A. PHONETICS.
1. Distinctive sounds.
1. The distinctive sounds are the following:
| Labial | Dental | Palatal | Velar | Laryngeal | |||
| 5 Stops:unvoiced | p | t | k | ʾ | |||
| b | d | g | ||||
| Spirants (unvoiced) | s | h | |||||
| Nasals (voiced) | m | n | ŋ | ||||
| Trill (voiced) | r | ||||||
| 10Lateral(voiced) | l | ||||||
| High vowels | i(e,y) | u(o,w) | |||||
| Low vowel | a |
2. a is a low unrounded vowel, as in Standard English far, but more tense and with the corners of the mouth (lips) slightly 15drawn back: hàlamanàn garden.
3. i and u, in what may be regarded as the normal form, are about as high as the Standard (American) English vowels in pit and put, but more tense; moreover, the lips are well drawn back for i and well rounded for u: ínit heat, lutúin be cooked.
204. In the final syllable of a phrase (or of a word spoken alone) the tongue position of i and u is as a rule lowered, often all the way to mid position; the tenseness and lip position are, however, kept, so that the resulting sound often resembles French è and lower o.
255. u is nearly always so lowered: bágo new, buhòk hair. It is not lowered in pùʾ ten.
6. i is not lowered before dentals: káhit though, ákin my, pígil compulsion. It is usually kept high also before velars: sahìg flooring, siŋsìŋ ring. Some words ending in velars more or less 30regularly have the lowering: pútik, pútek mud; so especially some proper names: Intsèk Chinese, Lóleŋ Lola.
Even in other cases the higher variants of i are commoner than the lower; hindìʾ not, kamì we, gabì night, mulìʾ again are commoner than these words with e; a very few words, such as ulèʾ again have oftener e than i; others, such as itèm black are fairly regular in their variation.
7. Within a closely unified phrase the lowering is as a rule omitted: ulí sya again he (ulèʾ), Hintú na! Stop! (hintòʾ). In 5this regard the habits are variable; the form chosen depends mostly on the speaker’s momentary attitude toward the closeness of joining of the words.
A dissimilative factor also seems to be involved: a following i or u favors the lowering:
10Natùtúlug aŋ áso. The dog is sleeping.
Natùtúlog si Hwàn. Juan is sleeping.
8. o occurs in a number of words as the vowel in the last two syllables: in all of them the intervening consonant is the glottal stop: óʾo yes, doʾòn there; boʾòʾ whole has occasionally buʾòʾ. 15The raised variant is not used within the phrase: Óʾo pòʾ. Yes, sir. Yes, ma’am. doʾòn sya there he.
e occurs in the same way in leʾèg neck, beside liʾìg.
9. In word-formation, when, by the addition of suffixes, the i or u is no longer final, it is not lowered: lútoʾ cook, lutúin be 20cooked; itèm black, itimàn be made black. Occasionally, however, the lowered vowel is retained: táo human being, ka-taó-han mankind, beside kataúhan, tao-taó-han manikin, pupil of the eye, beside tautaúhan.
The words with oʾo (§ [8]) keep the lowered vowel when uncontracted: 25pina-roʾon-àn was gone to (doʾòn there); these words are also reduplicated with o: kinà-dò-roʾon-àn is been in.
10. e and o occur also in unassimilated loan-words: bèsbol baseball, Silà y nag-bè-bèsbol, They are playing baseball, estudiyànte, istudiyànte student, polìs, pulìs policeman, sipéro football 30player, baŋkéro canoer (both with Spanish suffix -éro added to Tagalog words: sípaʾ football, baŋkàʾ canoe).
For e see also § [29].
11. As the variation between i and e and between o and u is thus never distinctive, there is no need of indicating it in transcription; 35I have, however, used the characters e and o wherever I heard markedly lowered variants.
12. i and u occur also as non-syllabics; I use, respectively, the characters y and w: yaòn that, gáya like, wíkaʾ speech, word, táwag call. In final position they are always lowered: thus in 40patày dead person, ikàw thou, y represents non-syllabic e, w non-syllabic o.
13. In word-formation before suffixes vowels are in certain cases lost, see Morphology: kánin be eaten, -káin eat with suffix -in.
14. The laryngeal (glottal) stop occurs as a distinctive sound only after a vowel at the end of words: bátaʾ child, boy, girl, hindìʾ not, hintòʾ stop.
