Reptiles and Birds / A Popular Account of Their Various Orders, With a Description of the Habits and Economy of the Most Interesting

by Louis Figuier

Sea Eagles.

Their name, Pythargus, which is derived from the Greek, means "white-tail." They generally frequent the sea-shore, where they feed on fish and aquatic birds; they sometimes also catch small mammals, and even devour putrefied flesh. Their claws are very powerful, and the strength of their vision is so great, that they can see their aquatic prey swimming under the surface of the water. The rapidity with which they descend through the air when striking at their quarry is so wonderful that many have compared it to lightning. They even venture to attack the Seal, but as they cannot lift their victim, they cling to its back, forcing it on shore by means of their wings. But this excess of boldness has been known to be fatal to them; large Seals are strong enough to dive and drag their foe under water, where the Eagle meets with a miserable death; for, having buried its claws deeply in its prey, it is often impossible for it to disengage itself.

Fig. 282.—American Sea Eagles (Haliæëtus leucocephalus).

Sea Eagles hunt in the night as well as day. They attack sea-birds weaker than themselves, and pursue them to take possession of their prey. They are indefatigable in pursuit of Vultures, which they make disgorge, and afterwards appropriate the results. Audubon observed, on the shores of the Mississippi, a Sea Eagle pursuing a Vulture which had just swallowed some intestine. Part of this protruded from the Vulture's bill; the Sea Eagle seized it, and forced the original possessor to give it up.

The Sea Eagle of Europe lives in the coldest regions of the globe. It is common in Sweden and Norway, where it builds. Its aerie is about two yards wide, and is generally situated in the forests bordering on the sea or great lakes. It visits the French coasts in the autumn, following flocks of Geese which are migrating to the South; and it is again seen in the spring, on its return to the North. In Russia the special conditions of existence somewhat modify the habits of this bird, where, living in the midst of the vast steppes, it feeds, not on fish, for it is unprocurable, but on small quadrupeds, birds, and carrion. This bird nearly attains to the size of the Golden Eagle.

The Bald Eagle, White-headed Eagle, or Sea Eagle ([Fig. 282]), is a native of North America. It builds its nest on the summit of the highest trees. Its flight is as powerful as that of the Golden Eagle, and its strength and adroitness are even greater.

This Eagle (Haliæëtus leucocephalus, Vig.) is represented on the flag of the United States. The illustrious Franklin with sorrow regretted the selection his nation had made.

"It is a bird of low and evil nature," wrote Franklin in one of his letters; "it does not know how to gain its livelihood honestly. Added to this, it is nothing but a cowardly rogue. The little Wren, which is not so large as a Sparrow, resolutely attacks it, and drives it from its haunts! Thus in no point of view is it a suitable emblem for a brave and honourable nation."

The varieties of this family are numerous on the North American continent, but the distinctions are not sufficiently great to deserve particular notice. Those from other portions of the globe most worthy of attention are the Marine Eagle (Pandion ichthyaëtus), which inhabits Java; the Piscivorous Sea Eagle (Cuncuma vocifer); the Caffir Sea Eagle, discovered in Africa by Levaillant; the Sea Eagle of Mace (C. Macei); and the Pondicherry Eagle, called by some the Sea Eagle of India, which inhabits India and Bengal, where the bird is an object of veneration among the Brahmins, being consecrated to Vishnu.

We shall class with the same genus the Osprey ([Fig. 283]), which, although different from Sea Eagles in certain details of organisation, is, however, allied to them by its aquatic habits.

It prefers the neighbourhood of ponds and rivers to the sea-shore, where it is frequently mistaken for the Sea Eagle. Wild fowl and carrion are frequently its food, but fish forms the principal portion of its diet. It does not always enjoy the fruit of its labour, for the Sea Eagle frequently forces it to abandon its prey, which, if dropped in the air, will be adroitly reseized by the robber in its descent.

Fig. 283.—The Osprey (Pandion haliæëtus).

The old naturalists, Aldrovandus, Gesner, Klein, and Linnæus sanctioned a singular error concerning the organisation of this bird. From the fact that it sometimes dives into the water to catch fish, they imagined that it had one foot webbed for swimming, and the other furnished with prehensile claws for seizing prey. The River Osprey is about a third smaller than the Sea Eagle. It is found all over Europe, but especially in Germany, Switzerland, and the East of France.

