The structure of the English sentence

by Lillian Kimball Stewart

CHAPTER XX

THE INFINITIVE PHRASE

Nature of the Infinitive.—In the preceding lessons, we have studied but one element of the sentence; namely, the proposition. This combination of subject and predicate we have looked at from the point of view of its value as a sentence element, and we have found that in the communication of thought it is of the utmost importance by reason of its clearness. In this respect it is superior to other simpler and briefer elements, but nevertheless in the development of English prose we find the proposition steadily superseded, wherever possible, by several of the simpler elements. This is the result of an ever-growing tendency toward brevity and conciseness. In a recent monograph entitled “The History of the English Paragraph,” the author states that the English sentence has decreased in length at least one-half in three hundred years, and that it has shown very great decrease in formal predication. The means by which predication is avoided without sacrificing clearness are various. One of them, is the infinitive phrase, which we shall make the subject of this chapter.

By an infinitive phrase we mean a group of words of which an infinitive is the base, the whole group being the equivalent of a clause and forming an element of a sentence. It is an element employed so frequently that it is very easily interpreted, and its great advantage is that it enables us to dispense with a subject and predicate.

The infinitive is a verb-form differing from the finite verb in this,—it expresses the action or state denoted by the verb without the limitations of person and number, hence it cannot predicate. It is defined by grammarians as a verbal noun. This does not mean, however, that it always has the use of a noun, but rather that it has the nature of a noun in this important respect, that it names the action or state denoted by the verb. Just as a noun may be employed as an adjective or an adverb, thus, “I have a gold watch,” “I am going home,” and still retain its essential characteristic, that of being a name-word, so the infinitive may be used adjectively or adverbially and still be the name of an action or state. The infinitive also retains its verb nature so far as to take any of the modifiers or complements of the verb; for example, in the sentence,—“To furl a sail is to roll it up and secure it,” the subject is the infinitive phrase to furl a sail, the base of which is the infinitive to furl. Now in so far as to furl is subject it has the use of a noun; it has the nature of a noun, too, in naming an act; but it also has the nature of a verb insomuch as it denotes action performed upon the object sail.

Forms of the Infinitive.—There are two infinitives, the root infinitive, or infinitive with to,—to see, to run, to be,—and the gerund, or infinitive in -ing,—seeing, running, being. We shall study first the root infinitive. Besides the simple form, to see, called the present active infinitive, there is the perfect active infinitive, to have seen, and the corresponding passive forms, to be seen and to have been seen. We may also add the active progressive forms, to be seeing and to have been seeing. Intransitive verbs of course lack the passive forms. Of all these forms the one most used in the communication of thought is the simplest one of all, the present active.

Uses of the Infinitive.—The infinitive is used for many different purposes, but nearly always in relation to some word whose meaning it serves to make more clear and without which it would not be in the sentence at all. These relations of the infinitive to other words may perhaps be most clearly explained if we consider them in groups; (1) its relation to the noun, (2) to the verb, (3) to the adjective or adverb.

I. A noun may have an infinitive associated with it in two ways:—

1. As an adjective; as, “Leaves have their time to fall.”—Mrs. Hemans. Here the infinitive is brought into the sentence by the noun time, to specify what time the leaves have. The expression time to fall means falling time or time for falling. In the following sentence from Carlyle,—“He that speaks what is really in him will find men to listen,” the infinitive defines the noun men, being equivalent to the restrictive adjective clause who will listen, so we must say of the infinitive that it is used like an adjective modifying men. It is better than the clause, being simpler and briefer.

2. As a noun in apposition; as, “He had formed the heroic resolution to defend the tower alone against the enemy.” Here the infinitive phrase is associated with the noun resolution, but instead of defining or qualifying resolution, it tells exactly what the resolution is, and so is used as a noun. Moreover, we can make a sentence by putting the verb is between the noun resolution and the infinitive phrase; as, “His resolution is to defend the tower,” etc. This sentence is true, and means that the subject and the complement of the verb are two names for the same thing. When the infinitive is used with the noun as an adjective we cannot make such a sentence as the above; for example, we cannot say men are to listen, meaning that men and to listen are equivalent. Of course few nouns can be explained by an infinitive in apposition; no such noun, for instance, as city, man, book, tree, but such nouns as wish, promise, luck, intention, task.

