Reptiles and Birds / A Popular Account of Their Various Orders, With a Description of the Habits and Economy of the Most Interesting

by Louis Figuier

Conirostres.

The Conirostral Passerinæ are characterised by a strong, robust beak, more or less conical, and without notches. They are generally granivorous, but some species are insectivorous or carnivorous. This group includes the Birds of Paradise, Crows, Rollers, Starlings, Sparrows, Tits, and Larks.

The Birds of Paradise have the beak straight, compressed, and strong, the nostrils covered with velvety feathers. In brilliancy of colouring, and in graceful, pendent, gossamer-like plumage, they take precedence in the feathered creation.

They have a very restricted habitat, being only found in New Guinea, Ternate, and in the island of Papua, situated to the north of Australia: there they dwell in the thick forests, feeding on fruit and insects. Occasionally they are found living in solitude, but more frequently are to be met in large flocks, altering their residence with the change of the monsoon.

Their flight is very swift, and has been frequently compared by Europeans resident in the East to that of a Swallow; in consequence, they have bestowed on the Bird of Paradise the name of Swallow of Ternate.

Fig. 212.—The Great Emerald (Paradisea apoda, Linn.).

It is owing to the long lateral plumes, which they most perfectly control in the air, that they are so buoyant; at the same time, this unusual amount of plumage almost entirely stops their progression against a head wind.

When the Bird of Paradise was first spoken of in Europe few believed that it existed. Nor is this to be wondered at, when we remember that it was affirmed that these gorgeous birds were without legs, and hung on to the branches of trees by their long aërial plumes; that the female deposited her eggs under the feathers on the back of the male; that they passed the breeding season in Paradise; and many other stories equally absurd.

The inhabitants of Papua capture these birds, for their plumage is of great commercial value. The method they adopt is to place themselves in the tops of the highest trees: when thus concealed, they attract the birds within reach of their blow-pipes by whistling.

Fig. 213.—King Bird of Paradise (Cincinnurus regius, Vieillot).

The Birds of Paradise are divided by Vieillot into Parotia, Lophorina, Cincinnurus, and Samalia. The most remarkable among these is Paradisea apoda, the Great Emerald, as it is sometimes called ([Fig. 212]), the throat and neck of which are of a bright emerald green, from which circumstance it has received one of its popular names, while on its sides are shaded tufts of yellow feathers which float on the breeze, forming an elegant aërial plume, and giving the bird a meteor look as it shoots through the air. They live in flocks in the vast Papuan forests. When prepared for migration—for they change their quarters with the monsoons—the females assemble in small flocks on the tops of the loftiest trees, and utter their call to the males, each flock of fourteen or fifteen being attended by one male.

The King Bird of Paradise (Paradisea regia, Linn.), [Fig. 213], is an inhabitant of the Molucca Islands, where it is scarce. Little is known of its habits. The beak, which is furnished at the base with small feathers pointing forward, is slender, convex, and slightly compressed at the sides. The hypochondrial feathers are broad, elongated, and truncated.

In the Superb (Lophorina superba), [Fig. 214], the beak is furnished with elongated feathers, extending half its length; the feathers of the neck, rising just behind the head, expand into a wing-like form.

Fig. 214.—The Superb (Paradisea superba, Latham).

Fig. 215.—Golden-throated Sifilet (Paradisea aurea, Gmelin).

In the Sifilets (Parotia) the beak is furnished with short feathers for half its length, and is slender, compressed laterally, notched and curved at the tip; they have long, broad, and loose plumes covering the sides and abdominal part. Of this group the Gold-throated Sifilet of Buffon (Parotia sexsetacea, Latham), [Fig. 215], is a fine example. It obtains its name from the three thread-like feathers on each side of the head expanding into a lancet shape at the extremity, and which form a very striking ornament.

The birds which constitute the Crows (Corvidæ) are characterised by a very strong beak with cutting edges, broad at the base, flattened laterally, and hooked towards the point; the nostrils covered with stiff feathers directed forward; also by strong claws and long pointed wings. They are divided into four groups or sub-genera—namely, Corvus, the Crows properly so called; the Magpies (Pica); the Jays (Garrulus); and the Nut-cracker (Nucifraga).

The genus Corvus, as limited by modern naturalists, comprehends the Raven (C. corax, Lesson), the Carrion Crow (C. corone, Temm.), the Royston Crow (C. cornix, Selby), the Rook (C. frugilegus, Linn.), the Jackdaw (C. monedula, Linn.).

All these species have in many respects the same characteristics, the same aptitude, and the same habits. With the exception of the Raven and Magpie, which live in pairs, the others reside together in large flocks, whether they are in quest of their daily food or roosting at night. They are all possessed of the same intelligence, the same cunning, the same mischievous habits, the same gift of imitation, though in different degrees, and the same provident habit of amassing provisions in secret places. This last peculiarity in tamed birds degenerates into a mania, which leads them to carry off and hide everything that attracts their attention, especially gems and bright articles of metal. The whole group are susceptible of domestication.

The Crows, especially the Raven and the Carrion Crow, are pre-eminently omnivorous. Living or dead flesh, fish cast up on the shore, insects, eggs, fruit, seeds—nothing comes amiss to them. Their depredations are enormous. Thus Ravens, not content with raising a tribute on moles, wood-mice, and leverets, venture into poultry-yards, and without ceremony appropriate chickens, ducklings, &c. Buffon even asserts that in certain countries they fasten upon the backs of buffaloes, and after having put out their eyes, devour them. As for the Carrion Crows, according to Lewis, it is certain that they attack the flocks in Scotch and Irish pastures. Lastly, all Crows delight in digging up newly-sown ground, eating with avidity the germinating seed. On this account the agricultural population are generally their bitterest enemies, destroying them when opportunity offers. In certain parts—Norway, for instance—laws were made ordering their extermination. But this policy was short-sighted: if they did harm, they also did good, for the quantity of noxious grubs and larvæ formerly devoured by them, and consequently kept in check, became most formidable foes to the farmer, and most difficult to overcome. How is it that men will not use their brains—that they actually destroy the animals provided by a bounteous Creator, and whose utility is most conspicuous?