The birds which form part of the genus Morphnus (Cuv.) occupy a middle position between Eagles and Sparrow-hawks, of which we shall speak further on. They are characterised by a full and rounded tail, comparatively short wings, and the existence of a tuft on the back of the head. This latter feature, although general, is not, however, common to all the species.

These birds generally inhabit the vast forests of Africa and South America. They are admirably organised for strife and slaughter, and are the terror of every creature in their neighbourhood.

The Huppart (Falco occipitalis, Daudin), thus named on account of its huppe, or tuft, which is about six inches long, is a native of Africa, and feeds on Hares, Ducks, and Partridges. It also pursues Crows, for which it feels a deadly hatred; as these birds sometimes league together to deprive it of its prey, and even to devour its brood. It will not suffer any rival in its domain, but accords protection to small birds which come near to its nest to seek a shelter from the attacks of inferior birds of prey.

The Falco urubitinga (Gmelin) inhabits Brazil and Guiana; it is eminently wild and taciturn, and builds its nest in the vicinity of marshes. It feeds on birds, small mammals, reptiles, and even fish.

The Harpy, or Destructive Eagle of South America (Harpyia destructor, Cuv.), [Fig. 284], is the model species of the genus. It is the most formidable of the whole tribe of Eagles; for it is larger, measuring nearly five feet from the extremity of the head to that of the tail; its bill is more than two inches in length; and its claws and toes are longer and more robust than the fingers of a man. It is rumoured that the Harpy does not fear to attack carnivora of large size, and even men. Two or three blows from its bill are sufficient to break its victim's skull. In order to render these assertions worthy of belief they should be confirmed by those who have enjoyed opportunities for observation.

Be this as it may, there is no doubt that Harpies are endowed with extraordinary strength. D'Orbigny relates that at the time of an exploring expedition on the banks of the Rio Securia, in Bolivia, he met with a Harpy of large size. The Indians who accompanied him pursued it, pierced it with two arrows, and gave it numerous blows on the head. At length, thinking it was dead, they plucked off the greater part of its feathers, and even the down also, placing it afterwards in their canoe. What was the surprise of the naturalist when the bird recovered from its stupefaction, darted upon him, and burying its claws in his arm, inflicted most dangerous wounds! The interference of the Indians was necessary in order to rid him of his antagonist.

Fig. 284.—The Harpy (Harpyia destructor, Cuv.).

The Harpy inhabits the great forests of South America situated on the banks of the rivers. Its food consists of agoutis, fawns, sloths, and especially monkeys.

The Indians, who highly estimate warlike qualities, hold this bird in great respect, and consider it most valuable. Its tail and wing feathers they use to adorn themselves with on state occasions.

The White-bellied Eagle (Cuncuma leucogaster), so called because its plumage is white underneath, has points of similarity to the Eagle, the Sea Eagle, and the River Osprey. It is two feet in height, and its spread of wings is five feet. It is very common all over Europe, and is only too well known to the villagers on whose poultry-yards it frequently leaves heavy tax. It also feeds on moles, field-mice, reptiles, adders, and sometimes insects. It bears captivity very well. Buffon reared one which became tolerably familiar, but never showed the least affection for those who tended it.

Falcons (from falx, a reaping-hook) are marvellously organised for rapine, and realise the ideal of a bird of prey. They have a short bill, bent from the base, with a very strong tooth on each side of the upper mandible, with which an indentation corresponds in the lower portion. The wings of this bird are long and pointed, causing its flight to be at once powerful, rapid, and agile. Its tarsi are short, and its claws hooked and sharp. When we add to all this a most penetrating vision and enormous strength, it will easily be understood that these birds inspire terror wherever they go. They feed only on living prey—birds or small mammals—which they often instantaneously kill and carry off to eat elsewhere. They always hunt on the wing. They assemble in flocks at the time of migration to follow the birds of passage. At other times they live in solitary couples, and build their nest, according to the locality, in woods, cliffs, holes in quarries, or in ruined habitations, and sometimes even in the interior of towns. They lay from two to four eggs.

We shall divide the Falcon genus into two groups: Gyrfalcons, characterised by tails longer than their wings; and Falcons proper, which have the wings as long, and sometimes longer, than the tail.