This use of the infinitive reminds us of a substantive clause in apposition. In fact, both the adjective infinitive and the appositive are substitutes for clauses, the former taking the place of a restrictive adjective clause, the latter of either an unrestrictive adjective clause or a substantive clause.

In the sentence, “This is a day on which to travel,” we have an infinitive phrase made from an adjective clause and still retaining the relative pronoun. The relative has an antecedent but does not join to it as usual a dependent proposition.

Note.—When we say that an infinitive is used as an adjective or a noun, we do not mean for an instant that it takes the place of any adjective or noun in the language. So far from this being the case, the infinitive is employed simply because there are no nouns or adjectives to say what the infinitive says for us.

II. The infinitive may be related to a verb in various ways.

1. As subject; as, “To pass this bridge was the severest trial.”—Irving. If we ask, what was the severest trial? the answer is the whole phrase, to pass this bridge; but the base of this phrase is the infinitive to pass, hence it is the essential subject.

A common way of using the infinitive as subject is that arrangement by means of the anticipative subject it, which enables us to put the real subject after the verb; as, “It is a most earnest thing to be alive in this world.”—Carlyle.

Note.—Some grammarians prefer to call it a neuter personal pronoun, subject of the verb, and the infinitive its appositive, or explanatory modifier.

2. As complement.

(a) Object of a transitive verb. Not all transitive verbs can take infinitives for objects. Most of those that do are verbs denoting some activity of the feelings or the will; as, “He resolved to go”; “They hoped to surprise this post.” The infinitives here answer the questions, resolved what? hoped what? They are equivalent to substantive clauses,—He resolved that he would go, they hoped that they might surprise this post; but when the action denoted by the infinitive is to be performed by the same person as that denoted by the subject of the predicate verb, the infinitive is chosen instead of the clause. It is simpler than the clause and has become by frequent use equally clear. When the two actors are different, two subjects must be expressed, hence the clause is employed; for example, They resolved that I should go; They hoped that their allies would surprise this post.

Note.—The contraction of a noun clause to an infinitive phrase is very evident in such a sentence as this,—“He did not know what to say.” The word what leads us to expect a subject and predicate to follow, but we have merely an infinitive. The second subject if expressed would be he, the same as that of the principal verb.

Verbs signifying begin, continue, or cease frequently take an infinitive for object; as, “As he approached the stream, his heart began to thump.”—Irving.

The verb ought is always followed by an infinitive, which is clearly seen to be its object when we remember that ought is an old past tense of the verb owe; as, “The founder of this stately mansion ought surely to have stood in his own hall and to have offered the first welcome to so many eminent personages.”—Hawthorne. Here the obligation owed by the founder is specified by the two infinitive phrases.

A use similar to the above is that of the infinitive after have; as, “My friend, the Poet, tells, me he has to leave town whenever the anniversaries come round.”—Holmes. Have means to possess, or be under an obligation.

Note.—The construction, “I had rather go than stay,” may be explained by treating go as an infinitive without the sign to used as object of the transitive verb had. Expanded the sentence reads, “I had to go rather than I had to stay.” The constructions, “I had sooner go than stay,” and, “I had as lief go as stay,” may be explained in the same way.

After dare, need, and please the sign of the infinitive to is usually omitted; for example, “I dare do all that may become a man.” Dare and need are often used with a subject in the third person singular, whereas we should expect dares and needs; thus, “He need not be angry about it.”

