FOOTNOTES
[1] It should be noted at the outset that this statement regarding the down-turned stem on the left side of the note-head, and also a number of similar principles here cited, refer more specifically to music as it appears on the printed page. In the case of hand-copied music the down-turned stem appears on the right side of the note, thus
. This is done because of greater facility in writing, and for the same reason other slight modifications of the notation here recommended may sometimes be encountered. In dealing with children it is best usually to follow as closely as possible the principles according to which printed music is notated, in order to avoid those non-satisfying and often embarrassing explanations of differences which will otherwise be unavoidable.
[2] An exception to this rule occurs in the case of notes of unequal value stroked together, when the hook appears on the left side, thus
.
[3] It is to be hoped that the figure for the double-flat suggested by Mattheson (who also suggested the St. Andrew's cross (
) for the double-sharp) may some time be readopted. This figure was the Greek letter B, made thus, β, and its use would make our notation one degree more uniform than it is at present.
[4] The word leger is derived from the French word LÉGER, meaning light, and this use of the word refers to the fact that the leger lines, being added by hand, are lighter—i.e., less solid in color—than the printed lines of the staff itself.
[5] The word clef is derived from CLAVIS—a key—the reference being to the fact that the clef unlocks or makes clear the meaning of the staff, as a key to a puzzle enables us to solve the puzzle.
[6] The Germans use the same pitch designations as we do with two exceptions, viz., our B is called by them H, and our B♭ is called B. The scale of C therefore reads: C, D, E, F, G, A, H, C; the scale of F reads F, G, A, B, C, D, E, F. The signatures are in all cases written exactly as we write them.
In France and Italy where the "fixed DO" system is in vogue, pitches are usually referred to by the syllable names; e.g., C is referred to as DO (or UT), D as RE, etc.
[7] The expression "diatonic condition" as here used refers to the staff after the signature has been placed upon it, in other words after the staff has been prepared to represent the pitches of the diatonic scale.
[8] It has already been noted ([p. 6], Note) that in the German scale our b-flat is called b, and our b is called H. From this difference in terminology has grown up the custom of using the H (now made ♮) to show that any staff-degree is in natural condition, i.e., not sharped or flatted.
[9] The word sin is a contraction of the Italian word sino, meaning "as far as" or "until"; in the term given above ([Sec. 39]) it is really superfluous as the word al includes in itself both preposition and article, meaning "to the."
[10] For definition of enharmonic see [p. 10], [Sec. 27].
[11] Elson—Dictionary of Music, article mordent.
[12] In organ music the acciaccatura is still taken to mean that the embellishing tone and the melody tone are to be sounded together, the former being then instantly released, while the latter is held to its full time-value.
[13] If strictly logical terminology is to be insisted upon the whole-tone scale should be called the "whole-step" scale.
[14] The word tetrachord means literally "four strings" and refers to the primitive instrument, the four strings of which were so tuned that the lowest and the highest tones produced were a perfect fourth apart. With the Greeks the tetrachord was the unit of analysis as the octave is with us to-day, and all Greek scales are capable of division into two tetrachords, the arrangement of the intervals between the tones in each tetrachord differentiating one scale from another, but the tetrachords themselves always consisting of groups of four tones, the highest being a perfect fourth above the lowest.
[15] The step-and-a-half (augmented second) is "unmelodic" because it is the same size as a minor third and the mind finds it difficult to take in as a second (notes representing it being on adjacent staff-degrees) an interval of the same size as a third.
[16] These syllables are said to have been derived originally from the initial syllables of the "Hymn to Saint John," the music of which was a typical Gregorian chant. The application of these syllables to the scale tones will be made clear by reference to this hymn as given below. It will be observed that this hymn provided syllables only for the six tones of the hexachord then recognized; when the octave scale was adopted (early in the sixteenth century) the initial letters of the last line (s and i) were combined into a syllable for the seventh tone.
[17] A considerable number of teachers (particularly those who did not learn to sing by syllable in childhood) object to calling the tonic of the minor scale la, insisting that both major and minor tonic should be called do. According to this plan the syllables used in singing the harmonic minor scale would be: DO, RE, ME, FA, SOL, LE, TI, DO.
There is no particular basis for this theory, for although all scales must of course begin with the key-tone or tonic, this tonic may be referred to by any syllable which will serve as a basis for an association process enabling one to feel the force of the tone as a closing point—a home tone. Thus in the Dorian mode the tonic would be RE, in the Phrygian, MI, etc.
[18] The student should differentiate between the so-called "tonality" scales like the major and minor, the tones of which are actually used as a basis for "key-feeling" with the familiar experience of coming home to the tonic after a melodic or harmonic excursion, and on the other hand the purely artificial and mechanical construction of the chromatic scale.
[19] Many other enharmonic notations are possible, altho the "five pairs of tones" above referred to are the most common. Thus E♯ and F are enharmonically the same, as are also C♭ and B, C♯ and B[double-sharp], etc.
[20] The word chromatic means literally colored and was first applied to the intermediate tones because by using them the singer could get smoother and more diversely-shaded progressions, i.e., could get more color than by using only the diatonic tones. Composers were not long discovering the peculiar value of these additional tones and soon found that these same tones were exceedingly valuable also in modulating, hence the two uses of intermediate tones at the present time—first, to embellish a melody; second, to modulate to another key.
[21] Stanford—Musical Composition (1911) p. 17.
[22] Recent tests in Germany seem to prove conclusively that the tempered scale is the scale ordinarily employed by both vocalists and players on stringed instruments, and that the ideal of and agitation for a pure (i.e., untempered) scale in vocal and in string music is somewhat of a myth.