The group of Gyrfalcons, or Jerfalcons, comprehends the Gyrfalcon proper, the Lanner Falcon (Falco lannarius), and the Sacred Falcon.

The Egyptians venerated the Falcon, and to this circumstance the name of Gyrfalcon must be attributed, as it is a corruption of Hierofalco, or Sacred Falcon.

The Gyrfalcon is the best-proportioned and most active member of the Falcon tribe. In strength it even rivals the Eagle itself, although it is hardly two feet in height. Its colour varies with its age. When young it is of a beautiful brown tint, but becomes almost white with age. It inhabits the Arctic regions, where it feeds on large birds, principally Gallinaceæ or Palmipedes.

Fig. 285.—Sultan Falcons (F. peregrinator).

Three varieties of this species are known, all very similar to each other: the White Falcon, called by Buffon the White Gyrfalcon of the North, which inhabits the extreme north of the two continents; the Falco islandicus, or Gyrfalcon of Iceland, peculiar to that country; and the Gyrfalcon of Norway, which is found in Scandinavia, and sometimes appears in Germany, Holland, and France.

The first two of these are very docile, and consequently were eagerly sought after by falconers, who used them for pursuing the Heron, Crane, and Stork. An ancient Danish law, which was repealed in 1758, forbade, under pain of death, the destruction of these birds.

The Lanner Falcon (Buffon) is about the same size as the White Gyrfalcon; it is found in Hungary, Russia, Styria, and Greece, where it makes its appearance after the arrival of the birds of passage. It is also easily trained for hawking.

Fig. 286.—Peregrine Falcon (F. peregrinus).

The Sultan Falcon (F. peregrinator), [Fig. 285], is larger than the preceding species. It is found in Germany and Southern Russia, Turkey, and Asia Minor.

In the first rank of Falcons proper must be mentioned the Peregrine Falcon ([Fig. 286]), often designated by the names of the Common Falcon and the Passenger Falcon. As its name sufficiently indicates, it is a bird of passage. It is common in the centre and north of Western Europe, as well as in the islands of the Mediterranean. It also inhabits North America, where it is frequently called the Chicken-eater.

The flight of the Peregrine Falcon is wonderfully rapid. One of these birds having escaped from the falconry of Henri II., it is said that it performed the whole distance from Fontainebleau to Malta in one day, over three hundred leagues. It hovers in the air with graceful facility, and when it marks a victim, darts upon it with extraordinary rapidity, courage, and ferocity.

The Falcon feeds principally on aquatic birds, Pigeons, Partridges, and Larks. So great is its courage that it has been known to pursue the latter into the nets of the bird-catcher. If compelled, it will eat dead fish, as was observed by Audubon on the banks of the Mississippi; but this latter circumstance is excessively rare. This bird possesses little dread of man, for it sometimes has the audacity to swoop upon the game which the sportsman has killed, and not unfrequently succeeds in carrying it off. One of these birds established itself, some years ago, on the towers of Notre-Dame, in Paris, and every day captured several of the tame Pigeons which fly at liberty in the city. This continued for a month, and was only put a stop to by the proprietors of the Pigeons keeping their pets shut up. Thus deprived of its means of existence, the Falcon soon disappeared.

Notwithstanding the magnificent powers of flight of the Peregrine Falcon, it is not always successful in its forays. Naumann narrates that he saw a Pigeon pursued by one of these destroyers throw itself into a lake, dive down, and shortly after emerge in another part, thus baffling its enemy. When a Pigeon is harassed by a Falcon it endeavours to mount above its enemy; if it succeeds in this it is saved, for the Falcon becomes fatigued, and gives up the pursuit.

Large Ravens are inveterate enemies of the Peregrine Falcon. They have frequent fights, in which the former sometimes prove the conquerors. A Raven has been known to break the skull of a Falcon with a blow of its bill.

The Falcon is gifted with a more remarkable degree of longevity than even the Eagle. It is reported that in 1797, at the Cape of Good Hope, a Falcon was caught which showed no signs of decrepitude, and which had on a golden collar with an inscription stating that in 1610 it belonged to James I., King of England; it was therefore over one hundred and eighty-seven years old.

Fig. 287.—The Hobby (Hypobuorchis subbuteo).