(b) As part of a double object of a transitive verb. We have just said that if one person resolves that another person shall act, or hopes he will, the fact may be told by using a substantive clause; as, “I resolved that John should go.” But if I expected that John would go I could tell it by using an infinitive; thus, “I expected John to go.” This is a matter settled by usage; some verbs must be followed by a clause object, while others may be followed by a noun and an infinitive. We call the noun (or pronoun) and the infinitive a double object. It is not two objects; it is one object the same as a clause, but it consists of two essential parts closely related. The logical relation between John and to go in the sentence above is that of subject and predicate; but grammatically to go cannot be a predicate because the infinitive does not assert. In this construction the infinitive is related first to the noun John and then together with John to the transitive verb expected. Sufficient proof that the two elements John and to go constitute the one direct object of expected is found in the fact that it takes both of them to answer the question expected what? For we did not expect John, nor did we expect to go. Furthermore, the two elements may be changed to the equivalent noun clause, that John would go, in which John becomes subject and the infinitive becomes a finite verb, the predicate of John.

This use must be carefully distinguished from that of the infinitive in such a sentence as this,—“He bought apples to eat.” Here apples alone answers the question bought what? It is also plain that the relation between apples and to eat is not that of subject and predicate. Besides, if this sentence were expanded, merely the infinitive would be changed to a clause. This might be an adverbial clause,—“He bought apples that he might eat them”; or an adjective clause,—“He bought apples that were good for eating.”

Another sentence not so easily discriminated is this.—“I told John to go.” Here there is what seems to be a double object, but in reality to go is the direct object and John is an indirect object, as in the sentence, “I told John a story.” If we recast the sentence, employing a substantive clause, we have,—“I told John that he should go,” where John remains as indirect object and the infinitive alone is expanded to the object clause. It is the same often after such a verb as order; for example, “He ordered the men to march”; but in the sentence, “He ordered the message to be sent,” there is a true double object. Men is indirect object, because it names those to whom the order was given, but message does not name anything to which an order was given,—it merely tells what was to be sent. The sentences expanded read,—“He ordered the men that they should march,” and “He ordered that the message should be sent.”

We may conclude that when verbs with the notion of telling in them, as urge, beg, entreat, persuade, etc., are followed by a personal word and an infinitive,—as, “He urged me to go,” we must carefully determine whether the personal word is more closely related to the predicate verb or to the infinitive. If we find it more closely related to the predicate verb, we must call it an indirect object, and say that the infinitive needs no word for subject because it is understood that the subject of the infinitive is the same word as that used for indirect object.

The verbs most commonly followed by the double object are,—(a) verbs of perception, like see, hear, notice; for example, “Then, on either hand, I saw stately palaces rise gray and lofty from the dark waters.”—Howells; (b) verbs of permitting or causing, like make, have, let; as, “‘Why, what would you have me do with you?’ said the man.”—Froude; (c) verbs of feeling, like wish, desire, expect; as, “Why, they all want him to get up and make speeches, or songs, or toasts.”—Holmes.

(c) As complement of an intransitive verb; as, “The art of reading is to skip judiciously.”—Hamerton. “For a long time the house has been to let.”—Barrie. The infinitive is plainly a completing term in both cases, but in the first it denotes identity with the subject, hence has the use of a noun complement; while in the second it tells the condition of the house, like the word vacant, and hence has the use of a predicate adjective. Sometimes it is possible to change the infinitive to an equivalent adjective; as, “The accident is to be deplored,” or, “is deplorable.”

Seem and appear as well as forms of the verb be are followed by this adjective infinitive. It is especially useful in denoting an action that is to take place in the future; thus, “He is to come soon.”

Note.—Some of the difficulty in disposing of infinitives is due to an attempt to speak of them in terms that apply to certain parts of speech. Sometimes this seems forced. For instance, in the sentence, “He seemed to tremble,” pupils are told to consider the infinitive as a predicate adjective, when it does not seem to them to bear much resemblance to an adjective.

What the pupils must see is this,—that to tremble completes seem and tells something about the subject he. The following sentences may be given,—“He seems a coward,” “He seems afraid,” “He seems to tremble.” The verb in each case has a subjective complement, but in one case this complement is a noun, in another an adjective, in another an infinitive, the choice depending wholly on the special meaning to be brought out. If the use of to tremble seems to the pupil sufficiently like that of afraid to warrant his calling it a predicate adjective, let him do so. If not, let him not try to name it, but say of it instead that it completes the verb and tells something about the subject.

