect and imagination. In Paris there are said to be at least fifty thousand morphine takers, and the manufacture of gold hypodermic syringes of elegant design has become an important branch of the goldsmith’s business. That this intoxication is indulged in like play is shown, by Kraepelin’s statement that in a Russian regiment, to which a young friend of his belonged, nearly all the officers used the syringe. A still more evident play with the social feelings is displayed by many hysterical subjects, who take a certain satisfaction in imagined or real bodily sufferings. These become the central fact in their lives, and are even regarded with a sort of pride as an absorbing topic of conversation (Kraepelin, Psychiatrie, p. 782). These extravagances go to show that men in a normal state also play with their social emotions, even when these are in a way distasteful.
[156] Die Seele des Kindes, pp. 211, 216.
[157] Karl Vierordt, Physiologie des Kindesalters, Gerhardt’s Handbuch der Kinderkrankheiten, vol. i, p. 181.
[158] Preyer, Die Seele des Kindes, p. 139.
[159] Preyer, Die Seele des Kindes. p. 189.
[160] Mental Development, etc., chap, iv, the Origin of Right-handedness See, too, Vierordt, Physiologie des Kindesalters, p. 187. [Baldwin explains it genetically as an “expressive function” which afterward culminates in speech, which is located in an adjacent centre in the same hemisphere.—Tr.]
[161] See O. Behaghel, Etwas vom Zuknöpfen, Frankfurter Zeitung, 1897, No. 329.
[162] Op. cit., pp. 444, 600.
[163] Op. cit., pp. 444, 600.
[164] Die Narcotic Genussmittel und der Mensch, preface, and p. 376.
[165] Ibid.
[166] Jules Legras, Au pays Russe, Paris, 1895, p. 18.
[167] “The reprehensible confining of the child’s legs,” says Vierordt, in reference to kicking, “retards the development of the muscles not a little.” Psychologie des Kindesalters, p. 186.
[168] Op. cit., p. 174.
[169] Kind und Welt, p. 70. Sigismund tries to explain the backward creeping as due to the feet that the child gets on its dress and is impeded by it. But it is noteworthy that Baldwin’s little daughter, who for a time preferred to creep backward, had previously exhibited the reverse of natural walking movements—namely, such as would carry her backward—when held over a table so that she could just feel it with her soles. Mental Development, etc., p. 82.
[170] Les jeux des anciens, pp. 16, 21.
[171] Sigismund, op. cit., pp. 56, 74.
[172] Die Seele des Kindes, p. 175.
[173] Sigismund, op. cit., pp. 56, 74.
[174] Die Seele des Kindes, p. 179.
[175] Mental Development, etc., p. 81.
[176] Pädagogische Schriften, 1883, vol. ii, p. 333.
[177] Kraepelin, Psychiatrie, p. 445.
[178] Op. cit., p. 182.
[179] M. Guyau, Les Problèmes de l’Esthétique contemporaine, p. 48.
[180] L. Grasberger, Erziebung und Unterricht im klassischen Alterthum, pp. 32, 319.
[181] A. F. Chamberlain, The Child and Childhood in Folk-Thought, p. 268.
[182] See W. Seoboda, Die Bewohner des Nikobar-Archipels. Inter. Arch. für Eth., vol. vi (1893), p. 32.
[183] Grasberger, op. cit., p. 300.
[184] Weinhold. Altnordisches Leben, Berlin. 1856. p. 308.
[185] H. O. Lenz, Gemeinnützige Naturgeschichte, 1851, vol. i, p. 612.
[186] K. Wienhold, Altnordisches Leben, p. 307.
[187] Die Seele des Kindes, p. 183.
[188] J. Minor, Neuhochdeutsche Metrik, Strassburg, 1893, p. 11.
“It is the godlike power of harmony
Which orders wild motions to the quiet social dance.
And like a Nemesis, with the golden reins of rhythm,
Harnesses riotous lust, and tames its madness.”
[190] “O, Du frecher Spielmann, mach uns den Reihen lang! Juchheia! Wie er sprang! Herz, Milz, Lung und Leber sich rundum in ihm Schwang.” K. Weinhold, Die deutschen Frauen in Mittelalter, p. 373.
[191] Sonnige Welten, p. 77.
[192] Our waltz was originally the final movement in a complicated dance “which represented the romance of love, the meeting, the pursuit, the painful doubts and difficulties, and at last the wedding jollity.”—Schaller, Das Spiel und die Spieler, 1861, p. 219.
[193] Grosse, op. cit., p. 203.
[194] Sonnige Welten, p. 838.
[195] H. Ploss. Das Kleine Kind vom Tragbett bis zum ersten Schritt. 1881, p. 98. From this exhaustive treatise on the cradle it appears that most primitive peoples do not use our cradles with rockers, but prefer the swinging kind.
[196] K. v. d. Steinen, Unter den Naturvölkern Centralbrasiliens.
[197] R. Parkinson. Beiträge zur Ethnologie der Gilbert Insulaner. Internat. Archiv für Ethnologie, vol. ii, p. 92.
[198] Becq de Fouquières, Les Jeux des Anciens, p. 54.
[199] See especially op. cit., 205, where Souriau seems to undervalue the attraction of the backward glide.
[200] See Grasberger, op. cit., p. 128.
[201] Op. cit., p. 99.
[202] See Strutt, The Sports and Pastimes of the People of England, p. 153.
[203] Weinhold, Altnordische Leben, p. 806.
[204] Perez, Les trois premières années, etc., p. 80.
[205] Sigismund, op. cit., p. 40.
[206] Ibid., p. 53.
[207] I. H. Autenrieth, Ansichten über Natur und Seelenleben, p. 163.
[208] Unter den Naturvölkern Centralbrasiliens, p. 383.
[209] Grasberger, vol. i, p. 74.
[210] Roehholz, p. 464.
[211] Die Völker des östlichen Asien, vol. iii, p. 323.
[212] Les trois premières années, p. 84.
[213] Psychologie des Sentiments, p. 322.
[214] Compayré, p. 271.
[215] Die Seele des Kindes, p. 383.
[216] W. James, The Principles of Psychology, vol. ii, p. 422.
[217] See Compayré, p. 191.
[218] See Baechtold, Gottfried Keller’s Leben, vol. iii, p. 278.
[219] Michael Munkacsy, Erinnerungen, Berlin, 1897, p. 4.
[220] Op. cit., vol. ii, p. 423.
[221] Op. cit., p. 9.
[222] The Play of Animals, p. 98.
[223] Op. cit., p. 456.
[224] Op. cit., p. 103.
[225] Alwin Schultz, op. cit., p. 11.
[226] O. Finsch, Reise nach Westsibirien im Jahre 1876, Berlin, 1879, p. 520.
[227] F. Boas, Internat. Arch. für Ethnol., vol. i, 1888, p. 229. See, too, H. W. Klutschak, Als Eskimo unter Eskimo, pp. 136, 139, where are to be found illustrations of such figures.
[228] E. v. Hartmann, Das Spiel. Tagesfragen, Leipsic, 1896, p. 146.
[229] Die Seele des Kindes, pp. 183, 257.
[230] Op. cit., p. 80.