As a non-distinctive sound it is used as a vowel-separator 5wherever syllabic vowels follow each other without an intervening distinctive non-syllabic. In this use I shall not indicate it in transcription, as it may be taken for granted wherever vowels are written together. Such words as those in § [8] will therefore from now on be transcribed without the sign for glottal stop: 10doòn, óo, boòʾ. So táo (§ [9]) means táʾo, etc. Cf. below.
15. The distinctive final glottal stop is usually lost before a following word in the phrase: hindí sya not he, Hintú na! Stop!
It is always lost before the words ŋ, t, and y: aŋ báta ŋ mabaìt the good child.
1516. p, t, k are unvoiced fortis stops; they differ from the corresponding English sounds primarily in that they are only slightly aspirated. In sentence-final the implosion only is made.
t (in contrast with the English sound) is postdental, often near to interdental.
20k is always articulated in back velar position (as in English coo), no matter what sound follows. The closure of k is occasionally imperfect, so that a rather open velar spirant (resembling Slavic x) is heard: malaxàs for malakàs strong; this variation has not been noted in transcription.
25In word-formation p, t, k alternate, respectively, with m, n, ŋ; see Morphology.
17. b, d, g correspond in position to p, t, k. They are fully voiced lenis stops; in sentence-final often implosive only, and then weakly voiced.
30The closure of b is occasionally imperfect, so that a bilabial spirant is produced: túVig for túbig water; this variation has been ignored in transcription.
In word-formation b alternates with m; see Morphology.
Final d in word-formation is always replaced by r before the 35vowel of a suffix: lákad walk, lakar-àn walking-party.
Initial d becomes r in the sentence frequently after the final vowel of a preceding word and occasionally even after a final non-syllabic, in the words daàn hundred (not in daàn road), damò, dàw, dìn, díne, díto, diyàn, doòn; e. g. ako rìn I too.
40In word-formation some words frequently change d to r after the vowel of a prefix or a reduplication, and others do not: pa-raàn means (daàn road, way), but i-pa-dalà be sent (dalà bring, carry). The words (or roots) that have changeable d- are those mentioned in the preceding paragraph and daàn, -dáka, damdàm, dámi, dámot, daŋàl, dapàʾ, dápat, dáti, -dátig, -datìŋ, dikìt, -dinìg, -díwaŋ, -dúkit, -dumè, dúnoŋ, dúsa.
518. s is the normal unvoiced sibilant, spoken in postdental position. Before y and iy it is somewhat palatalized (more, for instance, than Russian palatalized s),—a variation that is not distinctive and need not be noted in transcription: siyà, syà he, she, pronounced with palatalized s.
10s alternates in word-formation with n; see Morphology.
In the affricate combination ts, which is felt and treated as a single sound, the s is always palatalized: Intsèk Chinese.
19. h is the unvoiced glottal spirant; as in English, it occurs only in syllable-initial: hindìʾ not, báhay house, mukhàʾ face.
15In word-formation h is often spoken before the initial vowel of a suffix that is added to a final vowel: -bása read, basa-hàn reading room. See Morphology.
20. The nasals m, n, ŋ correspond in position to the stops. In word-formation they alternate, respectively, with p, t, k; m 20also with b, and n also with s; ŋ is often prefixed to an initial vowel; see Morphology.
Both in word-formation and in the phrase the nasals are occasionally assimilated in position to a following consonant: sà m pùʾ ten (m for ŋ), Saàŋ ka páparon? Where are you going? (for 25saàn).
In the sentence, final n is lost before the words ŋ, t, and y: aŋ áki ŋ amà my father (for ákin my).
21. r is the voiced tongue-tip trill, postdental. It occurs between vowels within simple, underived words: áraw sun, day,—no 30doubt as a substitute for d, which never occurs in this position; everywhere else r is merely a variant of d (§ [17]).
22. l is postdental; the timbre is much as in Standard French or German, the mid-tongue not lowered.
23. f and v (both labiodental) occur in unassimilated foreign 35words; they are occasionally replaced (especially in derivatives) by p and b. Filipínas the Philippines, infiyèrno, impiyèrno Hell, fiyèsta, piyèsta fiesta, but always ka-piyestá-han day of a festival, sivìl, sibìl civil, provìnsiya province, bintánaʾ window, báso drinking-glass.