The flesh of the Raven and the Carrion Crow exhales a very bad odour, doubtlessly caused by the quantities of putrid animal matter they consume; consequently, it is unfit for human food. Not so, however, with the Rook. This bird, when taken young, is not only eatable, but by some deemed a delicacy.

Crows possess a vigorous and sustained flight; they have a keen sense of smell, and excellent vision. By exercising these latter qualities they become aware where food is to be obtained, and as they wing their way towards it they constantly utter their cry, as if inviting their companions to join them: this croak, as it is called, is very harsh and dissonant. The plumage being of a sombre funereal black, and the voice so unmusical, have doubtless been the reasons why they have long been considered birds of ill omen. When taken young, they are tamed with great facility, even to permitting them to go at large, for they will neither rejoin their own race nor desert the neighbourhood where they have been kindly treated. True, they may go into the fields to seek for food, but when the increasing shadows predict the approach of night, their familiar resting-place in the house of their protector will be sought. They become much attached to those who take notice of them, and will recognise them even in a crowd. Their audacity and their malice are incredible. When they take an antipathy to any one, they immediately show it. They suffer neither cats nor dogs to approach them, but harass them incessantly, tearing from them their very food. Finally, they choose secret hiding-places, where they store up all that tempts their cupidity or excites their covetousness. They even learn to repeat words and phrases, and to imitate the cries of other animals. These facts are confirmed by numerous anecdotes related by naturalists of undoubted veracity.

Pliny speaks of a Raven which established itself in one of the public places of Rome, and called out the name of each passer-by, from the emperor to the humblest citizen. We have all laughed heartily at the recital of an adventure which happened to an awkward horseman who lost his seat, while a Raven perched on a branch of a tree above him cried out with solemn voice, "How silly!"

Dr. Franklin thus speaks of a Raven of his acquaintance which had been brought up at a country inn:—"It had," he says, "great recollection of persons, and knew perfectly all the coachmen, with whom it lived on the greatest intimacy. With its special friends it took certain innocent liberties, such as mounting on the top of their carriage and riding out with them until it met some other driver with which it was on terms of similarly close friendship, when it would return home." The same Raven had unusual sympathy with dogs in general, and especially those which happened to be lame. These it loaded with the most delicate attentions, keeping them company and carrying them bones to gnaw. This excessive kindness to animals which are rarely in the good graces of Ravens arose from this bird having been reared along with a dog, for which it entertained such strong regard, that it attended it with unremitting assiduity when it had the misfortune to break its leg.

The same author mentions another Raven which was captured in Russia, and came to be confined in the Jardin des Plantes, of Paris. It recognised Dr. Monin when he stopped accidentally before its cage. It had belonged to him ten years before, and when brought before its old master it leaped upon his shoulder and covered him with caresses. The doctor reclaimed his property, and the bird was henceforth an ornament to his house near Blois, where it learnt to address the country-people as "great hogs." Dr. Franklin raised one of these birds himself which showed wonderful powers of imitation. "He called himself Jacob. Sometimes it made such a noise at the bottom of the stairs that you could only imagine it was caused by a party of three or four children quarrelling with great violence; at other times it would imitate the crowing of a cock, the mewing of a cat, the barking of a dog, or the sound produced by a rattle for frightening away birds from a wheat-field; then a silence would ensue; but soon after the crying of a child of two years of age would be mimicked; 'Jacob! Jacob!' its own name, probably it would then call, repeating the cry at first in a grave tone, then with shriller intonation and more vociferously; again another silence; but after a pause, a man seems to knock at the gate; if it is opened, enter Jacob, who runs about the room, and finally mounts on the table. Unfortunately, Jacob was a thief—and that was not his least fault; spoons, knives, forks, even plates, disappeared, with meat, bread, salt, pieces of money—especially if new; he carried off everything, and hid all in some secret hole or corner. A washerwoman of the neighbourhood was accustomed to dry her linen near our window, fixing the clothes on the line with pins; the bird would labour with a perseverance truly wonderful to detach these, the woman chasing him off with bitter maledictions about her fallen linen; but he would only fly over into his own garden for safety, where he would indulge in a few malicious croakings. One day I discovered, under some old timber, Jacob's hiding-place. It was full of needles, pins, and all manner of glittering objects."

Mr. Charles Dickens was partial to keeping Ravens in his youth, and has related some of his experiences in the preface to "Barnaby Rudge." He had two great originals. "The first was in the bloom of his youth, when he was discovered in a humble retreat in London and given to me. He had from the first, as Sir Hugh Evans says of Anne Page, 'good gifts,' which he improved by study and attention in a most extraordinary manner. He slept in a stable—generally on horseback—and so terrified a Newfoundland dog by his preternatural sagacity that he has been known, by the mere superiority of his genius, to walk off unmolested with the dog's dinner from before his face. He was increasing in intelligence and precocity when, in an evil hour, his stable was newly painted. He observed the workmen closely, saw that they were careful of their pigments, and immediately burned to possess some of them. On their going to dinner, he ate up all they left behind, consisting of a pound or two of white-lead. Alas! this youthful indiscretion terminated in death.