[231] Kind und Welt, p. 115.
[232] L’esthétique du Mouvement, p. 202.
[233] Even in skittles one speaks of a good throw.
[234] H. A. Berlepsch, Die Alpen in Natur und Lebensbildern, Jena, 1871, p. 415.
[235] See Fouquières, p. 209.
[236] Gutsmuths, Spiele zur Uebung und Erholung des Körpers und Geistes, eighth edition, pp. 122, 139, 169.
[237] R. Parkinson, Beitr. zur Ethn. der Gilbertin, p. 92.
[238] Gutsmuths, Spiele zur Uebung und Erholung des Körpers und Geistes, eighth edition, pp. 122, 139, 169.
[239] H. O. Forbes, Travels of a Scientist in the Malay Archipelago, vol. i, p. 159.
[240] William Black’s Highland Cousins gives a fine description of this national game of Scotland.
[241] See Fischart’s descriptions in his Gargantua.
[242] See Vieth’s Encyklopädie der Leibesübungen, vol. iii, p. 296.
[243] Another game like this is the so-called Prellballspiel. Gutsmuths, p. 101.
[244] See Ploss, Das Kind, vol. ii, p. 292.
[245] H. Wagner, Illustriertes Spielbuch für Knaben, Leipsic, 1895, p. 132.
[246] Grasberger, p. 78.
[247] See Fouquière, p. 173.
[248] Zingerle, p. 27.
[249] Jour. of Anthro. In., vol. xvii (1887), p. 88, on stone spinning tops.
[250] Ten Kate, Beiträge zur Ethnographie der Timorgruppe. Internat. Arch. f. Ethn., vol. vii (1894), p. 247.
[251] Ethnographische Parallelen und Vergleichen, p. 98. See, too, R. Andrée, Das Kreiselspiel und seine Verbreitung. Globus, vol. lxix (1896), p. 371.
[252] Gutsmuths, pp. 232, 358.
[253] Ibid.
[254] H. Wagner, Spielbuch für Knaben, p. 114.
[255] Rochholz, p. 391.
[256] Grasberger, p. 60.
[257] “Gargantua threw flat stones carelessly on the water so that they skipped I don’t know how many times.”
[258] A beautiful example of this may be found in Schweinfurth’s Im Herzen von Afrika, Leipsic, vol. i, p. 329.
[259] Grasberger gives this version in German verse:
“Wahrlich ein arges Ziel für den Schwarm der spielenden Knaben,
Und für des Steinwurfs Wucht pflanzten sie mich an den Weg.
Wie hat die wüste Hagel getroffen, die blühenden Krone
Mir zerschlagen, und ach, wie sind die Zweige geknickt!
Nichts mehr gilt nach der Ernte der Baum Euch: zur eigenen Schändung
Hab’ ich Unseliger hier alle die Früchte gezeugt.”
[260] Bastian, Die Völker des östlichen Asien, vol. iii, pp. 322, 324.
[261] Ibid.
[262] Ploss, Das Kind, vol. ii, p. 291.
[263] See A. Richter, Zur Geschichte des deutschen Kinderspieles. Westermanns Monatshefte, 1870.
[264] Rochholz, p. 421.
[265] Forbes, op. cit., vol. i, p. 234. See also vol. ii, p. 45, where a simpler game is described which is played by boys also, and is more like European quoits.
[266] Nordenskiöld, Die Umsegelung Asiens und Europas auf der Vega, Leipsic, 1881-’82, vol. i, p. 70.
[267] Gutsmuths, p. 69.
[268] Ibid., p. 198.
[269] A peculiar and difficult game of catching is played by the Gilbert Islanders. A light feather ornament is loosely attached to a stick which is thrown into the air. As the stick descends the ornament floats away, and the players’ task is to fish for it, as it were, with a stone fastened to a long line and bring it down. This game is called “Tabama.” R. Parkinson, Beiträge zur Ethnologie der Gilbert Insulaner.
[270] See Ernst Meier, Deutsche Kinderreime und Kinderspiele aus Swaben, p. 145.
[271] R. Parkinson, op. cit.
[272] H. Wagner, Illustrirtes Spielbuch für Knaben, p. 92.
[273] Op. cit., p. 177.
[274] See Baldwin, Mental Development, etc., p. 315. Baldwin uses the term “coefficient of recognition.”
[275] Ibid., p. 308, where the motor process is emphasized in connection with attention.
[276] Die Seele des Kindes, p. 38.
[277] F. Pollock, An Infant’s Progress in Language. Mind, vol. iii, 1878.
[278] Sully, Studies in Childhood, p. 421. See also Sikorski’s report on his eight-months-old child, who recognised the crescent shape of the holes in a pigeon house as connected with the moon (p. 414).
[279] The French animal psychologist, E. Alix, says the same thing of an Arabian dog which he owned (see The Play of Animals, p. 91). Play with shadows by adults might be dwelt upon. With us it is hardly more than trivial amusement for an idle company, but among other peoples it becomes much more important, as witness the highly interesting silhouettes hanging in the Berlin Museum. See, further, F. v. Sumasch, Das türkische Schattenspiel, Internat. Archiv für Ethnographie, vol. ii, p. 1.
[280] Kind und Welt, p. 169. See Miss Shinn, op. cit., p. 71.
[281] K. v. d. Steinen, Steinzeit-Indianer in Paraguay. Globus, vol. lxvii, 1895, p. 249.
[282] R. Andrée, Ethnographische Parallelen und Vergleiche, p. 57.
[283] We may perhaps find the moving “Qualität der Bekanntheit” in the recurrence of the keynote of a melody.
[284] Zola frequently applies the Wagnerian leading-motive method to the characterization of some figure in his novels, often with wearisome persistence, yet a not uninteresting study might be made of the subject.
[285] See Fr. Kaufmann, Die Deutsche Metrik nach ihrer geschichtlichen Entwickelung, Marburg, 1897, p. 224. We may find a fine English example in a triolet of Walter Crane’s:
“In the light, in the shade,
This is time and life’s measure;
With a heart unafraid
In the light, in the shade,
Hope is born, and not made,
And the heart finds its treasure
In the light, in the shade;
This is time and life’s measure.”—Tr.
[286] R. M. Meyer records the refrain as a survival from the first beginning of poetry. Ueber die Refrain, Zeitschr. f. vgl. Literaturgeschichte, vol. i (1887), p. 44.
[287] See Minor, Neuhochdeutsche Metrik, pp. 393, 460.
[288] See Minor, Neuhochdeutsche Metrik, pp. 393, 460.
[289] Grasberger, p. 46. For other forms of this game see Gutsmuths, p. 377.
[290] “The third year,” says Sully, “is epoch-making in the history of memory. It is now that impressions begin to work themselves into the young consciousness so deeply and firmly that they become a part of the permanent stock in trade of the mind.”—Studies of Childhood, p. 437.
[291] Sonntagsbeilage zur Vossischen Zeitung, January 10, 1897.
[292] Die Erziehung der Töchter, wie solche Herr von Fénelon, Erzbischoff von Cambray beschrieben, aus dem Französischen übersetzt. Lübeck, 1740, p. 36.