The infinitive complement of a passive verb belongs here; for example, “The human voice may be made to attain a wondrous strength and richness of tone.”—Brook. This construction often arises from changing a sentence containing a double object into the passive form. In the active voice the sentence just quoted reads,—“We may make the human voice attain a wondrous strength, etc.” Notice that the passive construction has the advantage over the active in this respect, that it enables us to avoid telling who makes. This is especially convenient with the verb say. In the sentence, “He was said to have stolen the money,” no one is charged with having said that he stole.

Note.—The familiar expressions, “That is to say,” “It came to pass,” “I came to know him,” also belong here; came is used in the sense of became.

3. As an adverbial modifier of the verb. The infinitive is very often joined to a verb to denote purpose; as, “The salmon winters in the ocean, but in spring ascends the fresh water rivers to spawn, or lay its eggs.” Sometimes this infinitive is introduced by so as or in order. It has almost entirely displaced the adverbial clause of purpose.

The infinitive may also denote the result of an action; as, “His half worn shoes would wait until his small brother grew to fit them.”—Holmes.

In the following sentence from Barrie, “Leeby returned panting to say that the doctor might be expected in an hour,” the infinitive seems to be employed instead of another finite verb, for the meaning is not that Leeby returned in order to say, but rather that Leeby returned and said. In the sentence, He went home only to die, the infinitive denotes neither the purpose nor the result of his going home, but only a subsequent action. It might be preferable in such cases to call the infinitive an accompaniment of the verb rather than a modifier.

In this sentence from Holmes, “I grieve to say it, but our people, I think, have not generally agreeable voices,” to say it denotes the cause of my grieving.

In this sentence from Henry James, “He must have been an American, to take the picturesque so prodigiously to heart,” the infinitive phrase is the equivalent of an adverbial clause of reason, telling on what ground the main assertion rests.

The infinitive may also denote condition, or manner; for example, “You must have the imagination of a poet to transfigure them,” and, “Is everything going to suit you?” In the former sentence the infinitive phrase is equivalent to the clause, if you transfigure them. In the latter it tells how things are going on. In fact, this useful little element may accompany a predicate verb to denote almost all the relations denoted by adverbial clauses.

Sometimes it is difficult to decide whether an infinitive is a complement or a modifier. Perhaps the best way to settle the point is to ascertain what the infinitive is equivalent to, or what question it answers; for example, “If you continue your observations, you will not fail to notice that the speed of its disappearance depends on the character of the day.”—Tyndall. Here the infinitive answers the question, fail in what respect? and is equivalent to the phrase, in noticing. It is well, then, to consider it an adverbial modifier.

Perhaps the infinitive is used after no other verbs oftener than after go and use, as in the sentences, “I am going to stay until you are tired of me”; “I used to wonder what this might be.” Both go and use are intransitive verbs, but the infinitives can hardly be described as their modifiers, for the predication lies more in the infinitive than in the finite verbs, am going or used. The verb am going makes the action denoted by the infinitive intentional, and used makes it customary. Such predicates as am going to stay and used to wonder should be described either as idiomatic verb-phrases, or as consisting of an intransitive verb and an infinitive, without any attempt to establish a complementary or modifying relation between the infinitive and the verb.

Note.—The verb be is sometimes used in the sense of go or come, and may then be modified by an infinitive of purpose, as in the sentence,—“The old Master was talking about a concert he had been to hear.”—Holmes.

III. The infinitive may be associated with an adjective or an adverb.

A construction often met is a predicate adjective followed by an infinitive, especially such adjectives as sure, glad, sorry, apt, anxious. The infinitives answer such questions as sure of what? anxious about what? and so limit the meaning of the adjective; for example, “We are right willing and able to work.”—Carlyle. “He was careful to acquaint himself with the country.”

Often the adjective is first modified by the adverb enough or too; thus, “This narrative is too significant to be omitted.”—Carlyle.