"Whilst yet inconsolable for the loss, another friend of mine," adds Mr. Charles Dickens, "discovered an older and more gifted Raven at a village inn, which he prevailed upon the landlord to part with for a consideration. The first act of this sage was to administer to the effects of his predecessor, by disinterring all the cheese and halfpence he had buried in the garden—a work of immense labour and research, to which he devoted all the energies of his mind. When he had achieved this task, he applied himself to the acquisition of stable language, in which he soon became such an adept that he would perch outside any window and drive imaginary horses all day long, with great skill in language. Perhaps I never saw him at his best, for his former master sent his duty with him, and said, 'if I wished the bird to come out very strong, to be so good as show him a drunken man;' which I never did, having (unfortunately) none but sober people at hand. But I could hardly have respected him more, whatever the stimulating influence of this sight might have been. He had not the least respect for me, I am sorry to say, in return, or for anybody but the cook, to whom he was attached—but, I fear, only as a policeman might have been. Once I met him unexpectedly, about half a mile off, walking down the middle of the public street, attended by a pretty large crowd, and spontaneously exhibiting the whole of his accomplishments. His gravity under this trying ordeal I never can forget, nor the extraordinary gallantry with which, refusing to be brought home, he defended himself behind a pump until overpowered by numbers. It may have been that he was too bright a genius to live long, or it may have been that he took something pernicious into his bill, and thence into his maw—which is not improbable, seeing he new-pointed the greater part of the garden-wall by digging out the mortar, broke countless squares of glass by scraping away the putty all round the frames, and tore up and swallowed in splinters the greater part of a wooden staircase of six steps as well as the landing—but after some three years he was taken ill, and died before the kitchen fire. He kept his eye to the last upon the meat as it roasted, and suddenly turned over on his back with the sepulchral cry of 'Cuckoo.'"

Crows (Corvus) are universally diffused over the globe. The Raven (Corvus corax), [Fig. 216], and the Carrion Crow (Corvus corone), are sedentary birds, and never voluntarily abandon the place they have elected for their home. The Hooded Crow (Corvus corone), the Rook (Corvus frugilegus), and the Jackdaw (Corvus monedula), are migratory in their habits, only visiting the countries of Southern Europe on the approach of winter. The Royston Crow (Corvus cornix) inhabits the lofty mountain regions of Europe, descending into the plains during winter. Finally, the Senegal Crow (C. senegalensis, Temm.) is exclusively confined to Africa.

Fig. 216.—The Raven (Corvus corax, Lesson).

The Magpies are distinguished from the Crows by their shorter wings, longer tail, and by their variegated plumage; but for this difference, they greatly resemble the previously described in appearance and habits. Like the Crows, they are omnivorous, but they generally avoid dead prey; they have the same desire, whether in the wild or domestic state, to store away provisions and hide glittering objects. Their instinctive habit of appropriating all sorts of plunder is one of the causes of their popularity. Every one has heard the true story on which the drama of The Maid and the Magpie is founded—how Ninette was accused and pronounced guilty of robbing her master, and when executed found to have been innocent, the true culprit being the pet Magpie of the house.

The Magpie is a bold, impudent bird, which is easily put to flight by man, but will fearlessly harass a dog, a fox, or any of the smaller birds of prey. Having caused one of these to retreat, it pursues it vigorously, rousing by its cries all the birds of its kind; and what with its own energy and the combined efforts of its kindred, it generally succeeds in utterly discomfiting the intruder. Its action is unceasing, its movement short and jerky; but it is heavy on the wing. It cries and chatters incessantly. Hence the proverb to "chatter like a Magpie." It builds its nest of withered shrubs, dry sticks, and sand, on the highest branch of some lofty tree, it is and equally remarkable for its form, size, and solidity. This fabric has many beginnings: the foundation of the last and permanent structure is laid with infinite precautions, to avert observation. This care is taken, according to M. Nordmann, in order to mislead those who are spies on its actions; for it is in this last nest that the female deposits her eggs. If this fact were clearly established, it would show a great amount of cunning in the bird.

The Magpie lays seven eggs, which the parent birds hatch with care, each bird sitting alternately. They show great attachment to their progeny, and continue to exercise their protection and solicitude until the young are well advanced towards maturity.

The Magpie is tamed with facility, and soon becomes familiar, assiduously following its master everywhere, and eagerly seeking his caresses, so that it is necessary sometimes to shut it up to get rid of its importunities. It readily learns to repeat a few words, "mag" being the favourite in its vocabulary. The ability to pronounce words is said to be increased by extending the soft fibrous slit which binds the lower part of the tongue to the palate. But, compared with the beautiful glossy bird of the thicket, the domesticated Magpie, draggled and mutilated, is a miserable-looking object.

The Common Magpie (Pica melanoleuca), [Fig. 217], abounds in all parts of the world. Cultivated valleys with natural or artificial woodlands on their slopes; low ground diversified with fields; pastures and moors partially covered with plantations; fertile plains fenced in with wooded hedgerows, and studded with farm-houses and cottages, are the type of landscape they prefer. In spring plumage the Magpie is a fine bird, the feathers of the back being of velvety black, while the breast and a part of the wings are pure white.

Fig. 217.—Common Magpie (Corvus pica, Linn.).

In the Brazils and Paraguay we find another species, whose whole plumage is a fine cerulean blue, with the exception of the head and throat, which are black. In China there is also a Magpie of beautiful cobalt-blue plumage; its two centre tail feathers are very long, barred with black, and tipped with pure white; the bill and legs are red. It is extremely shy, and occasionally seen in flocks. By the inhabitants it is frequently taught to speak.

