SUMMARY
Result of Idea of Individuality upon Work. — To recapitulate; — Under Traditional Management, because of its frequent neglect of the idea of individuality, work is often unsystematized, and high
output is usually the result of "speeding up" only, with constant danger of a falling off in quality overbalancing men and injury to men and machinery.
Under Transitory Management, as outputs are separated, separately recorded, and as the idea of Individuality is embodied in selecting men, setting tasks, the instruction cards, periods of rest, teaching, incentives and welfare, output increases without undue pressure on the worker.
Under Scientific Management — with various elements which embody individuality fully developed, output increases, to the welfare of worker, manager, employer and consumer and with no falling off in quality.
Effect Upon the Worker. — The question of the effect upon the worker of emphasis laid upon individuality, can perhaps best be answered by asking and answering the following questions: —
1. When, where, how, and how much is individuality considered?
2. What consideration is given to the relation of the mind to the body of the individual?
3. What is the relative emphasis on consideration of individual and class?
4. In how far is the individual the unit?
5. What consideration is given to idiosyncrasies?
6. What is the effect toward causing or bringing about development, that is, broadening, deepening and making the individual more progressive?
Extent of Consideration of Individuality. — 1. Under Traditional Management consideration of individuality is seldom present, but those best forms of Traditional
Management that are successful are so because it is present. This is not usually recognized, but investigation shows that the successful manager, or foreman, or boss, or superintendent succeeds either because of his own individuality or because he brings out to good advantage the individual possibilities of his men. The most successful workers under Traditional Management are those who are allowed to be individuals and to follow out their individual bents of greatest efficiency, instead of being crowded down to become mere members of gangs, with no chance to think, to do, or to be anything but parts of the gang.
Under Transitory Management, and most fully under Scientific Management, the spirit of individuality, far from being crowded out, is a basic principle, and everything possible is done to encourage the desire to be a personality.
Relation of Mind to Body. — Under Traditional Management, where men worked in the same employ for a long time, much consideration was given to the relation of the mind to the body. It was realized that men must not be speeded up beyond what they could do healthfully; they must have good sleeping quarters and good, savory and appetizing food to eat and not be fatigued unnecessarily, if they were to become successful workers. More than this, philanthropic employers often attempted to supply many kinds of comfort and amusement.
Under Transitory Management the physical and mental welfare are provided for more systematically.
Under Scientific Management consideration of the
mind and body of the workman, and his health, and all that that includes, is a subject for scientific study and for scientific administration. As shown later, it eliminates all discussion and troubles of so-called "welfare work," because the interests of the employer and the worker become identical and everything that is done becomes the concern of both.
Scientific Management realizes that the condition of the body effects every possible mental process. It is one of the great advantages of a study of the psychology of management that the subject absolutely demands from the start, and insists in every stage of the work, on this relationship of the body to the mind, and of the surroundings, equipment, etc., of the worker to his work.
It is almost impossible, in management, to separate the subject of the worker from that of his work, or to think of the worker as not working except in such a sense as "ceasing-from-work," "about-to-work," "resting to overcome fatigue of work," or "resting during periods of unavoidable delays." The relation of the worker to his work is constantly in the mind of the manager. It is for this reason that not only does management owe much to psychology, but that psychology, as applied to any line of study, will, ultimately, be recognized as owing much to the science of management.
Relative Emphasis on Individual and Class. — Under Traditional Management the gang, or the class, usually receives the chief emphasis. If the individual developed, as he undoubtedly did, in many kinds of mechanical work, especially in small organizations,
it was more or less because it was not possible for the managers to organize the various individuals into classes or gangs. In the transitory stage the emphasis is shifting. Under Scientific Management the emphasis is most decidedly and emphatically upon the individual as the unit to be managed, as has been shown.
Individual as the Unit. — Under Traditional Management the individual was seldom the unit. Under Transitory Management the individual is the unit, but there is not much emphasis in the early stages placed upon his peculiarities and personalities. Under Scientific Management the unit is always the individual, and the utilizing and strengthening of his personal traits, special ability and skill is a dominating feature.
Emphasis on Idiosyncrasies. — Under Traditional Management there is either no consideration given to idiosyncrasies, or too wide a latitude is allowed. In cases where no consideration is given, there is often either a pride in the managers in "treating all men alike," though they might respond better to different handling, or else the individual is undirected and his personality manifests itself in all sorts of unguided directions, many of which must necessarily be wasteful, unproductive, or incomplete in development. Under Scientific Management, functionalization, as will be shown, provides for the utilization of all idiosyncrasies and efficient deviations from class, and promotion is so planned that a man may develop along the line of his chief ability. Thus initiative is encouraged and developed constantly.