40r occurs freely in all positions in foreign words (cf. § [21]): trèn train, trabáho work, krùs cross, relòs watch, sombréro hat, beside Tagalized sambalílo.
The occurrence of ts (§ [18]) is probably limited to foreign words.
24. When in word-formation a vowel is lost before a suffix (§ [13]), the non-syllabics thereby brought together are subject to 5various changes: sigl-àn be filled, silìd with suffix -an. See Morphology.
2. Syllabication.
a. In the word.
25. If a single non-syllabic follows a stressed vowel, the latter 10is spoken with open syllable accent, and the non-syllabic begins the following syllable: bá-hay house, sù-sú-lat will write.
If a single non-syllabic follows an unstressed vowel, the latter has close syllable accent,—that is, no stress-division is made between the syllables (just as in English): itò this, kasakimàn selfishness, 15sumú-lat wrote.
If two non-syllabics intervene between two syllabics, the syllable-division is made between the non-syllabics: luk-sò jump, muk-hàʾ face, In-tsèk Chinese. Stressed ay seems, however, to have open syllable accent: káy-lan when?
20Syllabics never follow each other without an intervening non-syllabic. If no other non-syllabic intervenes, a non-distinctive glottal stop is spoken. I have not written the glottal stop in this position, as it may always be taken for granted (§ [14]). Hence daàn road is pronounced daʾàn, siìk young pig siʾìk, doòn there 25doʾòn, táo human being táʾo.
Nor do more than two non-syllabics ever follow each other in a native word. The following are examples of unusual combinations in foreign words: An-drès, Pé-dro, beside Tagalized Píro, ká-tre bedstead, sèr-mon, trabá-ho work, but in reduplication mag-tà-trabá-ho 30will work, krùs cross, but in reduplication nag-kú-kurùs crosses himself, cf. baráso arm, lóbo balloon (Sp. globo).
26. In frequently used words, especially in more rapid speech, the intervocalic glottal stop is often lost.
If like vowels thus meet, they coalesce into a single vowel of 35no more than normal length: pumaròn went there beside pumaroòn. When oo is thus contracted, the resulting o may be raised to u (cf. § [9]): pinarunàn was gone to, beside pinaronàn and pinaroonàn.
If unlike vowels meet, the non-syllabic corresponding to the 40higher vowel (i. e. y with i, e and w with u, o) takes the place of the glottal stop. So táwo beside táo. The combinations so resulting are treated in every way like those discussed in the next §.
27. If the non-syllabic intervening between two vowels is y or w, the combination involves no peculiarity, provided that neither 5of the vowels is homogeneous with the non-syllabic: bá-yan town, pag-dirí-waŋ celebration, gayòn thus.
If, however, one of the vowels is homogeneous with the non-syllabic (i. e. i, e with y and u, o with w) and is not stressed, it is spoken shorter than a normal unstressed vowel: in such words 10as iyòn that, buwàn moon, month the i, u are spoken shorter than in other positions. So also in táwo (see preceding §) the o.
After consonants these short vowels are often entirely omitted: bwàn beside buwàn, syà he, she beside siyà. The syllable-division remains, however, as in the longer form: kápwàʾ fellow- beside 15kápuwàʾ is pronounced ká-pwàʾ (not kap-waʾ).
Even in other positions these reduced vowels are often omitted, especially in frequently used combinations: Ano yòn? What’s that? beside Ano iyòn?, occasionally táw for táwo, táo.
28. Conversely, one hears now and then a superfluous short 20i, e with a y, and an u, o with a w: iyaòn for yaòn that, máye for máy having, uwalàʾ for walàʾ without.
29. The combinations ay and ai are occasionally replaced by a long open e: kélan beside káylan when?, mé báhay beside máy báhay wife, housewife, me áreʾ beside may áreʾ master, owner, 25téŋa beside taíŋa car.
b. In word-formation.
30. When in word-formation affixes or reduplicative syllables are added to a root, the syllabication is as in a simple word: sulá-tan be written to (súlat writing with suffix -an), sumú-lat 30wrote (same, with infix -um-), umuwèʾ, umwèʾ (§ [27]) went home (-uwèʾ go home, with prefixed -um-).
When vowels meet, they are as a rule separated by the non-distinctive intervocalic glottal stop: maà-á-reʾ will be possible (áreʾ property reduplicated and with prefix ma-).