[23] Pearse—Rudiments of Musical Knowledge, p. 37.
[24] For explanation of terminology, see [p. 48], [Sec. 106].
[25] To test the accuracy of a metronome, set the weight at 60 and see if it beats seconds. If it gives more than 62 or 63 or less than 57 or 58 clicks per minute it will not be of much service in giving correct tempi and should be taken to a jeweller to be regulated.
[26] Largo, larghetto, etc., are derivatives of the Latin word largus, meaning large, broad.
[27] Adagio means literally at ease.
[28] There has been some difference of opinion as to which of these two terms indicates the more rapid tempo: an analysis tells us that if allegro means quick, and if etto is the diminutive ending, then allegretto means a little quick—i.e., slower than allegro. These two terms are, however, so closely allied in meaning that a dispute over the matter is a mere waste of breath.
[29] Bussler—Elements of Notation and Harmony, p. 76.
[30] Both moriente and morendo mean literally—dying.
[31] From smorzare (It.)—to extinguish.
[32] Polyphonic music flourished from 1000 A.D. to about 1750 A.D., the culmination of the polyphonic period being reached in the music of Johann Sebastian Bach (1685-1750). Haydn, Mozart, Beethoven, and the later writers have used the monophonic style more than the polyphonic, although a combination of the two is often found, as e.g., in the later works of Beethoven.
[33] There is a very pronounced disagreement among theorists as to what terms are to be used in referring to certain forms and parts of forms and it seems impossible to make a compromise that will satisfy even a reasonable number. In order to make the material in this chapter consistent with itself therefore it has been thought best by the author to follow the terminology of some single recognized work on form, and the general plan of monophonic form here given is therefore that of the volume called Musical Form, by Bussler-Cornell.
[34] A liturgy is a prescribed form or method of conducting a religious service, and the parts sung in such a service (as e.g., the holy communion, baptism, etc.), are referred to as the musical liturgy.
[35] It should be understood that this statement refers to the service called "the high mass" only, there being no music at all in connection with the so-called "low mass."
[36] Many theorists (including Durand in his monumental "Treatise on Harmony") consider the V—I cadence to be the only one which may legitimately be called perfect, but the majority of writers seem to take the view that either authentic or plagal cadence may be either perfect or imperfect, depending upon the soprano tone, as noted above.
[37] Elson—Music Dictionary, article, "Notation."
[38] Goddard—The Rise of Music, p. 177.
[39] Williams in Grove's Dictionary, article, "Notation."
[40] The tonic-sol-fa system represents an attempt to invent a simpler notation to be used by beginners, (especially in the lower grades of the public schools) and by singers in choral societies who have never learned to interpret staff notation and who therefore find some simpler scheme of notation necessary if they are to read music at all.
In this system the syllables do, re, mi, etc., (in phonetic spelling) are used, the tone being arrived at in each case, first by means of a firmly established sense of tonality, and second by associating each diatonic tone with some universally felt emotional feeling: thus do is referred to as the strong tone, mi as the calm one, and la as the sad tone, great emphasis being placed upon do as the center of the major tonality, and upon la as the center of the minor. The system is thus seen to have one advantage over staff notation, viz.: that in presenting it the teacher is compelled to begin with a presentation of actual tones, while in many cases the teacher of staff notation begins by presenting facts regarding the staff and other symbols before the pupil knows anything about tone and rhythm as such.
The symbol for each diatonic tone is the initial letter of the syllable (i.e., d for do, r for re, etc.), the key being indicated by a letter at the beginning of the composition. The duration-value of tones is indicated by a system of bars, dots, and spaces, the bar being used to indicate the strongest pulse of each measure (as in staff notation) the beats being shown by the mark: a dash indicating the continuation of the same tone through another beat. If a beat has two tones this is indicated by writing the two initial letters representing them with a . between them. A modulation is indicated by giving the new key letter and by printing the syllable-initials from the standpoint of both the old and the new do-position. The figure ' above and to the right of the letter indicates the tone in the octave above, while the same figure below and to the right indicates the octave below. A blank space indicates a rest. The tune of My Country, 'Tis of Thee, as printed in tonic sol-fa notation below will make these points clear.
Key F
| d :d :r | t1 :-.d :r | m :m :f | m :-.r :d | r :d :t1 | d :— :— |
| s :s :s | s :-.f :m | f :f :f | f :-.m :r | m :f.m :r.d | m :-.f :s |
| l.f :m :r | d :— :— |
The advantages of the system are (1) the strong sense of key-feeling aroused and the ease with which modulations are felt; and (2) the fact that it is necessary to learn to sing in but one key, thus making sight-singing a much simpler matter, and transposition the easiest process imaginable. But these are advantages from the standpoint of the vocalist (producing but one tone at a time) only, and do not apply to instrumental music. The scheme will therefore probably be always restricted to vocal music and will hardly come into very extensive use even in this field, for the teacher of music is finding it perfectly possible to improve methods of presentation to such an extent that learning to sing from the staff becomes a very simple matter even to the young child. And even though this were not true, the tonic-sol-fa will always be hampered by the fact that since all letters are printed in a straight horizontal line the ear does not have the assistance of the eye in appreciating the rise and fall of melody, as is the case in staff notation.
[41] The ranges noted in connection with these descriptions of instruments are ordinarily the practical orchestral or band ranges rather than those which are possible in solo performance.
[42] The saxhorn was invented about 1840 by Adolphe Sax, a Frenchman. The saxophone is the invention of the same man.
[43] Floyd S. Muckey—"Vocal Terminology," The Musician, May, 1912, p. 337.
[44] Note:—Not "space below the staff" or "space above the staff."