The parent birds exhibit the greatest solicitude for their young until able to provide for themselves: when that stage of maturity arrives they are driven forth.

Fig. 288.—Merlins (H. Æsalon).

The Peregrine Falcon is found among the cliffs of Normandy.

There are other species of Falcons smaller than the preceding. They are only distinguished from them by their size; their habits are identical, except that they prey on smaller birds, such as Quails, Larks, Swallows, and sometimes insects. These species are: the Hobby ([Fig. 287]), which is found all over Europe, and also in Africa—it is about a foot in height; the Merlin ([Fig. 288]), which is not much larger than a Thrush, and in summer inhabits the North, and in winter the South, of Europe; the Kestrel ([Fig. 289]), which owes its name to its sharp cry—it is thirteen inches in height, and is common in the centre of Europe; lastly, the Bengal Falcon (Terax cærulescens), which is a native of India and Java—this is the smallest of all birds of prey. Several other varieties of Falcon, which do not present any remarkable peculiarity, are met with both in Africa and America.

Fig. 289.—Kestrel (Tinnunculus alaudarius).

The name of Falcon is still associated with the sport of hawking or falconry, of which we are about to speak.

Falconry, the art of training or flying hawks to take other birds, was formerly held in high esteem in the various countries of Europe. In consequence of the invention of fire-arms, after having been for centuries the delight of kings and nobles, it fell into disuse. The Arabs and other Asiatic nations adhere to it to the present day. This sport may be traced back to a very remote period, for Aristotle, and subsequently Pliny, make mention of it. Falconry was introduced into Europe about the fourth century of our era, and was at its greatest repute in the Middle Ages and during the Renaissance. All the nobility, from the monarch to the lowest courtier, were passionately fond of hawking—the name specially applied to it. Sovereigns and noblemen expended princely sums upon it. The gift of a few fine Falcons was considered a magnificent present. The kings of France solemnly received twelve Falcons every year, which were given to them by the grand-master of the Order of St. John of Jerusalem. They were intrusted on their voyage to a French knight of the order, to whom the monarch accorded, under the name of a present, a sum of £3,000, and the expenses of his journey.

Gentlemen, and even ladies, of the Middle Ages, seldom appeared in public without a Falcon on their wrists; and this example was followed by bishops and abbots—they entered the churches supporting their favourite birds, depositing them on the steps of the altar during mass. Noblemen on public ceremonies proudly held their Falcons in one hand and the hilt of their sword in the other.

Louis XIII. was devoted to falconry. Daily he went hawking before going to church; and his favourite, Albert de Luynes, owed his fortune to his great skill in this science. Charles d'Arcussia of Capri, Lord of Esparron, published, in 1615, a "Treatise on Falconry," in which it is stated that the Baron de la Chastaigneraie, chief falconer of France under Louis XIII., purchased his office at a cost of fifty thousand crowns. He had the direction of one hundred and forty birds, which required the assistance of a staff of one hundred men for their care.

This kind of sport has almost totally disappeared; a revival of it in England and Germany has taken place, but only with moderate success. For this purpose a society, called the "Hawking Club," meets together every year in a dependency of the royal castle of Loo, under the presidency of the King of the Netherlands, to fly the Heron. They take from one to two hundred of these birds in the space of two months; but this is only a feeble resuscitation of an institution which has now practically passed away.

Falcons were formerly divided into birds of the noble and inferior grades. The former comprehended the Gyrfalcon, the Falcon, the Hobby, the Merlin, and the Kestrel; the latter, the Goshawk and Sparrow-hawk. The name of Goshawk training has been given to the art whose special end was the education of these last two birds. As the mode of education varies little for all these birds, which only differ in docility, we shall merely consider one species, that of the Falcon, which will serve as a type for all the others.

The Falcons destined for training must be captured young. Those that have been providing their own food, and have nearly reached maturity, are taken with a lure, which is generally a Pigeon. Young birds which have just left the nest are called eyases; when rather more mature, branchers; that is to say, birds about three months old, strong enough to hop from branch to branch, but incapable of flying or providing for their own subsistence. The latter are preferable to all others, as they are not so young as to require the care necessary to the eyas, and are yet not old enough to have become intractable. At a year old it would be nearly useless to attempt their education; they are then called haggards.