The Jays (Corvus glandarius) have short bills, which are slightly notched at the tip; head rather large; feathers on the upper and anterior part of the head erectile when the bird is irritated; those feathers at the base of the upper mandible are stiff, with short barbs. It is not less shy than other members of the family, although it frequents gardens, where it feeds on beans and peas, of which it seems to be particularly fond. Its food, however, is not confined to fruit and vegetables, as it picks up worms, insects, the eggs of small birds, and crustacea, after the manner of Crows and Magpies. Naturally irascible and quarrelsome, they are nevertheless easily tamed when taken young, and soon learn to pronounce a few words. They abound in Europe and the Indies. The European Jay (Garrulus glandarius), [Fig. 218], is a pretty bird of soft and blended plumage, the feathers of the fore part of the head elongated, oblong, and erectile: its general colour is a delicate brownish red tinged with grey, approaching to purple on the back. The most conspicuous trait of the plumage is the patch of ultramarine blue, banded with blackish blue, on the primary coverts.

Fig. 218.—European Jay (Garrulus glandarius, Belon).

Fig. 219.—The Nut-cracker Crow (Nucifraga, Briss.).

The American variety of Jay is not quite as large as the European representative. Its plumage is less brilliant. In characteristics they are much alike, being equally mischievous and dreaded by the smaller feathered denizens at the period of nesting.

The Nut-cracker (Nucifraga caryocatactes) is furnished with a long, strong, and straight bill, with which it can penetrate under the bark of trees when in search of insects, and open the cones of firs and pines, on the kernels of which it feeds; failing these, it eats the hazel-nut and wild fruit, from which circumstance its name is derived. They inhabit the mountain forests of Europe and Asia, building their nests in the trunks of trees, to which they are capable of clinging, but not of climbing.

Fig. 220.—European Roller (Galgulus, Briss.).

The Rollers (Coracias garrula), [Fig. 220], have in their general appearance and habits considerable resemblance to the Jays; but they differ from the beak being more robust, and the nostrils uncovered; they are also more timid, withdrawing into the thickest parts of the woods, which are their favourite haunts. When taken young from the nest it is tameable. Dr. Meyer, of Offenbach, and others, have succeeded in rearing them; but although they become so tame as to know those who attend to their wants, they never grow familiar. Their favourite food consists of insects and their larvæ, worms, and the smaller reptiles; but in their absence they feed on berries, seeds, and certain roots.

The bill of the Roller is black towards the point, becoming brown at the base, with a few bristles; the irides are formed of yellow and brown circles; the head, neck, breast, and belly present various shades of bluish verditer, changing to a palish green; the plumage of the upper part of the body is a brilliant azure blue on the shoulders, and reddish brown on the back; rump feathers purplish. Wing primaries dark bluish black, lighter on the edge; tail feathers pale greenish blue. They abound in Europe, Africa, and Southern Asia. Although the natural habitat of the bird is oak and beech forests, M. Vieillot tells us that in Malta, where trees are scarce, the bird nests on the ground. In Barbary it has been observed to build on the banks of the rivers, and Pennant observes that where trees are wanting it builds its nest in clayey banks.

Fig. 221.—Starling (Sturnus vulgaris, Swainson).

The Starlings (Sturnidæ) are characterised by a straight bill, depressed towards the point. They are remarkable for their vivacity, and grave, sombre plumage, lit up with brilliant metallic reflections of green and blue. They are sociable birds, living in numerous flocks, being, says Selby, "particularly abundant in the fenny parts of Leicestershire and Nottinghamshire, where they roost among the reeds. Before retiring to rest they perform numerous manœuvres in the air, the whole colony frequently describing rapid counter-flights round a common centre. They will sometimes continue repeating the eccentric evolutions for half an hour before they finally settle for the night." Their favourite food is seeds and berries, and occasionally insects, worms, and small terrestrial mollusks. They choose for their nests well-protected places, such as the hollows of decaying trees, crevices of walls, the belfries of old churches, the ledges of roofs, and sometimes even the interior of pigeon-houses. The nest is formed of dry grass, in which it lays five light blue eggs. The Starling is accused of seeking the shelter of the dovecot for the purpose of sucking the inhabitants' eggs, but this is now found to be a calumnious error." They are diffused over all quarters of the globe. There are two species described among European birds—Sturnus vulgaris (the Common Starling), and Sturnus unicolor (the Sardinian Starling), which is black, and without spots, with the anterior feathers very long, tapering, and drooping from the base of the neck. It is found in Algeria among the rocks, where it builds. It passes the winter on the African coast of the Mediterranean, in company with the Common Starling. Its flesh is bitter, and consequently unpleasant to the taste, but it is sought after for its docility, and for the ease with which it is taught to speak.

Fig. 222.—The Pensile or Baltimore Oriole (Icterus baltimorus, Wood).

The Baltimore Orioles (Xanthornis baltimorii, Sw.) have the bill broad at the base, nearly conical and pointed; the upper mandible has the dorsal line slightly arched, the ridge narrow, the sides flat and sloping at the base. They are chiefly American birds, and have considerable resemblance in form and habit to the European Starlings. Like them, they are sprightly, light, and very rapid on the wing, live together in large flocks throughout the year, feeding on seeds, berries, and especially insects, and frequently committing ravages on cultivated fields and orchards. Some of this genera exhibit remarkable industry and skill in the construction of their nests: the most ingenious represents a kind of purse, about a yard in length and a foot in diameter, the mouth or entrance being placed sometimes at the upper extremity, sometimes on the side. Naturalists have subdivided them into many smaller groups or genera, the most important being the one here described, and which may well be taken as an example. They are confined entirely to North America.