3531. The intervocalic glottal stop is rarely reduced, except in certain much-used combinations, the commonest being those with the prefix i- and with the prefix ka- and the suffix -an in certain uses (see Morphology): iniútos was commanded (útos command with prefixes in- and i-), usually iniyútos; laruàn, toy (laròʾ play, 40game with suffix -an), usually laruwàn, larwàn, but (with a different use of the suffix -an) làrúan playground; kayibígan, kaybígan friend (íbig love, desire, with prefix ka- and suffix -an), but kaìbígan sweetheart and kaibigàn affection. For -íwan abandon with prefix i- only the contracted form íwan be abandoned is spoken. Cf. further ikaápat, ikápat fourth (ápat four with prefixes 5i- and ka-).
32. Conversely, an original y or w is sometimes under emphasis replaced by glottal stop; thus, for patayìn be killed (patày dead person, kill with suffix -in), occasionally pataìn.
33. When a word is doubled, when two words are united in 10a compound word, and after the prefixes that end in g, the syllable-division is however made as though separate words were meeting in a sentence,—that is, according to the rules in the following paragraphs.
c. In the phrase.
1534. When words come together in the phrase, the word-division is maintained (as in English) as a syllable-division.
In the case of initial consonants the division is thus like that within a word: Sumúlat ka. Write (thou), Sumúlat siyà, Sumúlat syà. He wrote, Sumáma ka. Go along, Sumáma siyà, Sumáma 20syà. He went along.
Before a vowel-initial the word-division is maintained as a syllable-division by the use of a non-distinctive glottal stop (as in German): Sumúlat akò. I wrote, i. e. sumú-lat-ʾakò; Sumáma akò. I went along, i. e. sumá-ma-ʾakò.
25Doubled words, compound words, and forms with prefixes ending in g (namely, mag-, nag-, pag-, tag-) are similarly treated (§ [33]): agàd-agàd immediately (agàd at once doubled), i. e. agàd-ʾagàd; báhay-aklátan library-building (compound of báhay house and aklátan place for books), i. e. bá-hay-ʾak-lá-tan; pagsúlat an 30act of writing (súlat writing with prefix pag-), i. e. pag-sú-lat; nagáral studied (áral teaching with prefix nag-), i. e. nag-ʾá-ral.
Occasionally, in emphatic speech, the same division is made within other formations: umakiyàt, umakyàt climbed (-akiyàt climb with prefixed -um-), occasionally, but rarely, um-ʾakiyàt, 35usually umakiyàt, umakyàt (by § [30]).
35. Reduction of the glottal stop and contraction of vowels occur only in a few much-used combinations of words: si Andrès (si is the article of proper names), also siy Andrès, sy Andrès; Ano iyàn? What’s that?, also Ano yàn? and even An yàn?; na 40itò this (na is a particle expressing attribution), also na yitò, na ytò.
36. Occasionally such reductions go even farther, as in anò in the preceding paragraph, and occur where the glottal stop is not involved: as, sà for isà one in sà m pùʾ ten, for isà ŋ pùʾ.
37. The words at, ay, and na have also a shorter form, t, y, 5and ŋ, respectively, which occurs only (but not always) after a final vowel, glottal stop, or n. When these forms are used, the final glottal stop or n is lost (§§ [15], [20]) and the t, y, or ŋ is treated in every way exactly as though it were part of the preceding word: butò at balàt, butò t balàt bone and skin, i. e. butòt-balàt; Iyòn 10ay mabúti, Iyò y mabúti. That’s good, i. e. iyòy-mabú-ti; aŋ bátaʾ na mabaìt (clumsy, as in the speech of a child just learning to speak, for:) aŋ báta ŋ mabaìt the good child, i. e. aŋ-bá-taŋ-mabaʾìt.
3. Accentuation.
15a. Word-accent.
38. In a word of more than one syllable at least one syllable is normally spoken with a greater degree of stress than the others.
The unstressed syllables have short vowels (about as long as the vowel in English pit or put) and close syllable-stress (§ [25]).
2039. A non-final syllable ending in a non-syllabic (i. e. a closed non-final syllable) never has the stress; such words as luk-sò jump, muk-hàʾ face, ak-làt book are therefore always oxytone. The only exceptions are syllables ending in ay; this combination seems to be felt as a unit capable of open syllable-stress: káy-lan, 25ké-lan when; further, the words mín-san once, pín-san cousin, and nàn-don, by-form of ná-roòn is there; and, finally, unassimilated foreign words: bès-bol, sèr-mon, kwàr-ta, kwàl-ta money (Spanish cuarto), but also Tagalized kwaltà.