[293] Für wirklich halten: It is recommended by the authorities of Baldwin’s Dictionary of Philosophy that the term “semblance” be used as the equivalent of the German “Schein?” or illusion—that which is “taken for real”—in this field of the æsthetic and play functions.—Ed.
[294] See A. Oelzelt-Nevin, Ueber Phantasie-Vorstellungen. Graz, 1889, p. 42.
[295] It may often be observed that the child’s eyes lose their convergence as their interest is absorbed—a means of detachment from surrounding reality. Even in half-grown children the power of detachment is much greater than in adults. The great modern poets are at a disadvantage in that their appeal is to an audience whose power of imagination is on the wane. It was otherwise with less cultured people when, first, the adults were less literal and, second, the poets themselves less intellectualized.
[296] See Baldwin’s Handbook of Psychology, vol. i, p. 227.
[297] That some temperaments play with dreams of an unhappy future there is no doubt. We shall encounter such phenomena later in noticing enjoyment of pain.
[298] Games of chance which keep the participants long in suspense are among the special forms of adult play which make use of such picturing of the future.
[299] Even the serious Lucca Signorelli was not ashamed to place two clouds, which, showing distinct faces, back of the Christ in his Crucifixion.
[300] See in this connection the more thorough treatment in the section on inner imitation.
[301] Strümpell, Psychologische Pädagogik, p. 364.
The child, of course, spoke a baby German. This effort at translation serves only to show the versatility of her imagination and its disjointed expression.—Tr.
For example of amentia, see Kraepelin, Psychiatrie, p. 331.
[302] While Strümpell’s example was suggestive of the wanderings of a diseased mind, this one recalls the tales told by savages. Compare it, for example, with the Bushman’s story of the grasshopper in Ratzel’s Völkerkunde (vol. i, p. 75). Of course, we do not know whether there may not be some closer connection of ideas than we can trace.
[303] See Paola Lombroso, Saggi di Psicologia del Bambino, chap. ix, especially p. 155; B. Perez, L’art et la poésie chez l’enfant, chap. ix.
[304] John Forster, The Life of Charles Dickens, vol. ii, p. 71.
[305] They diverge from play, first, in that an end outside of the sphere of play is added to that of satisfaction in production for its own sake; and, second, that much of the artist’s effort is spent in improving, altering, and being otherwise occupied with technical conditions, etc., and not engaged in for the pleasure which it affords. We may compare what was said above in regard to sport.
[306] Grosse, op. cit., p. 250.
[307] When Daudet was thirteen years old he took an independent voyage on a ship with some soldiers on their way home from the Crimea. “With my southern power of imagination,” he writes in Gaulois, “I made myself out an important personage.”
[308] Op. cit., p. 309. See Guyan, Éducation et Hérédité, p. 148.
[309] Perez, Les trois premières années, etc., p. 121.
[310] Like ancient and modern wonder tales, whose occurrences always take place in distant and almost inaccessible lands.
[311] The close of this recalls the numerous efforts of primitive folk to account for natural phenomena.
[312] Op. cit., p. 148.
[313] See, too, Sully’s Studies of Childhood, p. 254.
[314] B. Perez, L’enfant de trois à sept ans, Paris, 1894, p. 239.
[315] The Play of Animals, p. 214. Zum Problem der unbewussten Zeitschätzung, Zeitschr. f. Psycholog. u. Physiol. d. Sinnesorgane, vol. ix.
[316] Op. cit., pp. 418, 545.
[317] Die Seele des Kindes, p. 212.
[318] A Biographical Sketch of an Infant, Mind, vii (1877), p. 289.
[319] See Stern’s remark quoted above on watching movement.
[320] Op. cit., p. 418.
[321] La psychologie des sentiments, p. 322.
[322] Die Reize des Spiels, Berlin, 1883, p. 61.
[323] James says that the stimuli of scientific curiosity “are not objects, but ways of conceiving objects.” Principles of Psychology, vol. ii, p. 430.
[324] Fr. Nansen, In Nacht und Eis, Leipsic, 1897, vol. i, p. 151.
[325] H. Spencer, The Principles of Sociology, vol. i, p. 86.
[326] Unter den Naturvölkern Centralbrasiliens, pp. 59, 67, 79.
[327] Ibid.
[328] Ibid.
[329] Im Australischen Busch, etc., p. 526.
[330] Dietrich Tiedemann, Beobachtungen über die Entwickelung der Seelenfähigkeiten bei Kindern, Altenburg, 1897, p. 14.
[331] Die Seele des Kindes, p. 140.
[332] Les trois premières années, etc., p. 117.
[333] Die Seele des Kindes, p. 383.
[334] M. W. Shinn, Notes on the Development of a Child, p. 11.
[335] Compayré, op. cit., p. 308.
[336] Ernest H. Lindley, A Study of Puzzles. Amer. Jour. of Psychol., viii (1897), p. 436.
[337] The amusing rhymes illustrating cause and effect which children are so fond of, are in point—for instance, The House that Jack Built—and this one in German:
“Der Teufel holt den Henker nun,
Der Henker hängt den Schlächter nun,
Der Schlächter schlägt den Ochsen nun,
Der Ochse läuft das Wasser nun,
Das Wasser löscht das Feuer nun,
Das Feuer brennt den Prügel nun,
Der Prügel schlägt den Pudel nun,
Der Pudel beisst den Jockel nun,
Der Jockel schneidet den Hafer nun,
Und kommt auch gleich nach Haus.”
See the similar Hebrew verse about the kid in Tylor’s Anfänge der Culture, vol. i, p. 86.
[338] Op. cit., p. 353.
[339] Ernest Lindley, loc. cit., p. 455.
[340] A. Seidel, Geschichten und Lieder der Africaner, Berlin, 1896, pp. 176, 309. Similar riddles used for the amusement of children are given by Tylor. Op. cit., vol. i, p. 91. Words used in a double or multiple sense (homonyms) are particularly effective.
[341] Annoyance over one’s own enjoyment is, of course, not play.
[342] The Psychology of Tickling, Laughing, and the Comic. Amer. Jour. of Psychol., vol ix.
[343] See Ribot, Psychologie des sentiments, p. 64.
[344] Principles of Psychology, vol. ii, p. 590.
[345] Kuno Fischer, Arthur Schopenhauer, Heidelberg, 1893, p. 125.
[346] Ribot, La Psychologie des sentiments, p. 64.
[347] See Hubert Rotteken’s interesting article, Ueber ästhetische Kritik bei Dichtungen (Beilage zur Allgem. Zeit., 1897, Nos. 114, 115). Volkelt (Aesthetic des Tragischen, p. 389) seems to me to undervalue this point.
[348] Max Reischle, Das Spielen der Kinder in seinem Erziehungswerth, Göttingen, 1897, p. 17.
[349] Lipps gives special attention in his Psychologie der Komik to this point (Philosph. Monatshefte, 24 and 25).
[350] I shall not here discuss the relative importance of the two.
[351] Even the first shock is not entirely unpleasant, since we usually have a premonition of the approaching counter shock.
[352] La Suggestion dans l’art, p. 39.
[353] See Sully, Studies in Childhood, p. 501.