The Falcon being naturally wild, violent, and alike insensible to caresses and chastisements, it can only be tamed by privations, such as want of light, sleep, and food, and also by constantly being cared for by the same person. This is the foundation of the method which the falconer practises.

Fig. 290.—Bewits.

Fig. 291.—Hood.

Fig. 292.—Dressed Falcon.

Supposing that a brancher has been caught, its legs are first made fast in the shackles, or benits ([Fig. 290]), made of straps of supple leather, terminated by bells. Then the falconer, his hand covered with a glove, takes the Falcon on his wrist, and carries it about night and day, without allowing it rest. If the pupil is intractable, refuses to submit, and tries to use its bill, the tamer plunges its head into cold water, and thus produces stupor in the bird. Afterwards the head is covered with a hood ([Fig. 291]), which keeps it in complete darkness. Alter three days and nights of this treatment, rarely more, the bird becomes, to a certain extent, docile. The falconer then accustoms it to take its food quietly; this is presented in the hand, while at the same time a peculiar noise is made, which it learns to recognise as a call. In the meantime it is carried about in frequented places, so as to familiarise it with strangers, and also with horses and dogs, which are to be at some future time its companions in the chase. When an obstinate bird is dealt with its appetite is excited, so as to render it more dependent; with this view it is made to swallow small pellets of tow mixed up with garlic and wormwood. These pellets have the effect of increasing its hunger; and the pleasure which it afterwards experiences in eating tends to attach it more closely to the individual who feeds it.

In a general way, after five or six days of restraint the Falcon is tamed, and the falconer can then proceed with the training, to which the former practices are nothing but preliminaries.

The bird is taken into a garden, and taught to hop up on the fist when called; a piece of meat is shown to entice it, which is not given to the bird until the requisite manœuvre is properly executed. The meat is then fastened to a lure, or decoy, and the same course is adopted, the bird being attached to the end of a string from ten to forty yards in length. The lure ([Fig. 293]) is a flat piece of wood, covered on both sides with the wings and feet of a Pigeon. The Falcon is uncovered, and the lure is shown to it at a short distance off, and at the same time a call is given. If the bird stoops upon the lure it is allowed to take the meat which is attached to it. The distance is progressively increased, and the Falcon is recompensed for its docility on each occasion. When, at the full length of the string, it will obey the call, a great point is gained, for it fully recognises the lure, and knows that the meat attached will become its own on returning to its master. Then the falconer no longer fears it becoming free, for he well knows he can reclaim it; that is, make it settle down upon his fist, even when the bird is flying in the air.

Afterwards it is introduced to living game by letting it fly at tied Pigeons; and, lastly, its education is completed by habituating it to stoop on the special game which it is intended to chase.

Supposing the game it is destined for pursuing to be the Partridge, in the first place, the Pigeon's wings on the lure are replaced by those of the Partridge, and then the Falcon is let fly in succession, first at Partridges tied to a string, and then at liberated birds. When it binds its prey well, and shows itself obedient, it is employed on wild game.

Birds of prey used to be educated for taking the Kite, the Heron, the Crow, the Magpie, the Hare, Partridges, Quails, and Pheasants; also Wild Ducks and other aquatic birds.

The pursuit of the Kite, the Heron, the Crow, and the Magpie, the profit of which was absolutely nothing, was looked upon as a sport fit for princes, and was carried on by means of the Falcon and Gyrfalcon. But the chase of other birds, in which the inducement was a prey fit for food, was considered the sport of an esquire; and for this were used the Hobby (Hobereau, French), the Merlin, the Kestrel, the Goshawk, and the Sparrow-hawk. Hence comes the nickname of Hobereau applied to French country gentlemen; "because," as Lacurne de Sainte-Palaye says, "they wish to show an appearance of more property than they really possess; and not being able to keep Falcons, which cost too much in their purchase and food, they hawk with Hobbies, which are readily procured, and also provide Partridges and Quails for their kitchens."

Fig. 293.—The Lure.

The most noble cast, but also the rarest, was that at the Kite. We have already mentioned, when speaking of nocturnal birds of prey, how at one time they were in the habit of alluring this bird by means of a Great (Long-eared) Owl, dressed out with a fox's brush. Some stratagem of this kind was obliged to be used in order to get near the Kite, which flies at heights altogether inaccessible to the best Falcon. When the Kite came within range a Falcon was let fly, and then a most interesting conflict took place between the two birds. The Kite, harassed by its enemy, and, in spite of its turns and twists and numberless feints, unable to escape him, generally in the end fell into its foe's clutches.