Words like ká-pwàʾ (beside ká-puwàʾ) are not exceptions, for 30the first syllable is not closed (§ [27]).
40. The stressed syllables fall into two grammatical classes which are only in part phonetically distinct; we may call them primary and secondary word-accent.
41. The primary word-accent on a final syllable or (in the 35cases mentioned in § [39]) on a closed non-final syllable, consists merely in greater stress than that of an unaccented syllable, accompanied by a pitch-rise of about half a note.[1] I use the grave accent-sign: gabì night, hindìʾ not, kamày hand, buhòk hair, nàndon is there, sèrmon sermon.
42. On a non-final open syllable the primary word-accent involves an increase of stress (less than in English), a pitch-rise 5of two notes, lengthening of the vowel to about one and one-half times the duration of an unstressed vowel, and open syllable-stress (§ [25]). I use the acute accent-mark: báhay house, báyan town.
So also, irregularly, syllables in ay: káylan, kélan when?, and even finally: káy, ké than, máy, mé having; also mínsan, pínsan.
10If an unaccented syllable precedes, the pitch-rise really begins on the latter: in sumúlat wrote, for instance, the first syllable is spoken above the usual pitch, and the two-note pitch-rise is merely completed in the accented syllable.
43. The secondary word-accent on a final syllable has weaker 15stress than the primary accent in the same place, and ordinarily lacks the pitch-rise. Grammatically, it is recognizable by the presence of the primary accent on another syllable; I use the grave accent-mark: áakiyàt, áakyàt will climb, nárinìg was heard.
44. On a non-final open syllable the secondary accent differs 20from the primary accent in similar position in two respects: its pitch-rise is less marked, varying from three-quarters to one and three-quarters notes, and its vowel-lengthening is greater, reaching twice the length of an unstressed vowel. I use the grave accent-mark: sùsúlat will write.
25When the primary accent is on the last syllable and therefore weak (§ [41]), the secondary accent often approaches a non-final primary accent in character: the first syllable of a word like nàbuksàn came open is often phonetically the same as that of a word like nárinìg was heard.
30If an unaccented syllable precedes the secondary accent, the pitch-rise really begins in the former: in such a word as sumùsúlat is writing the first syllable is spoken with higher than normal pitch, in the second syllable the pitch is brought up to a note and three-fourths above normal, and in the third the two-note rise is 35completed.
Of two secondary accents following each other the preceding is the more marked: nàràramdamàn is felt (nà- has more marked accent than rà-). This helps to make the primary accent distinct, for it is stronger than a preceding secondary accent: sùsúlat will 40write (the second su- is stronger, not weaker, than the first); nàlàláman is known (if the third syllable had a secondary accent, it would be less marked than the first and second, but its pitch and stress are actually higher).
b. Sentence-accent.
45. Certain words are atonic, i. e. are always spoken unstressed 5in the phrase: e. g. aŋ áso the or a dog, sa ákin to me.
The atonic words are: aŋ, at, ay, kay to (not káy, ké than), kuŋ, na attributive (not nà already), naŋ, ni of (not nì nor), o or (not ò oh), pag, sa, si.
The short variants of at, ay, and na, namely t, y, and ŋ 10(§ [37]), having no vowel, cannot be stressed; they are treated in every way as though they formed part of the preceding word.
46. In closely united phrases the last word keeps its accent, while the preceding ones often weaken theirs. Especially a final syllable often loses its accent before another word in the phrase:
15dáhil díto on account of this, often: dahil díto,
aŋ maŋà báhay the houses, often: aŋ maŋa báhay,
aŋ kanyà ŋ báhay his or her house, aŋ kanya ŋ báhay,
aŋ malakì ŋ báhay the large house, aŋ malaki ŋ báhay.
47. Opposed to the preceding rule is the treatment of certain 20words which we may call enclitics. These very frequently, to be sure, receive the normal treatment: that is, they are stressed and the preceding word either keeps its stress or, if oxytone, often loses it; but frequently, instead, the enclitic loses its accent:
Umakyàt siyà, Umakyat syà. He climbed, but also Umakyàt 25sya.
Áakyàt siyà, Áakyat syà. He will climb, but also Áakyàt sya.
Gánu ka na bà kakínis? How clever are you now? (kà, nà, bà are all enclitic).