[354] “The first stage, depression, is in itself considered entirely extra-æsthetic. For as soon as inner imitation comes into play—that is, as soon as the æsthetic aspect is assumed—the projection of the I into the object begins and depression gives place to exaltation.” Op. cit., p. 336.
[355] Herman Wagner, Spielbuch für Knaben, p. 572.
[356] H. Wagner, Spielbuch für Knaben, p. 542.
[357] I. von Kreis, Ueber die Natur gewisser Gehirnzustande. Zeitschrift f. Psych. u. Phys. d. Sinnesorgane, viii (1894), p. 9.
[359] Die Reize des Spiels, p. 131.
[360] I remember a serious fight between two boys of about fifteen, in which the stronger was content to throw the other over and over again and quietly let him regain his feet.
[361] In the fight between Odysseus and Ajax the position of the contestants was compared to the sidewise posture of two sparring dogs.
[362] Von den Steinen, Unter den Naturvolken Central-Brasiliens, pp. 127, 383.
[363] Among the Greeks throwing three times was the rule.
[364] H. A. Berlepsch, Die Alpen, p. 417.
[365] Some of the succeeding examples are taken from M. Zettler’s article on prize lighting in Euler’s encykl. Handbd. ges. Turnwesens.
[366] In Switzerland this play is called Katzenstriegel. Grown boys try to pull each other over thresholds in this way.
[367] When Milon, of Croton, held an apple in his fingers, it was said to be impossible to get the fruit away from him, or to bend even his little finger.
[368] Fr. Fedde’s article Griechenland, in C. Euler’s encykl. Handb. d. ges. Turnwesens.
[369] W. Richter, Die Spiele der Griechen und Römer, p. 38.
[370] H. Raydt, Ein gesunder Geist in einem gesunder Körper, Hanover, 1899, p. 102.
[371] G. J. Romanes, Animal Intelligence, p. 485.
[372] Altnordisches Leben, p. 294.
[373] See E. v. Hartmann, Tagesfragen, Leipsic, 1896, p. 135.
[374] A very interesting example from ethnology is contained in the article by W. Svoboda, Die Bewohner des Nikobaren-Archipels. Intern. Arch. f. Ethnogr., vi, 1893, p. 6.
[375] We shall return to this subject in the consideration of love plays.
[376] Strutt, op. cit., p. 8.
[377] Alwin Schultz, Das höfische Leben zur Zeit der Minnesinger, Leipsic, 1889, vol. ii, p. 118.
[378] K. Weinhold, Altnordisches Leben, p. 297.
[379] K. Weinhold, Geschichte der menschlichen Ehe, Jena, 1893, p. 158.
[380] Studies in Childhood, pp. 268, 269, 271, 274.
[381] Ibid.
[382] Ibid.
[383] Paolo Lombroso, op. cit., p. 126.
[384] Carl Vogt, Aus meinem Leben, Stuttgart, 1896, pp. 70, 98.
[385] See R. M. Werner, Lyrik und Lyriker, Hamburg, 1890, p. 220. Rückert and Uhland engaged in another beautiful contest in which they carried on a narrative alternately and in such a manner that each stanza was intended to make the next one difficult.
[386] See Lazarus, Die Reize des Spiels, pp. 88, 89.
[387] Ibid.
[388] K. Plischke, Kurze Mittheilung über zwei malaysische Spiele. Intern. Arch. f. Ethnogr., iii (1890).
[389] H. M. Schuster, Das Spiel, p. 2.
[390] K. Weinhold, Die deutschen Frauen im Mittelalter, vol. i, p. 115.
[391] J. Büttikofer, Einiges über die Eingeboren von Liberia. Intern. Arch. f. Ethnogr., i (1888).
[392] According to Andrée it is played in Arabia and a large part of Africa. The Berlin Museum has such boards from various African districts, notably one from central Africa, with two rows of six holes and a carved head on the end.
[393] See R. Andrée, Ethnog. Parall. u. Verg. Neue Folge, p. 102. Petermann’s description, which I have not fully transcribed, seems to me to be deficient in that it does not make clear how the reckoning is kept.
[394] H. Petermann, Reisen im Orient, Leipsic, 1860, vol. i, p. 162.
[395] See A. v. d. Linde, Geschichte und Litteratur des Schachspiels, Berlin, 1874, vol. i, note 2.
[396] See T. v. d. Sasa, Zur Geschichte und Litteratur des Schachspiels, Leipsic, 1897, p. 19.
[397] J. Schaller, Das Spiel und die Spiele, p. 247.
[398] E. B. Tylor, On the Game of Patolli in Ancient Mexico and its probably Asiatic Origin. Jour. of the Anthrop. Instit. vol. viii (1878). On American Lot Games as evidence of Asiatic intercourse previous to the time of Columbus. Internat. Archiv. f. Ethnogr., supplement to vol. ix (1896), p. 55.
[399] See, too, in this connection J. Schaller, Das Spiel und die Spiele, p. 239.
[400] Lazarus, op. cit., p. 98. I differ totally from Lazarus’s unwarranted conclusion that in some card games, where the cards are distributed accidentally, the chief stimulus is in the “battle of reason against chance.”
[401] See v. d. Steinen, Unter den Naturvölkern Zentral Brasiliens, p. 230.
[402] Op. cit., pp. 90, 102–109. Lazarus treats exhaustively of this symbolic significance of play and likens it to the symbolism of music, which may be effective without clear consciousness of it on the part of the subject.
[403] Ibid., p. 91.
[404] Second edition, Paris, 1895.
[405] Playful rivalry is quite rare among animals, and for that reason it was not considered in my former work. It is only during courtship that animals engage in such contests, which are accordingly included under courtship plays.
[406] R. Andree, Ethnogr. Parall. u. Vergl., pp. 95, 96.
[407] Ibid.
[408] The Eclipses Politico-Morales draws the picture of a fashionable lady of the early eighteenth century. She says: “We have our sprees in spite of the men; we dance and carouse the whole night long.... We smoke and chew tobacco and make wagers about them.” A. Schultz, Alltagsleben einer deutschen Frau, etc., p. 186.
[409] K. Weinhold, Altnordisches Leben, p. 315.
[410] Colozza, op. cit., p. 85.
[411] Grosse, Die Anfänge der Kunst, p. 231.
[412] Weinhold, Altnordisches Leben, pp. 462, 463.
[413] Many of the new games for children which appear every year are simply modifications of backgammon.
[414] When it is known in advance that the chances are unequal it is common to make the stakes so as well, sometimes ten to one, or a cow to a hen, etc.
[415] J. Schaller, p. 269.
[416] Schuster, op. cit., p. 9.
[417] A. Seidel, Geschichten und Lieder der Africaner, p. 162. See Globus, vol. lxvii (1895), p. 387.
[418] The two Englishmen who placed two snails on a table and bet high stakes on which would reach the other side of it first furnish a fine instance of this kind. M. Schuster, Das Spiel, p. 216. The English have always been and especially at the beginning of this century famous for their bets.
[419] Tagesfragen, p. 162.
[420] Guhl und Koner, Das Leben der Griechen und Römer, Berlin, 1864, p. 354.