Fig. 223.—The Beef-eater (Buphaga africana, Levaill.).

The Beef-eaters (Buphagus, Briss.), [Fig. 223], owe their name to a singular habit they have of lighting on the backs of ruminating mammalia, and picking off the insects or extracting the larvæ of Œstri which infest them—an operation which cattle submit to with great pleasure. Their food is not confined to the larvæ of the Œstri; they feed also upon the wood-bug and locusts: hence they are likewise called Locust Hunters. They generally unite in small flocks of six or eight. They are very wild, and take flight with a sharp cry of alarm on any one approaching their haunts.

Among the congeners of the Beef-eater may be placed the Colius (Briss. and Linn.), which, like that bird, is an inhabitant of Africa. They are small, about the size and shape of the Yellow-hammer, and have a tuft on the head. They live in flocks of from twelve to twenty, which nest in common, and feed on fruit and young birds. According to Levaillant, they creep on the branches of trees, with the head downwards; and, strange to say, even sleep in this peculiar position, pressing one against the other. Their flesh is said to be very delicate.

Fig. 224.—Crossbills (Loxia curvirostra, Linn.).

The Crossbills (Loxiadæ) are remarkable for the form of their bill, the mandibles being compressed and recurved, crossing each other in contrary directions, the terminations being hooked, forming an instrument admirably adapted for dividing the scales of fir-cones so as to disclose the germs, which are favourite portions of their food. They are sometimes found near orchards, feeding on the kernels of apples, which their bill readily cuts. They are said to commit great ravages on the fruits of Normandy when they pass through that province, which they annually do in great flocks. This family present this peculiarity, which is almost unique among birds—that they build their nests and lay at all seasons. The Crossbills haunt the wooded mountains of the North of Europe and America.

Fig. 225.—Grosbeak, or Hawfinch (Loxia coccothraustes, Linn.).

The Sparrow (Passer) is, perhaps, the best-characterised genus among the Passerine Conirostres. In it are included a great number of species with bills more or less thick at the base. Coming to the most remarkable of them, we have the Grosbeak (Fringilla coccothraustes, Temm.), [Fig. 225], which is the type of the genus, for it is distinguished by the possession of a bill which is about three-quarters of an inch long, not less than half an inch in thickness at the base, and of immense strength when the size of the bird is considered, which scarcely exceeds that of the Thrush. It feeds on seeds, berries, and insects; the kernels of the hardest fruit cannot resist the powerful implement with which it is provided. Widely diffused throughout Europe, it is always met with in England during autumn, continuing with us till April, but it has not been recorded as breeding here. It is constantly found in France, where it appears in open country or woods, according to temperature. It is a quarrelsome and unsociable bird; and if placed in confinement with others, it will undoubtedly maltreat, and perhaps kill them.

The Americans possess many species of Fringilla, some of them having plumage of a fine rose colour.

Fig. 226.—Bullfinches (Loxia pyrrhula, Penn.).

The Bullfinches (Pyrrhula vulgaris, Gould), [Fig. 226], are pretty little birds. Their cheeks, breast, and belly are a bright crimson, shaded with orange red; grey round the shoulders, with black head. They feed on various kinds of seeds or berries. They are easily tamed, being of a gentle, docile disposition. Their attachment to their master, and the ease with which they are taught to pipe, are their principal recommendations. In their natural state they construct their nest in the most inaccessible part of the thicket, usually in a black or white thorn bush. This is composed of small dry twigs, lined with fibrous roots.

Fig. 227.—Siskins (Fringilla spinus, Penn.).

The Siskin (Carduelis spinus, Yarrell), [Fig. 227], may be mentioned among the numerous songsters which charm with their melodious notes. It is very pretty, although less richly coloured than the Goldfinch and others, its congeners. It is neat and compact in form; its bill resembles that of the Goldfinch, but is more compressed, the two mandibles in some specimens meeting only at the base. The plumage is soft, blended, and glossy.

The House Sparrow (Passer domesticus, Yarrell), [Fig. 228], is among the most interesting of the Passerinæ. It abounds all over Europe, from its most southern regions up to extreme north.

Fig. 228.—House Sparrows (Fringilla domestica, Penn.).

Every one is acquainted with this little bird; lively, pert, and cunning, the true gamin of the winged race. It lives in flocks in the neighbourhood of dwelling-houses, and even in the heart of large towns; it is familiar, but its familiarity is circumspect and sly. It haunts our streets and public places, but is careful to keep men and boys at a respectful distance. It has a notion that the friendship of the great is dangerous, and its prudence counsels it to avoid intimacies which might have troublesome consequences; it is only after multitudinous proofs of good offices that the Sparrow will form an unreserved treaty of friendship with man. The Sparrow quoted by Buffon, which not only followed its soldier master everywhere, but would recognise him from all the others in the regiment, proves they are both intelligent and capable of affection.

Sparrows are eminently sociable, seeking their food and building their nests near each other, whether it be in crevices of walls or under the eaves of houses, in hedges or trees, or in the deserted nests of Swallows, which they have the effrontery to appropriate. In their nest, which is a bulky, soft, and warm structure, lined with wool, bristles, and hair, the female deposits from four to six eggs three times a year; their fecundity is consequently very great. They are omnivorous, but prefer seeds and the larvæ of insects to all other food.

Oceans of ink have flowed to prove the ravages committed by Sparrows on the corn-fields, and to demonstrate that they should be exterminated by the farmer. But it is now generally agreed that the Sparrow is a benefactor, and belongs to the list of useful birds. Have we not seen in the Palatinate that after the Sparrow was proscribed and exterminated, the inhabitants were under the necessity of reimporting them in order to arrest the ravages of insects, which, in consequence of this bird's absence, had multiplied in a frightful manner?