Enclitics have the further (and more easily recognized) peculiarity 30that they follow the first orthotonic (i. e. neither atonic nor pretonic, § [48]) word of the expression to which they belong (either as modifiers or as subject):
aŋ mahahába nya ŋ paà his (niyà, enclitic) long legs.
When several enclitics come together the last one is often 35stressed. Monosyllabic enclitics precede disyllabic:
Nahánap na nyà aŋ sombréro. He has already looked for the hat. (nà and niyà are enclitics; the latter is treated as disyllabic even when in the contracted form nyà).
The enclitics are:
40(1) always: the monosyllabic forms of the personal pronouns, namely kà, kò, mò, and the words (particles) bà, bagà, dàw, dìn, màn, múna, nà, namàn, nawàʾ, ŋàʾ, pà, palà, pòʾ, sána, tulòy.
(2) frequently or in certain senses: the disyllabic forms of the personal pronouns (including siyà, syà and niyà, nyà) except ikàw (which is never enclitic), the demonstrative pronouns, and the words díne, díto, diyàn, doòn, kayàʾ, lámaŋ, ulèʾ; occasionally 5short phrases (§ [88]).
For details about these words see Syntax.
48. Opposed to the rule in § [46] are also certain words (particles) which we may call pretonics. Their treatment is often regular: that is, the pretonic as well as the following word keeps 10its accent, or the pretonic loses its accent before a following word; but sometimes the pretonic keeps its accent and the following word, if oxytone, is unaccented:
máy sakìt, may sakìt having sickness, i. e. sick, but also máy sakit. Only máy and nása actually appear with this accentuation.
15The other pretonics are so classed because they share with these two words the peculiarity that an enclitic belonging to the phrase follows not the pretonic word, but the first orthotonic word:
Máy katawàn sya ŋ pára ŋ táo. He has a body like a human 20being. (siyà he, enclitic follows not máy, which is pretonic, but katawàn body, the first orthotonic word of the predicate).
The pretonics are the particles báwat, káhit, kapàg, kinà, maŋà, máy, nagìŋ (together with its other forms, § [250]), nása (together with its other forms, § [212]), nì nor (not ni of), ninà, 25pagkà, sinà, tagà (tigà). See Syntax.
49. A final syllable ending in glottal stop (§ [14]) often receives a higher degree of stress than a corresponding syllable with a different final.
If the syllable ending in glottal stop has not the word-accent, 30it often receives an accent resembling the secondary accent on a non-final syllable; this is especially common if the glottal stop is lost before another word in the phrase: páreʾ, párèʾ priest, Párì Hwàn Father Juan.
If the syllable has a word-accent and the glottal stop is lost 35in the phrase, its accent is often spoken like a primary word-accent on an open syllable: Walá sya. He has none (walàʾ), Naglálarú sya. He is playing (naglálaròʾ).
If, however, the glottal stop is lost before t, y, or ŋ, this heightening of accent does not take place, since the syllable is then 40treated as ending in t, y, or ŋ: Syà y walà ŋ aklàt (i. e. walàŋ-ʾak-làt), Sya y wala ŋ aklàt. He has no book or no books.
50. In a succession of otherwise unstressed syllables a rhythmical movement is usually produced by means of grammatically insignificant stresses weaker than a secondary word-accent; the distribution, and, indeed, the occurrence of these is so variable that I have not tried to indicate them in transcription, especially 5as they are never distinctive. Thus, in the phrases in § [46] an accent of this kind may fall on the next-to-last syllables of the words that lose their normal word-accent: aŋ màŋa báhay, aŋ kànya ŋ amà his father, aŋ malàki ŋ báhay.
51. The successive accents in a sentence bear a well-marked 10relation to each other: the early and especially the middle ones have higher absolute pitch than the last; an accent on the last syllable of a sentence often entirely loses its pitch-rise. As a consequence of this rather fixed melody, the differences of pitch-movement between statements, questions, commands, and exclamations 15of various kinds are not so marked as in English; the higher stress of emotionally dominant (emphatic) words, also, is less marked than in English.
In exclamation or under emphasis the accent of a final syllable may be like that of a medial syllable, and may, in addition 20take on a falling accent after the rise: Hwán! (with rising-falling stress and pitch) Juan!, for normal Huwàn, Hwàn. Other disturbances of accent also occur in exclamation.