[421] R. Parkinson, Beiträge zur Ethnologie der Gilbert-Insulaner.
[422] A particularly pretty oracle, affording no less than four alternatives, is described by Hall Caine (The Manxman, London, 1894, p. 120) as in use on the Isle of Man. A maiden, anxious to know her fate, throws a willow bough in the water, while she sings:
“Willow bough, willow bough, which of the four,
Sink, circle, or swim, or come floating ashore?
Which is the fortune you keep for my life,
Old maid or young mistress, or widow or wife?”
[423] Die Anfänge der Kultur, vol. i, p. 80.
[424] Tylor, op. cit., pp. 78, 125.
[425] A. Wünsche, Spiele bei den Arabern in vor- und nachmohamedanischer Zeit. Westermanns Monatshefte, März, 1896.
[426] Die Völker des östlichen Asien, vol. iii, p. 326.
[427] Bastian, op. cit., vol. ii, p. 358; vol. iii, p. 323.
[428] Ibid.
[429] W. Richter, Die Spiele der Griechen und Römer, p. 76.
[430] H. Peterman, Reisen im Orient, vol. i, p. 157.
[431] Hans Egede, Beschreibung von Grönland, Berlin, 1763, p. 178. See R. Andree, Ethnogr. Par. Neue Folge, p. 104.
[432] The New Zealand game “ti” consists in counting on the fingers. One of the players calls a number and must instantly touch the right finger; while in the Samoan game “Lupe” (see Andree, op. cit., p. 99) one player holds up a certain number of fingers, whereupon his opponent must do the same or be loser.
[433] Tylor, Anf. d. Kult., vol. i, pp. 74, 75.
[434] Andree, op. cit., p. 98.
[435] Bastian, Die Völker d. östl. Asien, vol. ii, p. 394.
[436] See Becq de Fouquières, p. 294.
[437] Ribot, Psychologie des sentiments, p. 322.
[438] Ribot, Psychologie des sentiments, p. 322.
[439] Op. cit., p. 60.
[440] See Schaller, pp. 258, 268.
[441] See Schaller, pp. 258, 268.
[442] J. E. Erdmann, Ernste Spiele, p. 161.
[443] Op. cit., p. 76.
[444] Schuster, p. 83.
[445] See anecdote of Goethe’s youth, p. 105. For the destructive impulse in animals, see The Play of Animals, pp. 91, 200, 220.
[446] Saggi di psicologia del bambino, p. 118.
[447] L’éducation progressive, Paris, 1841, vol. i, p. 302.
[448] H. Emminghaus finds many points of resemblance between the period of life during which such actions are most rife and a condition of mania. (Die psychischen Störungen des Kindersalters, Tübingen, 1899, p. 179.)
[449] Fr. Scholz, Die charakterfehler des Kindes, Leipsic, 1891, pp. 148, 149. See F. L. Burk, Teasing and Bullying. The Pedagogical Seminary, vol. iv (1897), p. 341.
[450] See S. Sighele, Psychologie des Auflaufs u. der Massenverbrechen, Dresden, 1897, p. 13.
[451] A portion of this section appeared in the periodical Die Kinderfehler. It may be compared with Burk’s article on teasing and bullying, which was then unknown to me. The latter, however, is more concerned with serious than with playful aspects of the subject.
[452] The Play of Animals, p. 167.
[453] See Schneegan’s Geschichte der Grotesken Satire, p. 443.
[454] Leopold Wagner, Manners, Customs, and Observances, London, 1895, p. 34.
[455] Becq de Fouquières, p. 273.
[456] W. Joest, Ethnographisches und Verwandtes aus Guayana, supplement to vol. v, Intern. Arch. für Ethnographie (1892), p. 49.
[457] Gutsmuth, op. cit., p. 25.
[458] Becq de Fouquières, p. 2B1.
[459] Sixth edition, Leipsic, 1896, pp. 321–323. This recalls tales of Roman emperors who sat before their guests dishes containing the heads of their own wives and children. See Hall and Allin, loc. cit., p. 22.
[460] F. Pollock, An Infant’s Progress in Language, Mind, vol. iii (1878).
[461] Sigismund, p. 151. See Burk, op. cit., p. 356.
[462] L. Wagner, Manners, Customs, and Observances, p. 255.
[463] See on this subject Perez, Les trois premières années, p. 320.
[464] Hall and Allin’s Psychology of Tickling, Laughing, and the Comic, p. 21.
[465] O. Beauregard, La caricature il y a quatre mille ans. Bulletin de La Soc. de l’Anthropol. de Paris, 1889.
[466] Marcano, Caricature précolombienne des Cerritos. Bulletin Soc. de l’Anthropol. de Paris, 1889.
[467] Deutsches Kinderlied und Kinderspiel, liv.
[468] Grosse, p. 235.
[469] F. M. Bohme, pp. 271, 277.
[470] See E. H. Meyer, Deutsche Volkskunde, Strassburg, 1898, p. 337: “This practice is very ancient, and seems to have given their names to some German tribes.”
[471] Ibid.
[472] To cover all the ground, the teasing application of wit would have to be included here. It is taken up and treated briefly in the next section.
[473] Carl Sittl, Die Gebärden der Griechen und Römer, Leipsic, 1890, p. 90.
[474] Ibid.
[475] Early History of Mankind, second edition, 1870, p. 45. See the analogous behaviour of the Dakotas in Darwin’s The Expression of the Emotions, p. 257.
[476] See Sittl, p. 99.
[477] Die Völker des östlichen Asien, vol. iii, p. 222.
[478] Ernste Spiele, p. 10.
[479] The Human Mind, vol. ii, p. 148. Psychologie des sentiments, p. 342.
[480] See Hall and Allin, op. cit. The remark of a little girl who danced about the grave of her friend and rejoiced thus, “How glad I am that she is dead and that I’m alive!” is in the same line.
[481] In my Einleitung in die Esthetic I have tried to show how the feeling of superiority is gradually supplanted by inner imitation. In the humorous contemplation of inferiority Erdmann’s “maliciousness” need have no place, and we can conceive of a God as laughing in this way. As Keller’s poem has it, “Der Herr, der durch die Wandlung geht, Er lächelt auf dem Wege.”
[482] The fact that the humorous temperament is so much more rare in women artists than in men supports the theory of its involving the fighting impulse. (See Mario Pilo, La psychologie du beau et de l’art, Paris, 1895, p. 145.)
[483] G. H. Schneider, Der Menschliche Wille, Berlin, 1882, p. 62.
[484] Semon, Im Australischen Busch, pp. 168, 197.
[485] Strutt, op. cit., p. 62.
[486] The Principles of Psychology, vol. ii, p. 427.
[487] Grasberger, pp. 52, 57.
[488] Grasberger, pp. 52, 57.
[489] Das Kind, second edition, Leipsic, 1896, p. 53.
[490] Bastian, Die Völker des östlichen Asien, vol. iii, p. 325.
[491] Alwin Schultz, Alltagsleben einer deutschen Frau, etc., p. 8.
[492] Die Völker des östlichen Asien, vol. iii, p. 325.
[493] They do not, of course, form the essence of poetic enjoyment.
