I. THE BEGINNINGS OF OPERA TO GLUCK.

Before beginning the survey of modern operas and before tracing the development of the different tendencies, it will be interesting to consider briefly the historic source of the opera, and the part that music played in the various dramas, madrigals, ballets, church services, etc.

It is an acknowledged fact that Peri and his little band of Florentine reformers went back to the old Greek dramas for their models and forms. However, it is not to be supposed that opera was developed spontaneously among these reformers. Like every other world wide movement, it was the culmination of tendencies and customs from various sources. We have no reason to accept the Greek dramas as the only models which served, although they were considered seriously by the first opera writers.

The Egyptians sang jubilations to their Gods. These consisted of florid cadences on prolonged vowel sounds. In the old Greek dramas, music played an important part. The Greek tragedy and comedy developed from the hymns, choral dances and chants sung by a chorus of singers disguised as satyrs, at the festivals of Bacchus. The chorus often addressed the audience on topical subjects. The various actors intoned or chanted their words, and were often accompanied by a lyre and other instruments of the day. The chorus chanted their parts. This would not be termed music by us today, but was more of a recitative. Later the chorus chanted while the principals sang, forming a sort of background accompaniment. The slow developement of the music in the mass must not be forgotten, but there is nothing which definitely resembles opera until the thirteenth century. "Noel" was supposed to be a song which the angels sang, and is found in many festivals. Perhaps this may be termed one of the sources of Wagner's ideas, the association of a particular song with one group of people. In the "Three Maries" the chorus sang words in Latin, Gabriel and the three virgins sang, but the words of the Savior had no music. The "Fete of the Ass" was quite an elaborate festival and here the various characters sang quite definitely, and the congregation was urged at stated intervals to join in the singing. Part of the words and music were symbolical, especially those imitating the braying of the ass. "The Passion", in 1264, enacted by the Fraternity of the Gonfalone, lasted for several days, and contained scenes which were sung, choruses and a trio.

At this period, we must consider the vaudeville plays which were plays interspersed with song. "Li gieus de Robin et de Marion", given at the court of Charles d'Artois in Naples in 1285, was an operatic symptom and was divided into songs, spoken dialogue, dialogue songs in which two voices alternated, and popular ballad tunes, although the music was not appropriate since it consisted of such complex counterpoint. The Madrigal plays, although comic in character, influenced in the introduction of village gossip related by chorus. The "Ballet de la Reine" was a brilliant ballet with elaborate scenery, costumes, music, etc. It contained solos, duets, choruses and instrumental interludes. The melody, however, was only loosely associated with the play. In 1554 "Il Sagrifigio", a pastoral drama, arose, in which the priest sang solos, accompanied by lyre and the chorus. The first solo singing was in the Madrigal of Corteccia in 1539. In "Aminta", 1573, the choruses separated acts, and introduced the action danced to the chorus behind the scenes. There was no attempt at the complete setting of the text in these plays, and no union of the lyrics by any sort of recitative. In "Decameron" one or another of the personages sang to the company, and they all sang and danced. The lyric solo resembled somewhat the dramatic recitative of Peri and Caccini. The vocal melody was simple in melodic structure. Cecchi's "Esaltazione delle Croce", 1589, a sacred representation, had an orchestra of viols, lutes, horns and the orchestra played an interlude with special music. There was an accompanied solo allotted to the Deity and a dance of David. The orchestras were composed of lutes, trombones, which accomapnied the dancing, etc., but were usually silent after the entrance of the various characters, excepting the lyres. In the English masque the words and song were written for an actor but sung behind the scenes by a chorus.

The Madrigal dramas became comedies which exhibited a variety of style and expressive power. When a single character spoke, the chorus sang in madrigals, while the actors were on the stage. The music was from behind the curtain. These Madrigal dramas began to degenerate, however, as the spectacle disappeared, and the comic element became preeminent.

Then came the band of Florentine nobles who were not originators, but merely revived certain musical practices and traditions of the 14th century and modeled these on the early Greek tragedies. "Eurydice" was accompanied by a large orchestra for those days consisting of a chitarone, viola di gamba, theorba, three flutes and smaller trombones. There was a brief entr'acte, and a trio of two sopranos and a tenor. The chorus was in five parts. Previous to this the solo without harmony or harmonic support was unknown. The instrumental music was of course in its infancy and expressive melody was out of the question. This first operatic orchestra was concealed—perhaps this suggested the idea to Wagner—perhaps not. There were no set tunes, nor any sort of formal melody divided into periods, balancing each other symmetrically, but a sort of recitative which observed the inflection of the spoken words was created.

Peri developed this principle to a great extent. He expressed soft gentle speech by half spoken, half sung tones on a sustained instrumental bass. Feelings of deeper emotional kind, he expressed by melody with greater intervals and a lively tempo, accompanied by instrumental harmonies changing frequently, sometimes using dissonance. His prologue was in verse and he gave short metrical passages for the chorus which were rich in harmony. An instrumental episode in the first act and dancing in the end are effective.

Vecchi's "L'Amfiparnasso" and "Commedia Armonica" are really only a series of madrigals for five voices. There was no overture, no orchestral accompaniment, nor ritornello of any kind. When the stage was occupied by a single character, four voices were made to sing behind the scenes, foretelling the modern orchestra. In "Orfeo" the accompaniment was a figured bass. "Dafne" and "Arianna" were written in this newly invented "Stilo rappresentatino" with a larger orchestra. "Dafne" consisted of an imitation of speech, a sort of melodious recitative accompanied only with a sustained bass. The instruments were really so contrasted and combined as to invest each character and scene with marked individuality. The introductory toccata (founded on a single chord) was followed by a ritornello, the recitative was accompanied by a figured bass, sometimes by two or more instruments indicated at the beginning.