When the adjective is first modified by so, the infinitive is introduced by as, and takes the place of a clause of result; as, “Be so kind as to stand.” Here the infinitive is brought into the sentence by the adjective kind, but as an infinitive of result, may be said to modify the entire predicate be so kind.

The infinitive in this construction may also be associated with an adverb; as, “He worked so swiftly as to surprise us all.” We notice that it is easy to avoid the clause here by substituting the infinitive, for the subject of the clause is the same as the subject of the principal verb.

An adjective in the comparative degree is often followed, not by a clause of degree as we should expect, but by an infinitive introduced by than; as, “He is wiser than to make such a remark.” The infinitive phrase modifies wiser and is joined to it by the subordinating conjunction than.

IV. In addition to the foregoing constructions we occasionally find the infinitive used as the object of a preposition. The few prepositions governing infinitives are except, but, and save, the two latter meaning except; as, “Make no expense but to do good to others or yourself.” Usually, to, the sign of the infinitive, is omitted after these prepositions.

In the following sentences the preposition governing an infinitive phrase is omitted.—“It’s worth quite a little fortune to any man who gets it, and I understand that there are more vacancies than there are men, so that the trustees are at their wits’ end what to do with the money.”—Conan Doyle. “I am somewhat at a loss what to think.” The prepositional phrases at their wits’ end and at a loss are complements of the verbs are and am, used instead of adjectives because there are no equivalent adjectives. The infinitive phrases answer the questions at their wits’ end about what? and at a loss about what? and so are best disposed of as objects of the preposition about understood.

Note.—In the construction, “I am about to go,” about is usually disposed of as a preposition governing the infinitive. Instead it should be considered as an adverb modifying the infinitive, which is the complement of am.

The preposition for may take a double object; thus, “A space was left between them for the garrison to pass out.” The answer to the question for what? is, the garrison to pass out. Such a prepositional phrase is often used as logical subject after the anticipative subject it; thus, “It is not lawful for us to put any man to death.”

Note.—In the common construction, “I cannot but think,” the word think is an infinitive with to omitted, used as object of the preposition but. There is an ellipsis in this construction which must be supplied for analysis, unless we dispose of the whole expression at once as an idiomatic verb-phrase. Supplying the ellipsis we have, “I cannot do anything but think.”

The expression, “I can but think” is best disposed of now as equivalent to “I can only think,” for that is what it signifies to us. The verb then is can think, and but is its adverbial modifier.

V. The infinitive may be used independently, having no grammatical relation to any other word in the sentence; thus, “To tell you the truth, my errand is not so much to buy as to borrow.”—George Eliot. Certain stereotyped phrases are used in this way, such as to be sure, to speak plainly, to make a long story short. They are useful to express in few words what in other more regular constructions it would take many words to say.

In this sentence of Hale’s, “This sort of vagueness, not to say misapprehension, affects the question, Who are our Leaders?” we have an independent infinitive phrase which adds much to the meaning of the sentence. It tells us here that the author uses the noun vagueness so as to be on the safe side, but in his opinion misapprehension is the more precise term.

Note.—An independent expression very similar to the one just given is found in the following sentence,—“It appeals to our more purely human, one might almost say domestic, qualities.”—Lowell.

Exercise 24

Dispose of all infinitive phrases in the following sentences.

1. The winter climate of Venice is still so sharp as to make foreigners regret the generous fires and warmly built houses of the north.—Howells.

2. I started betimes in the evening so as not to hurry, or waste any strength upon the way.—Blackmore.

3. The way to be original is to be healthy.—Lowell.

4. To learn obeying is the fundamental art of governing.—Carlyle.

5. The reward of a good sentence is to have written it.—Higginson.

6. Follow the Devil faithfully, you are sure enough to go to the Devil.—Carlyle.

7. The idea of a man’s interviewing himself is rather odd, to be sure.—Holmes.

8. I had the good fortune to see him at New York, Philadelphia, Baltimore, and Washington.—Thackeray.

9. When they tried to teach me to sing, they told me to “think of eight and sing seven.”—Hale.

10. It was death also for a soldier to leave his colors.—Prescott.

11. I seem to have made foolish friendships ever since.—Lamb.

12. The general course of misrule leaves them helpless, to be the burden of the rest.—Ruskin.

13. There is nothing to be done but to turn round and hoe back to the other end.—Warner.

14. The sentinel warns them not to approach too closely.—Howells.

15. To forget Homer, to cease to be concerned and even curious about Homer, is to make a fatal step towards a new barbarism.—Lang.