[494] Der dramatische Konflikt, Grenzboten, 1897, No. 39.
[495] Volkett, Aesthetik des Tragischen, München, 1897, pp. 83, 87.
[496] W. Wetz, Ueber das Verhältniss der Dichtung zur Wirklichkeit und Geschichte. Zeitschr. f. vgl. Litt.-Gesch., vol. ix, p. 161. He admits in the sequel that in Corneille’s Cid, for instance, there is no such working out of psychical individuality.
[497] Ibid.
[498] Volkett, Aesthetik des Tragischen, München, 1897, pp. 83, 87.
[499] Psychologie des sentiments, p. 225.
[500] Nietzsche, Götzendämmerung, p. 136.
[501] I shall return later to the discussion of Wundt’s use of imitation.
[502] Vorles. üb. d. Menschen-u. Thierseele, third edition, 1897, p. 405.
[503] The Psychology of Love, p. 53.
[504] L’enfant de trois à sept ans, p. 273.
[505] Zeitschr. f. Psychol. u Physiol. d. Sinnesorgane, vol. ii (1891), p. 128.
[506] Fritsch, Die Eingeborenen Süd-Afrikas, p. 140.
[507] Colin A. Scott, Sex and Art, Am. Jour. of Psychol., vol. vii, p. 182.
[508] Westermarck, op. cit., p. 156.
[509] Westermarck, op. cit., p. 192.
[510] Rudeck, Geschichte der öffentlichen Sittlichkeit in Deutschland, Jena, 1897, p. 45.
[511] Altum, one of the highest authorities on birds, confirms this view (Der Vogel und sein Leben, fifth edition, Münster, 1875, p. 137). I have to thank Baldwin, too, for the reference to Guyau, who considers that the innate modesty may be “nécessaire à la femme pour arriver, sans se donner, jusqu’au complet développement de son organisme.” [See also Havelock Ellis, Geschlechtstrieb und Schamgefühl, p. 10. This view was worked out in some detail, it seems, together with a view of sexual selection similar to Professor Groos’s, by Hirn, in a chapter on Animal Display in a Swedish work in 1896: it is now reproduced in that author’s Origins of Art (1900), chap. xiv; cf. also the preface to the same work.—J. M. B.]
[512] Op. cit., p. 87.
[513] Mind, October, 1880.
[514] Colin A. Scott, op. cit., p. 181.
[515] We may compare, too, our watch charms. They, like the trophies and tribal symbols of savages, show much more the desire for ownership than the principle of self-exhibition.
[516] The examples of decoration by animals apply to their dwellings rather than to their persons.
[517] Grosse, p. 233.
[518] In an article on Sex and Art, Scott has developed similar ideas, and has rightly connected the vagaries of fetichism with the abnormal sexual excitement produced by special materials, such as fur, velvet, etc.
[519] The Play of Animals, p. 211.
[520] Page 76.
[521] A. Stöckl, Lehrbuch der Aesthetik, second edition, Mainz, 1889, p. 229.
[522] Wagner and Liszt are especially strong in such effects.
[523] Vischer, Aesthetic, sec. 189. Hall and Allin, op. cit., p. 31.
[524] R. J. Dodge, Modern Indians of the Far West, pp. 146, 164.
[525] Op. cit., p. 68.
[526] Op. cit., p. 14. Hall and Allin.
[527] According to R. J. Dodge, who is a thorough student of Indian life, among those of the far West it is a polite fiction not to observe the wooing lover, “because they consider love a weakness.”
[528] G. Tarde, Les lois de l’imitation. Second edition, Paris, 1895.
[529] J. M. Baldwin, Mental Development, and Social and Ethical Interpretations.
[530] Habit and Instinct. London and New York, 1896, p. 168.
[531] Baldwin’s further distinction between tradition and social heredity seems true enough, but not especially practical.
[532] Gedanken über Musik bei Thieren und beim Menschen. Deutsche Rundschau, October, 1889.
[533] See Baldwin’s A New Factor in Evolution, in The American Naturalist, June, July, 1896.
[534] The Senses and the Intellect, p. 408.
[535] James Mill, Analysis of the Phenomena of the Human Mind, vol. ii, chap. xxiv. Tiedemann’s remarks on the subject, too, are clear and brief. Op. cit., p. 12.
[536] See A. Pfänder, Das Bewusstsein des Wollens. Zeitschr. f. Psych. u. Phys. d. Sin., vols. x and xvii.
[537] The strong emphasis of imitation in hypnosis seems to support this, for there we have a decided narrowing of the consciousness, so that the antagonistic motive has little showing compared with the idea of movement.
[538] An attempt to explain the charm of what is forbidden, not by means of the fighting impulse but on the ground of psychic inhibition may be found in Lipps’s Grundthatsachen des Seelenleben, pp. 634, 641.
[539] In this triumph we find a means of explanation for the exhilarating effect of simple—that is neither mischievous nor mocking—imitation.
[540] The biological criterion of practice of the impulse is not very well applicable to imitation. We do not copy playfully in order to be able to copy seriously, and, moreover, playful imitation itself accomplishes the purpose. Yet the practice theory is of course indebted to the contributions of imitation in the highest degree.
[541] The question as to whether play may not be more extensive from a purely biological standpoint is touched upon in the theoretical division.
[542] “I looked for great men,” said Nietzsche once, “and found them only aping their ideals.” Vol. viii, p. 66.
[543] Social and Ethical Interpretations, p. 103.
[544] Fr. Tracy, The Psychology of Childhood, fourth edition, Boston, 1897, p. 104.
[545] Mental Development, etc., p. 123. Egger, Le développement de l’intelligence et du langage chez les enfants, p. 10.
[546] Op. cit., p. 354. See Perez (Les trois premières années, etc., p. 124), who assumes involuntary imitation in the second month.
[547] Die Seele des Kindes, p. 186.
[548] Preyer, op. cit., p. 188.
[549] Kind und Welt, p. 129.
[550] Lloyd Morgan calls one imitation and the other copying (Habit and Instinct, p. 171).
[551] Op. cit., p. 188.
[552] Op. cit., p. 88.
[553] Mental Development, p. 123.
[554] Op. cit., p. 88.
[555] Notes on the Development of a Child, p. 112.
[556] Op. cit., pp. 314, 321.
[557] See, on the other hand, Preyer’s conclusion given below. Op. cit., p. 369.
[558] See Ufer’s article on Sigismund’s Kind und Welt.
[559] Jodl calls the root word, which he and others refer neither to interjectional nor imitative origin, ideal roots; I prefer to call them experimental roots.
[560] It should be remembered that the appearance of an imitative speech is quite natural in connection with gesture language. We do not know certainly, however, which preceded the other.
[561] Lehrbuch der Psychologie, p. 570.
[562] See Franz Magnus Boehme, op. cit., p. 218.
“The howling blast through the groaning wood
Wrenching the giant pine, which, in its fall,
Crashing sweeps down its neighbouring trunks end boughs,
While with the hollow noise the hills resound.”
Miss Swanwick’s translation.
[564] Gedanken zu einer Aesthetik auf entwickelungsgeschichtlicher Grundlage. Zeitschr. f. Psych. u. Phys. d. Sinnesorgane, vol. xiv (1897).