These reformers really resuscitated a style of musical declamation, and their music better expressed passion and the like. There was a monodic exchanging of contrapuntal richness for the simplest of melodies, confined to a single part, and accompanied by bass of the rudest type and construction. The melodies were destitute of figure and the composers really aimed at exact oratorical rendering of the words. The possibilities of orchestral coloring were limited and the dry style of recitative really dramatically untruthful. There was little variety of contrast. This weakened the true power of the drama by the introduction of measured melody and formally constructed movements. The libbrettos were carefully considered at first, but finally declined, and more and more attention was paid to the aria and the various concerted music introduced without regard to the dramatic tendencies. The rules became strict, and it is not difficult to see how the operas became a concert in costume. We find a quotation of the rules:—

1. A woman always took a man's part.

2. Characters were stereotyped.

3. Position of the aria was determined to give entrance impressiveness.

4. The solos, duets, choruses and ballets were arranged artificially to suit the convenience of the performers and without regard for the dramatic context.

Monteverde has been termed "the Italian Wagner". He never ventured to introduce flowing melody save in the ritornello. His music was dramatic and he increased the dramatic scope of the recitative. His "Orfeo", 1607, contains the first dramatic duet. He was an innovator and gave a new developement to the harmonic system. His influence may be summed up as follows;

I. He made operatic recitative more melodious and expressive.

II. He boldly used unprepared discord to express dramatic emotions.

III. He greatly enlarged the orchestra, used special, appropriate groups of instruments to accompany characters, and employed separate combinations to announce the return and entry of persons. In his "Arianna" the widening influence of his orchestra developed to thirty-six instruments, including violins, trombones, trumpets and three small organs. He invented the pizzicato and tremolo on the violin. In his "Orfeo" there are parts for the harpsichords, lyres, violas, double basses, double harps with two rows of strings, two violins, guitars, organs, flutes, clarions and trombones. The apportionment of the instruments was as follows:—

The bass viols accompanied Orpheus.

The violas, Eurydice.

Four Trombones, Pluto.

The organs, Apollo.

The guitars, Charon.

The flute registers of the organs, the chorus of sprites.

Scarlatti's genius for melody modified the still though dramatically correct recitative, and substituted airs in its place. He introduced measured recitative for the first time, and invented the "de capo aria", his singers thus distracting attention from the important dramatic meaning. His knowledge of counterpoint aided him in the construction of the bass, and elaboration of accompaniments. He tired of the monotony of uninterrupted recitative, and organized three forms:—

1. Recitative secco for ordinary business.

2. Recitative stromentato which was accompanied and used for violent emotion, and used the "thorough bass" by the harpsichord to aid this passionate form of declamation. The sense of the verbal text was enforced by continual interposition of orchestral symphonies.

3. The aria, to which he added the "de capo"—that is, the repetition of the second part following the first.

Cavalli employed the ritornello constantly to relieve the monotony of continuous recitative, and introduced repetition in his ariettas, which was disapproved by the Florentine Caccini, who was the father of a new order of music, a style of melody which is not melody; a recitative melody, noble in character and surpassing the songs of the people, not altering the words nor depriving them of life, but augmenting them and giving them meaning and force.

Purcell had true dramatic instinct and a declamatory recitative second only to that of Wagner, and his airs show unfettered melody. The laws of his time, which he chose to disregard and modify, are interesting.

I. The number of characters was six, three women and three men.

a. Prima Donna (soprano).

b. A contralto.

c. An artificial or male soprano.

d. An artificial alto.

e. A tenor.

f. A bass.

II. (a) "Aria Cantabile" was quiet and slow with opportunities of ornamentation, accompanied by a figured bass under pathos.

(b) "Aria di portamento" in slow movement and marked rythm was sometimes accompanied only by one or two violins.

(d) "Aria Parlante" was elaborately declamatory.

(e) "Aria di bravura" was allegro with brilliant divisions.

III. There were three acts and every scene terminated with an air. Every member sang one air but no one sang two airs in succession and no two airs of the same type followed each other. The most important ones came at the conclusion of the first and second act and here the hero and heroine claimed a grand scene, with accompanied recitative followed by "aria d'agilita" and then united in a grand duet. The third act ended with a chorus of lively movement frequently accompanied by a dance. There were no trios, quartets or other concentrated movements allowed, though three characters could join in harmonized exclamation at close of the recitative.

Handel broke away from these rules in "Radamisto" with an elaborate quartet and "Teseo" in five acts with two airs in succession to each character. His operas have been termed a ballad concert in costume, although he did a great deal toward faithful reproduction of the embodied sentiments of the text. Purcell rebelled against the idea of succession of songs and dances and in a tuneful chorus with dramatic spoken action, he introduced a decided dramatic feeling. The English opera was advertised to be performed after the Italian manner, with recitative in place of dialogue and measured melody for airs. Purcell's "Dido and Aeneus" contains not one spoken word, and his drawn out aria foreshadowed the dramatic aria of Gluck and Wagner. Balfe and Benedict raised the standard of the old ballad operas by using better music although Balfe only appealed to the ear. Tallis, Byrde and Purcell are tolerated for their voice parts only.