16. Ladies of rank and of luxurious habits, you know, cannot be expected to surmise the details of poverty.—George Eliot.

17. One of the most important lessons to be learned in life is the art of economizing time.

18. There is no beautifier of complexion, or form, or behavior, like the wish to scatter joy and not pain around us.—Emerson.

19. Indeed, to do the best for others is finally to do the best for ourselves; but it will not do to have our eyes fixed on that issue.—Ruskin.

20. He had always (it must not be forgotten) to contend against sad memories and anticipations of further sorrow.—Ainger.

21. But up to a considerable maturity of childhood I believed Raphael and Michael Angelo to have been superhuman beings.—Holmes.

22. As a whole, she appeared to carry with her a sort of argumentative commentary on her own existence.—T. Hardy.

23. But, to judge the action fairly, we must transport ourselves to the age when it happened.—Prescott.

24. But winter is apt to be very severe in mild climates.—Howells.

25. To make a long story short, the company broke up and returned to the more important concerns of the election.—Irving.

26. The way to speak and write what shall not go out of fashion is to speak and write sincerely.—Emerson.

27. You must be brave to have come so long and dangerous a journey.—Old Deccan Days.

28. I have none to call me Charley now.—Lamb.

29. I cannot but think that all the characters of a region help to modify the children born in it.—Holmes.

30. For what was he placed by Providence in the highest position in the world, except to benefit the world?—Lord.

31. It is true that no language is ever so far gone in consumption as to be beyond the great-poet-cure.—Lowell.

32. We were brought up to believe in ghosts.—Page.

33. They are earnestly requested to leave this paper to young persons from the age of twelve to that of fourscore years and ten.—Holmes.

34. Let us so live when we are up, that we shall forget we have ever been down.—Stockton.

35.

Know how sublime a thing it is

To suffer and be strong.—Longfellow.

36. In other lands the man of whom you are a regular purchaser serves you well; in Italy he conceives that his long service gives him the right to plunder you if possible.—Howells.

37. It seemed a time to strike a blow for freedom.—Motley.

38. The vilification which was poured on Luther and his doings was so bitter as to be ludicrous.—Draper.

39. She had the natural tendency of excellent people to place others in subjection.—Howells.

40. It is such a sad thing to be born a sneaking fellow, so much worse than to inherit a hump-back.—Holmes.

41. This, as I heard before, could be let fall in a moment so as to crush a score of men and bar the approach of horses.—Blackmore.

42. After struggling for some time in the deep water he sank to rise no more.—Old Deccan Days.

43. I know I used to shake the youngest of them with my hands, stout as it is now, with a trunk that would defy the bully of Crotona.—Holmes.

44. But Sigurd is too experienced a chieftain to walk into this trap.—Boyesen.

45. Ask yourself seriously whether you are fit to read such revelations as are to follow.—Holmes.

46. To sum up his personal enormities, when he spoke he had a practice of always advancing his face as close as possible to the person he was addressing.—Miss Ferrier.

47. The one secret of life and development is not to devise and plan, but to fall in with the forces at work,—to do every moment’s duty aright.—MacDonald.

48. The blessed work of helping the world forward happily does not wait to be done by perfect men.—George Eliot.

49. Various efforts were made to allay the panic among the native troops.—McCarthy.

50. For this notion Johnson has thought fit to make him the butt of much clumsy ridicule.—Macaulay.

51. Of course Mowgli, as a woodcutter’s child, inherited all sorts of instincts, and used to make little play-huts of fallen branches without thinking how he came to do it.—Kipling.