[565] Hall and Allin, Psychology of Tickling, Laughing, etc., pp. 15–17.
[566] Miss Shinn reports a kind of animal dance by a child in its third year (op. cit., p. 127).
[567] Among the varied decorations which the natives of British New Guinea wear at their holiday dances is the bushy tail, which is placed quite as high as on the antique fauns. See A. C. Haddon, Intern. Arch. f. Ethnogr., vol. xi (1893).
[568] Hall and Allin, Psychology of Tickling, Laughing, etc., pp. 15–17.
[569] Livingstone’s last Journals from Central Africa.
[570] Captain Jacobsen’s Reise an der Nordwestküste Amerikas, 1881-’83, Leipsic, 1884, p. 85.
[571] Signe Rink, Aus dem Leben der Europäer in Grönland, Ausland, vol. lxvi (1893), p. 762.
[572] Mental Development, p. 357.
“Time’s passage shall unfold for him
Fortune bright and fortune dim.”
[574] W. Svoboda, Die Bewohner de Nikobaren-Archipels. Intern. Arch. f. Ethnogr., vol. v (1892).
[575] W. Joest, Weltfahrten, Berlin, 1895, vol. ii, p. 162.
[576] Pechuël-Loesche’s report of a monkey’s play with a doll shows that it was mere experimentation (The Play of Animals, p. 169).
[577] B. Altum, Der Vogel und sein Leben, Münster, 1895, pp. 188, 189.
[578] Mental Development, p. 362 (omitted from the German version).
[579] Thus, to mention one example, Marie G—— had no sooner adopted a small thermometer as a baby than she spied the tassel which it hung up by, and called everybody’s attention to its lovely head.
[580] The Japanese collection in the Berlin Museum is the finest that I have ever seen.
[581] See J. Walter Fewkes, Dolls of the Tusayan Indians. Int. Arch. f. Ethnogr., vol. vii (1894). Fewkes is very careful about committing himself on this point.
[582] Op. cit., p. 254.
[583] Unter den Naturvölkern Central-Brasiliens, p. 230.
[584] Ibid.
[585] Op. cit., p. 98. See also Sully’s Studies, p. 333.
[586] Op. cit., p. 195.
[587] See on this point Grosse’s Anfänge der Kunst and the chapter on The Young Draughtsman in Sully’s Studies of Childhood. If space allowed I could give similar particulars of my nephew Max K——’s work. In this boy the artistic impulse all turned to the representation of animals, in which he became a master. He took the great scissors and cut away almost without looking, and with every turn of the shears he turned his body too (an instance of the outer effects of inner imitation).
[588] H. T. Lukens, Die Entwickelung beim Zeichnen, Die Kinderfehler, ii (1897).
[589] Von den Steinen, Unter den Naturvölkern, p. 235.
[590] Unter den Naturvölkern, etc., p. 251.
[591] Unter den Naturvölkern, pp. 251, 254, 255, 257.
[592] Ibid.
[593] Ibid.
[594] G. Nachtigal, Sahara und Sudan, Leipsic, 1889, vol. iii, p. 133. See, too, Knabenspiele im dunkeln Welttheil, Deutsche Kolonialzeitung, 1898, No. 42.
[595] Conrads Ricci, L’arte dei Bambini, Bologna, 1887. The young Canova, when a kitchen boy, betrayed his talent as a sculptor by moulding a lion in butter.
[596] Social and Ethical Interpretations, p. 106.
[597] Ibid. pp. 94 ff.
[598] B. Perez, L’art et la poésie chez l’enfant, Paris, 1888, p. 200. The self-evident truth that forces the contrary of imitation are also operative in the progress of art is not the proper subject of this investigation.
[599] J. Volkelt, Der Symbol-Begriff in der neuesten Aesthetik, Jena, 1876; and P. Stern, Einfädlung und Association in der neueren Aesthetik, Hamburg and Leipsic, 1898.
[600] Jouffroy, Cours d’esthétique, Paris, 1845, p. 256.
[601] Dr. Lipps, Raumästhetik und geometrisch-optische Täuschungen, Leipsic, 1897, p. 5.
[602] See P. Stern, op. cit., p. 46.
[603] Op. cit., p. 7.
[604] I have dwelt on this point both in my Einleitung in die Aesthetik and in the Spiele der Thiere. Further treatment of it may be found in K. Lange’s Künstlerischer Erziehung der deutschen Jugend.
[605] Ueber das optische Formgefühl, Stuttgart, 1873.
[606] La Beauté plastique. Revue philosophique, vol. xxxv (1893).
[607] Studien über die Bewegungsvorstellungen, Wien, 1882.
[608] Beauty and Ugliness. Contemporary Review, 1897.
[609] A confirmation of this, which is especially valuable because it is not intended as a contribution to æsthetics, is found in Stricker, op. cit., pp. 16, 21, 26.
[610] Stricker, op. cit., p. 23. The application to the observation of dancing is self-evident.
[611] See Hubert Roetteken, Zur Lehre von den Darstellungsmitteln in der Poesie.
[612] See Külpe, Grundriss zur Psychologie, p. 149. Külpe is of the opinion that possibly voluntary recollection is never unaccompanied by movement.
[613] Kalligone, Leipsic, 1800, vol. i, p. 116.
[614] Mental Development, p. 407.
[615] Op. cit., pp. 554, 677.
[616] Ibid.
[617] For the bearing of this on the doctrine of promiscuity, see the works of Starcke, Westermarck, and Grosse; also P. and Fr. Sarasin, Ergebnisse naturwissenschaftlicher Forschungen auf Ceylon, vol. iii, Wiesbaden, 1892-’93, pp. 363, 458.
[618] See G. F. Pfisterer, Pädagogische Psychologie, second edition, Gutersloh, 1889, p. 146.
[619] A. Kohler (Der Kindergarten in seinem Wesen dargestellt) says, however, that the child’s longing to associate with others of its own age is so strong as to require daily satisfaction (Pfisterer, op. cit., p. 145).
[620] Pfisterer, op. cit., p. 147.
[621] Op. cit., p. 65.
[622] Studies in Childhood, p. 268.
[623] Handbuch der praktischen Pädagogik, p. 699.
[624] A. Marty finds, as does Whitney, the impulse for communication an essential for the origin of the so much more varied language of men than of animals. Ueber Sprachreflex, Nativismus und absichtliche Sprachbildung. Vierteljahreschr. f. wissensch. Philos., vol. xiv (1890), p. 66.
[625] Op. cit., p. 228.
[626] Chamberlain, op. cit., pp. 260, 263.
[627] Ibid.
[628] See F. S. Krauss, Geheime Sprachweisen. Am. Urquell, vol. ii-vi; P. Sartori, Sondersprachen, ibid., vol. v.
[629] Social and Ethical Interpretations, p. 148.
[630] Æsthetic Principles, New York, 1895, p. 68.
[631] Essays, vol. ii, p. 41.
[632] The Naturalist in La Plata, p. 227.
[633] Social and Ethical Interpretations, p. 238.