Development of Individuality. — The development
of individuality is more sure under Scientific Management than it is under either of the other two forms of management, (a) because this development is recognized to be a benefit to the worker and to the employer and (b) because this development as a part of a definite plan is provided for and perfected scientifically.
[ 1]. William James, Psychology, Briefer Course, p. 1.
[ 2]. Hugo Münsterberg, American Problems, p. 34.
[ 3]. Mary Whiton Calkins, A First Book in Psychology, p. 1.
[ 4]. James Sully, Teacher's Handbook of Psychology, p. 14.
[ 5]. James Sully, Teacher's Handbook of Psychology, p. 577.
[ 6]. H.L. Gantt, Work, Wages and Profits, p. 52.
[ 7]. F.W. Taylor, Shop Management, p. 25. (Harper & Bros.)
[ 8]. F.B. Gilbreth, Motion Study, p. 7.
[ 9]. L.B. Blan, A Special Study of the Incidence of Retardation, p. 89.
[10]. Hugo Münsterberg, American Problems, pp. 38-39.
[11]. F.B. Gilbreth, Cost Reducing System, Chap. III.
[CHAPTER III]
FUNCTIONALIZATION
Definition of Functionalization. — A function, says the Century Dictionary, is — "The fulfilment or discharge of a set duty or requirement, exercise of a faculty or office, or power of acting, faculty, — that power of acting in a specific way which appertains to a thing by virtue of its special constitution; that mode of action or operation which is proper to any organ, faculty, office structure, etc. (This is the most usual signification of the term)."
"Functionalization" is not given in the Century Dictionary. The nearest to it to be found there is "Functionality," which is defined as — "The state of having or being a function." Functionalization as here used means — the state of being divided into functions, or being functionalized. "Functionalize" is given in the Century Dictionary, defined as "to assign some office or function to" — the note being made that it is rare. "Functionalize" may not be the best word that could be used in this connection, but there seems to be no other word in the English language which contains its full meaning, therefore we will use the word here in the sense of assigning work according to capacity or faculty. A faculty means — "A specific power, mental or physical; a
special capacity for any particular kind of action or affection; natural capability."
Psychological Use of Functionalization. — The word "Function" is in constant use by modern psychologists, especially by those who believe that — "Psychology is the science of the self in relation to environment," [1] or that "Psychology is a scientific account of our mental processes."[2] Sully defines a function as "a psychologically simple process," [3] and compares its elementariness to a muscular contraction as an element of a step in walking.
In investigating the principle of Functionalization as embodied in various forms of Management, we must note that, while Management can, and does under Scientific Management, attempt to functionalize work as far as possible, it will be impossible to come to ultimate results until a psychological study of the requirement of the work from the worker, and results of the work on the worker is made.[4]
Functionalization in Management. — "Functional Management" consists, to quote Dr. Taylor, "in so directing the work of management that each man from the assistant superintendent down shall have as few functions as possible to perform. If practicable, the work of each man in the management should be confined to the performance of a single leading function." [5]
A study of functionalization as applied to management must answer the following questions:
1. How is the work divided?
2. How are the workers assigned to the work?
3. What are the results to the work?
4. What are the results to the worker?
Traditional Management Seldom Functionalizes. — Under Traditional Management the principle of Functionalization was seldom applied or understood. Even when the manager tried to separate planning from performing, or so to divide the work that each worker could utilize his special ability, there were no permanently beneficial results, because there was no standard method of division.
The Work of the Foreman Not Properly Divided. — The work of a foreman was not divided, but the well rounded man, as Dr. Taylor says,[6] was supposed to have
1. Brain
2. Education
3. Special or technical knowledge, manual dexterity or strength
4. Tact
5. Energy
6. Grit
7. Honesty
8. Judgment, or common sense
9. Good health.
Dr. Taylor says — "Plenty of men who possess only three of the above qualities can be hired at any time for laborer's wages. Add four of these qualities together,
and you get a higher priced man. The man combining five of these qualities begins to be hard to find, and those with 6, 7 and 8 are almost impossible to get."
Yet, under Traditional Management these general qualities and many points of specific training were demanded of the foreman. Dr. Taylor has enumerated the qualifications or the duties of a gang boss in charge of lathes or planers. [7] Careful reading of this enumeration will show most plainly that the demands made were almost impossible of fulfillment. [8]
Another list which is interesting is found in "Cost Reducing System," a long list of the duties of the Ideal Superintendent or foreman in construction work. [9]