Fig. 229.—Goldfinches (Fringilla carduelis, Linn.).

Fig. 230.—Linnets (Fringilla linota, Penn.).

The Goldfinch (Carduelis elegans, Yarrell), [Fig. 229], is at the same time the most gentle and peaceful of birds, and one of the prettiest of European races. It has the back brown, the face red, with a bright yellow spot upon each cheek; its voice is full, sweet, and harmonious; it is exceedingly docile, easily tamed and raised as a cage-bird; in the aviary it soon becomes familiar, testifying great attachment to those who take charge of it; it readily learns to sing and go through various exercises, such as drawing up the vessel containing its food and drink, firing a miniature cannon, and other similar tricks.

The Linnets (Linota cannabina, Yarrell), [Fig. 230], have considerable analogy to the Goldfinch. They are, like them, extremely sociable, except at the period of incubation; that duty over, the individuals begin to muster in small flocks towards the end of autumn, which increase as the winter advances, when they betake themselves to sheltered districts, and to the neighbourhood of villages and farm-houses in search of food. They associate with various species, such as the Mountain Linnet, Green Linnet, and other small birds. The nest of the Linnet is generally placed in a bush of furze or heath. It is a neat structure, formed externally of blades of grass intermingled with moss and wool, and lined with hair of various kinds; sometimes with thistle-down. The female lays from four to six eggs, of an oval form, colour bluish white, marked with distinct spots of brownish black, purplish grey, and reddish brown. Should the nest be destroyed during incubation, the pair will build again, and lay two or three sets of eggs if needful; but the male is said to take no part in the building or incubation, although he watches the female with great solicitude, supplying her with food during the process.

The Linnets feed principally on hemp and linseed, whence their popular name. In the winter season, in the absence of their favourite food, they attack the young buds of trees, and pick up the stray seeds about farm-yards. Their song in confinement is remarkably sweet, brilliant, and varied, but will not compare with the thrilling voice of the Blackbird or Thrush. The species are numerous, both in Europe and America, but there is a tendency to reduce their number, and to regard them as seasonal varieties of the species under consideration.

The Chaffinch (Fringilla cœleb, Linn.) [Fig. 231], lives in flocks, except when breeding, like the Goldfinch and Linnets. But they differ from these members of the group in this—that their wing is less compact, and that they disperse themselves more in search of food than their congeners. Chaffinches are met with all over Europe, either as birds of passage or as permanent residents. They feed on various kinds of seeds and larvæ of insects, the latter of which they obtain in the early mornings of summer and autumn by searching the lower surface of the leaves of oak, ash, and other trees. They inhabit indifferently the woods, gardens, or high mountain ridges. In the early days of spring the mellow, modulated "tweet, tweet, tweet" of the Chaffinch is exceedingly pleasant to hear; but its monotony is apt to fatigue, for its eternal refrain makes it seem an affectation of gaiety, whence probably the French proverb, Gai comme un pinson.

Fig. 231.—The Chaffinch (Fringilla, Gesner).

Fig. 232.—Canaries (Carduelis canaria, Wood).

The Canaries (Fringilla canaria, Linn.), are only known by us as cage-birds, where they are recognised by their yellow plumage, more or less varied with green, although the facility with which they breed with the Linnet, Goldfinch, and others of the group, has introduced great varieties of colouring. Originally from the Canary Islands, they were first imported into Europe in the fifteenth century, and such was the charm of their song, added to their natural docility and gay plumage, that every one was eager to possess them. Buffon says, in his elegant manner, that if the Nightingale is the songster of the woods, the Canary is the chamber musician. Their race propagates, moreover, so rapidly that the poorest can afford to possess them; for these elegant little creatures are to be found among every grade of society, pouring out their joyous melody in the garret of the poor workman with as much energy as in the gorgeous saloons of the wealthy.

Fig. 233.—Whidah Finch, or Widow Birds (Emberiza paradisea, Linn.).

There are two distinct species of the Canary, the Plain and Variegated, or, as the bird-fanciers designate them, the Mealy, or Spangled, and Jonquils; but between these innumerable varieties have sprung up from cross-breeding with the Goldfinch, Linnet, and Siskin. These cross-breeds are often charming songsters; but, like all mules, they are completely sterile. Bechstein is of opinion that our Domestic Canary has a cross of the Siskin in it: this belief for a long time existed, but most naturalists now are of opinion that the Siskin belongs to a different genus.

The Widow Birds, or Whidah Finches (Vidua, Sw.), [Fig. 233], are among the most remarkable of the hard-billed, seed-eating birds to which they belong. The long, drooping tail feathers which adorn the males in the breeding season give them a very singular appearance. The upper part of their plumage is of a faded blackish brown, assuming a paler hue on the wings and lateral tail feathers. The whole body is tinged with this faded black, gradually narrowing as it descends to the middle of the breast; a broad, rich orange-brown collar proceeds from the back of the neck, uniting with a tinge of the same colour on the sides of the breast, this last hue passing into the pale buff colour of the body, abdomen, and thighs, and the under tail coverts being of the same colour as the upper ones—a hue to which the bird is indebted for its popular and scientific name. The tail feathers are black; the four lateral ones on each side slightly graduated, and rather longer than the one immediately above. The next two are the long, drooping feathers, externally convex, so conspicuous in the male bird, which, in fine specimens, measure a foot in length from base, and about three-quarters of an inch in width. The body of the bird is about the size of a Canary. They are natives of South Africa and Senegal.