[634] La Logique sociale. Préface, p. vii. Les Lois de l’Imitation, second edition, p. 215.
[635] Social and Ethical Interpretations, p. 243.
[636] Gutsmuths, p. 251.
[637] Svoboda, Die Bewohner des Nikobaren Archipels, p. 29.
[638] W. James, The Principles of Psychology, vol. ii, p. 428.
[639] Unter den Naturvölkern, etc., p. 267.
[640] J. von d. Steinen, Unter den Naturvölkern, p. 267.
[641] Op. cit., p. 219.
[642] Das Spiel und die Spiele, p. 328.
[643] Op. cit., p. 268.
[644] In an inquiry as to children’s preferences in the matter of playmates, Will S. Monroe found 335 boys who wanted male against 20 who asked for female comrades; 328 girls preferred their own sex and only 28 the other. (Development of the Social Consciousness of Children. The Northwestern Monthly, September, 1898.)
[645] O. Stoll, Suggestion und Hypnotismus in der Völkerpsychologie, Leipsic, 1894, p. 24.
[646] A more thorough account of this theory may be found in The Play of Animals. The recreation theory, on the contrary, is peculiarly applicable in this connection.
[647] O. Külpe, Grundriss der Psychologie, Leipsic, 1893, p. 216.
[648] H. Steinthal, Zu Bibel und Religionsphilosophie, Berlin, 1895, p. 249.
[649] The foregoing observations are somewhat modified by Kraepelin’s view that active recreation conquers the feeling of fatigue rather than fatigue itself.
[650] A. Moll, Der Hypnotismus, third edition, Berlin, 1895, p. 63.
[651] The principle of repetition in poetry, too, is sometimes like this. See von Biedermann, Die Wiederholung als Urform der Dichtung bei Goethe. Zeitschrift f. vgl. Literat.-Gesch., vol. iv (1891).
[652] Games of chance pre-eminently have this power over adults.
[653] Mental Development, p. 132.
[654] Souriau, Le plaisir du mouvement, Revue Scientifique, vol. xviii, p. 365.
[655] O. Stoll, Suggestion und Hypnotismus in der Völkerpsychologie, p. 129.
[656] G. H. Schneider, Der menschliche Wille, Berlin, 1882, p. 68.
[657] The Naturalist in La Plata, p. 281.
[658] Op. cit., p. 464.
[659] Sec F. v. Wagner, Das Problem der Vererbung. Die Aula, 1895.
[660] The much-discussed question of telegony seems to me out of place in this connection, for if it actually exists at all it must be effected by some intricate modification in the germ substance itself, and does not concern the inheritance of somatogenic qualities.
[661] J. W. Spengel, Zweckmässigkeit und Anpassung, Giessener Rectoratsrede, 1898.
[662] G. R. Romanes, Darwin and after Darwin, vol. ii.
[663] Baldwin, Organic Selection. Amer. Naturalist, June, July, 1896, and Biolog. Centralblatt, vol. xvii (1897), p. 385. Weismann, Ueber Germinal Selection, Jena, 1896. (Also in English translation.)
[664] Baldwin calls this directing influence of organic selection orthoplasy; he attempts to replace Eimer’s “orthogenesis” by means of a principle which does not involve the inheritance of acquired characters. [A recent exposition of organic selection is by Conn (Method of Evolution, 1900). See also Baldwin’s Dict. of Philos. and Psychol., sub verbo.—Tr.]
[665] The process is, of course, reversed in degeneration.
[666] Weismann insists that individual selection must give the impetus to such specially directed evolution of the germ substance; but it seems to me that his theory can not escape the objection that it lacks proper grounds for selection unless the specially directed variations in the germ substance arise independently of individual selection. It may then be said that even in a quite constant species there are, as a result of germinal selection, dispositions to specially directed variations (the lower jaw of the Hapsburgs, for instance, or the appearance of a specialised genius in a talented family), which, so long as the environment remains constant, very soon meet the opposition of individual selection. But when outer conditions are changed, the useful variations arise again, encounter and finally overcome individual selection. Whether the struggle for existence really plays such a rôle in the germ substance, however, it is difficult to assert with assurance.
[667] Ibid.
[668] The previous discussion of this question need not be repeated here.
[669] R. Sommer, Grundzüge einer Geschichte der deutschen Phys. und Aesth., Würzburg, 1892, pp. 98, 266.
[670] Gedanken zu einer Aesthetik auf entwickelungsgeschichtlicher Grundlage. pp. 270, 273.
[671] A similar view is expressed in Lange’s work.
[672] Op. cit., pp. 404, 406.
[673] Ibid., p. 411. Here play is called “unconscious imitation necessitated by hereditary impulses.” In this notice Wundt refers to my views expressed in The Play of Animals as though to me “the playful fights of dogs with their young appeared earlier in the evolution of species than genuine fighting among animals.” But this is not my meaning. I insisted on the presence of hereditary impulses, and assumed that these are brought to perfection during a period of youth devoted to play. Play would, on the whole, contribute more to the weakening of existing instincts than to strengthen them or create new ones.
[674] Ibid.
[675] I have not made this distinction sufficiently clear in The Play of Animals, as K. Lange rightly points out.
[676] See, too, K. Lange, Gedanken zu einer Aesthetik, etc., p. 258.
[677] [By “not psychological at all” was meant not psychological semblance (Scheinthätigkeit) at all, while still such from an objective point of view; so that psychological semblance can not be taken as a universal criterion of play.—J. M. B.]
[678] Children show conscious self-illusion very clearly when they play something like this: “Now I am playing that I am papa and have shot a lion,” etc.
[679] Note, however, the rhythmic action of attention, which frequently admits of “coming to” at relatively regular intervals.
[680] Lipps’s dritten Aesthetischen Litteraturbericht (p. 480) seems to me to state the problem clearly, but does not contribute to its solution.
[681] Lange has treated of the contrary case where Nature is regarded as a work of art. I do not think, however, that it has the significance that belongs to the conversion of appearance into reality.
[682] “À la vue d’un objet expressif,” says Jouffroy, “qui me jette dans un état sympathique de soi-même désagréable, il y a en moi un plaisir qui résulte de ce que je suis dans cet état.”—Op. cit., 270.
[683] Raumästhetik, p. 6.
[684] Cf. Baldwin, Social and Ethical Interpretations, p. 146.
[685] Baldwin, op. cit., p. 141.
[686] K. A. Schmid, Geschichte der Erziehung, vol. iv, p. 282.
[687] Colozza’s book on play contains in its second part, Il guoco nella storia della pedagogia, a good historical review of this subject.
[688] Moller on Play, in the Encyklopädie des gesammten Erziehungs- und Unterrichtswesens.
[689] This Swabian preacher had made a prodigy of his son by this method.
[690] K. A. Schmid, Geschichte der Erziehung, vol. iv, pp. 279, 401.
[691] See Max Reischle, Das Spielen der Kinder, etc., p. 32.
[692] I refer not merely to rivalry, but to the accomplishment of tasks as well.
[693] Brough Smith, The Aborigines of Victoria, London, 1878, vol. i, p. 50.
[694] Reischle, op. cit., p. 24.
[695] See Colozza, op. cit., p. 253.