Near to the Widow Birds in the system we may place the Java Sparrow, Rice Bird, or Paddee Bird of the East Indies and Eastern Archipelago (Fringilla oryzivora, Sw.), [Fig. 234]. They are eagerly sought for as pets, in consequence of their brilliant plumage, and the facility with which they learn innumerable tricks.

The Weaver Birds (Ploceus, Cuvier) close the series of Fringillidæ. They live in flocks in the interior of Africa, where they feed on the cereals and the young of weaker birds. They chirp, but have no song; and they owe their name to the inimitable art which they display in constructing their nests. These vary in form according to the species, and are composed of grass, rushes, and straw. They are usually suspended from the branches of a tree, the entrance being below. Sometimes they are spiral-shaped, occasionally round; in fact, they are of every imaginable outline. Mr. Swainson describes the nest of a species of Loxia built on a branch extending over a river or a pool of water, shaped like a chemist's retort suspended from the head, while the shank was eight or ten inches long, at the bottom of which was the entrance, all but touching the water.

Fig. 234.—Java Sparrows, or Rice Birds (Loxia oryzivora, Linn.).

Another species of the Ploceinæ construct their nests in a clump under one roof or cover, each nest having a separate entrance on the under side, but not communicating with that next it. Another variety is said each year to attach a new nest to that of the previous year, and nothing is more picturesque than these groups of nests thus suspended to the branches of a tree.

But the most curious of birds, in respect to nidification, are the Republican Weaver Birds (Loxia socia, Latham). These establish themselves, to the number of five or six hundred, upon the same tree, constructing their nests under a common roof, the one backing against the other, like the cells of a bee-hive, all living together in the happiest manner.

The Buntings (Emberizidæ) are intimately associated with the Passerine birds. They are characterised by a short, stout, conical bill, the upper mandible narrower than the lower, its dorsal outline nearly straight, sides convex, edges inflected, the tip acute; the lower mandible has the angle short, broad, and rounded. In the palate is a hard, bony knob to bruise the seed which forms their principal food. Their general habitat is the fields and hedges upon the margin of woods; some few species haunt the banks of rivers. They build their nests on the ground, or on low bushes, and in this they deposit four or five eggs. The young, when hatched, are blue. Their plumage is deficient in brilliancy, but their song is not without attractions. In autumn, when they leave the colder regions to go south, fattened with the rich produce of the harvest-fields, they have a rich, delicate flavour, and are then in France eagerly sought after for the table, and frequently brought to market along with Larks and Ortolans.

Fig. 235.—The Reed Bunting (Emberiza schœniclus, Yarrell).

Fig. 236.—The Cirl Bunting (Emberiza cirlus, Yarrell).

The Buntings are divided into the Buntings properly so called, in which the claw of the back toe is short and hooked, and the Spurred or Lark Buntings (Plectrophanes, Meyer), in which it is long, straight, compressed, and slightly arched. To the first of these divisions belongs the Reed Bunting (Emberiza schœniclus, McGillivray), [Fig. 235], which may be considered the type of the group, and is a constant resident all the year round in France and England, but migratory in Scotland and other northern countries.

The Cirl Bunting (E. cirlus), [Fig. 236], on the other hand, although found in Devon and Cornwall, and other parts of England, is only plentiful in the southern parts of Europe, and does not migrate into the colder regions.

Fig. 237.—The Ortolan Bunting (Emberiza hortulana, McGillivray).

The Ortolan Bunting (E. hortulana, Yarrell), [Fig. 237], so well known to gourmets and pot-hunters of Southern Europe, migrates periodically. Some have been found in various parts of England, but they were evidently stragglers, driven there by accidental circumstances. They abound on the northern shores of the Mediterranean, in Western Central Asia, in France, and as far north as Norway, where they are known to breed. Their favourite resorts, according to Meyer, are the borders of woods, hedges, and fields, near a water-course, clothed with low willows and bushes. They are very shy: still great numbers are captured in nets, when they are kept in confinement, and crammed for the table.

The Snow Bunting (Plectrophanes nivalis, Gould) rarely shows itself in France, and Montagu describes them as rare in England, but McGillivray found them in considerable flocks all over Scotland, from the Outer Hebrides to the Lothians. On the 4th of August, 1830, being on the summit of Ben-na-muic-dhu, one of the loftiest mountains in Scotland, he observed a beautiful male flitting about in the neighbourhood of a drift of snow, and some days after, in descending from Lochnagar on a botanising expedition, he noticed a flock of eight individuals flying about among the granite rocks of a corry, evidently a family. "It is, therefore," he thinks, "very probable that it breeds on the higher Grampians."

The Conirostral Passerines include the family of Paridæ, or Tits. The Titmice, as they are sometimes called, are small birds, seldom attaining the size of the Common Sparrow. Their general form is moderately full, the head large in proportion, and broadly ovate. Their bill is straight, short, and tapering, furnished with hairs at the base, but their individuality is distinguished by their specific peculiarities rather than by physiognomy. A characteristic feature is their audacity, almost approaching to impudence, and their courage, the instinctive result of their sociability. These qualities secure for them a well-defined place in the group under consideration.

Who discovers the Owl during the day? Who besieges him with its clamours? Who pursues him with unintermitting blows of his bill? Who rouses the whole tribe of small birds against the nocturnal tyrant? It is the Titmouse. Bellicose as bird can be, it gives full scope to its most warlike instincts whenever a suitable occasion presents itself, its want of physical power being compensated for by the vigour of its assault. The Tit is, indeed, the incarnation of motion; it is continually on the qui vive, skipping from branch to branch, at one moment piercing the crevices of the bark with its bill in search of food, the next hanging suspended from a branch, to which it clings with its claws, while it picks off the insects which occupy the lower surface of the leaves.

Nevertheless, it varies its food according to seasons and circumstances. Not only does it devour all kinds of insects, not excepting wasps and bees, but even cereals and fruits. It is even carnivorous, for it has been known to kill weak or sickly birds in order to devour them. Some species have a most unnatural partiality for grease, and devour it whenever opportunity offers. They are sociable birds, inhabiting thickets or woods, living in flocks the greater part of the year, and showing strong attachment to each other, so that a flock of them will suffer themselves to be decimated, and even altogether destroyed, rather than desert a wounded companion. In the spring they pair, and each isolated couple now seek out a suitable place in which they may rear their future progeny.

The position of the nest varies with the species. The Great Tit, or Oxeye (Parus major, Selborne), builds in the hole of some wall, or in a cavity formed in a decayed tree. It is usually composed of moss, hair, and feathers. The Blue Tit (P. cæruleus, Selborne) occasionally builds its nest in very insecure places. Mr. Duncan, one of Mr. McGillivray's correspondents, in a MS. note now before us, says, "In the year 1836 I discovered the nest of a pair of Blue Tits in the shaft of a pump well, which was drenched and partly carried away every time water was drawn; still they persevered in building. Gladly would I have left them there, but they kept the water in a continually muddy state, and their removal became absolutely necessary." The Coal Tit (P. ater, Selborne) chooses the crevice of a wall or decayed tree. So does the Marsh Tit (P. palustris, Selborne). The Crested Tit (P. cristatus, Selborne), [Fig. 238], is a retiring, solitary little bird, provided with plumage both brilliant and beautifully blended. They are rarely seen in England, but several flocks are recorded as appearing in Scotland. They are said to breed annually in plantations near Glasgow, in the forest of Glenmore, and near the Spey two were killed in 1836. In the North of Ireland, in autumn, they are not uncommon wherever plantations of larch trees are to be found. Their nest, according to Temminck, occurs in holes of trees, the oak being preferred, in rocks, or in a deserted Crow's or Squirrel's nest.

The nest of the Long-tailed Tit, or Mufflin (P. caudatus), is, perhaps, the most skilful specimen of construction. It is oval in form, and has two openings, one for entrance, the other for exit—an arrangement which the long tail of the bird renders necessary. This singular bird—the most diminutive of our birds except the Kinglets—differs from the Tits in its softer and more bulky plumage and tail. Its flight is undulating and rapid; its long tail and body muffled up to the chin in dense plumage giving the observer the idea of an arrow flying through the air.

The Tits abound throughout Europe, and are also found in America; some of them remaining all the year with us, although they are all birds of passage.

Fig. 238.—The Crested Tit (Parus cristatus, Selborne).

The Larks (Alaudinæ) complete the Conirostral Passerinæ. They are distinguished by the great muscularity of their gizzard, and their elongated and slightly-curved claws, which are sometimes longer than the toe itself, indicative of a ground-bird; in short, they pass their lives on the ground, in the bosom of great grassy plains, or soaring in the air. This family renders eminent service to agriculturists by the enormous quantity of worms, caterpillars, and grasshoppers it daily devours.

The Lark builds its nest in a furrow, or between two clods of earth, without much skill it is true, but with sufficient intelligence to know that it is necessary it should be concealed. Here it lays four or five eggs, spotted or freckled; in favourable seasons three sets of eggs in the year are sometimes hatched. The young birds break the shell after fifteen days' incubation, and are in a condition to leave their cradle at the end of fifteen more; but the mother still continues her surveillance, guides their steps, satisfies their wants, and continually hovers near them until the demands of another brood take her away, when they are abandoned to themselves, being now so fully fledged as no longer to require maternal care.

Fig. 239.—The Crested Lark (Alauda cristata, Linn.).

The Lark is the living emblem of happy, peaceful labour, the songster of the cultivated earth. In the early dawn the male bird rises aloft, and with soaring wing fills the air with his joyous notes, and calls the husbandman to his labour. Higher and higher he mounts, until he is lost to sight; but his voice is still heard. The song is significant; it is the hymn of good fellowship—a call to all the dwellers of the plain.

The season of incubation over, the Larks assemble in numerous flocks, having now only their food to think of; and that being plentiful, they soon get plump and fat. In countries like France this is the signal for their destruction, for persons assemble from all quarters to make a razzia on these valuable innocents, using every means to accomplish their work of death; and unless the legislature interfere in their behalf by passing laws for their preservation, it will finish probably by exterminating the race.

Taking Larks by means of a mirror is a ruse based upon the natural curiosity of this species, which leads it irresistibly towards any reflected light. The slaughterer places a glass, or any object that will reflect the sun's rays, in a field, concealing himself in its neighbourhood. The Larks, attracted by the light, come within reach of his blows, and fall around the mirror, undismayed by the fate of their companions.

In this family the only species which lives in confinement is the Sky-lark, and that only by very great care. It sings unceasingly in a cage, and even imitates the song of other birds. Larks are found all over the Old World, especially in Europe and Asia. The principal species are the Sky-lark (Alauda arvensis), the Crested Lark (Alauda cristata), the Wood Lark (Alauda arborea), and the Shore Lark (Alauda alpestris).

The Crested Lark (Alauda cristata), [Fig. 239], abounds on the continent of Europe, but is rare in this country, one or two specimens only being recorded. It is migratory, moving northward in spring, and again toward the south on the approach of winter. It is a handsome bird, about the size and appearance of the Sky-lark, having a few feathers on the crown forming a crest pointing backwards.