The cast at a Heron generally presented fewer incidents. This bird, from not being gifted with the same powers of wing, was unavoidably overtaken with much greater ease, although, when not overloaded with food, it occasionally managed to escape. Still it always defended itself with energy, and the blows of its formidable bill were often fatal to its pursuer. In Heron hawking ([Fig. 294]) a dog was required to flush the game, and three Falcons to capture it: the duty of the first was to make the quarry rise, of the second to follow it, and of the third to clutch it. We shall quote from an ancient author of a "Treatise on Falconry" the account of a cast at a Heron; the description will well explain the details of this kind of sport.

Fig. 294.—Heron Hawking.

"Now riding fast, we soon came by the side of the meadows adjoining the warren, where the 'markers' of M. de Ligné discovered three Herons, and at once came to tell him of it. Making up his mind to attack them, the Sieur de Ligné did me the favour of giving me a white Gyrfalcon, named 'La Perle,' to let fly; he himself took another, called 'Le Gentilhomme,' and one of his people took a third, named 'Le Pinson.' When the Herons heard us approach they became alarmed, and took wing while we were yet some distance off; seeing this, we let fly the birds, which were some time before they perceived the quarry. At last one of the Hawks caught sight of them, and went in pursuit. The two others immediately followed with so much ardour and speed that in a very short time they had all reached the Herons, and were attacking one, which defended itself; but it was so roughly treated that it could not make much resistance, and was soon taken. Whilst the Falcons were having their pleasure with it (that is, whilst the quarry was being given them), the other Herons, frightened at seeing their companion so badly treated, kept on rising in the direction of the sun, hoping to shelter themselves in its glare. But they were descried; M. de Ligné told me of this, saying, 'I can see the two Herons up above still rising. I give you one as your share.' On which, seeing them at such an immense height, I replied that the Falcons would have great difficulty in getting at them. Then he let fly his bird, we doing likewise, and they all vied with one another in soaring upwards, using such diligence that soon we saw them almost as high up as one of the Herons. Having first made an effort and got above their prey, they commenced to deal it such a shower of blows that it seemed stupefied, and flew down to gain the shelter of the woods. We rode forward to bring the hounds to the assistance of the Falcons, and were just in time; for the Heron had thrown itself into a thicket, in which we captured it alive, although taken from the mouth of one of the dogs. Giving this bird to the Falcons, we mounted our horses again to let fly after another."

The casts at the Crow and the Magpie were also very amusing. These birds would try at first to escape by means of speed, and then, recognising the uselessness of their efforts, they afterwards took refuge in a tree, from which the falconers had much trouble to drive them, so great was their terror for their pursuers.

For field and river sport the Falcon is not let fly direct from the fist; that is, the Falcon does not attack immediately on leaving the hand—it is thrown up, or, in common parlance, is let fly, before the game flushes. The Falcon hovers for some time, and then stoops down on the prey which the dogs have forced up. In order to escape its persecutor the Wild Duck often takes to the water; from this the dogs again force it to take wing. The Hare is hunted in much the same way.

Hawking is even nowadays held in high honour in the North of Africa and in Asia, being the favourite diversion of the Arabs. In the Sahara the Falcon is trained to hunt Pigeons, Partridges, Hares, Rabbits, and even the Gazelle.

In Persia and Turkestan the Falcon is not trained, as it used to be in Europe, for some special game; they accustom it to stoop on all kinds of prey. Hunting the gazelle with Hawks is a diversion much esteemed among these nations. The plan adopted is as follows:—

"The Persians," says Thévenot, the traveller, "provide stuffed Gazelles, on the noses of which they always place the food for their Falcons, and never feed them anywhere else. After they have been thus trained they take them out into the open country, and when they see a Gazelle they let fly two of these birds, one of which darts down on the nose of the Gazelle, and fastens on to it with its talons. The Gazelle stops short, and shakes himself to get rid of the bird; but the latter keeps his place for some time by means of flapping his wings, thus preventing the Gazelle from running fast, and even from seeing where it is going. When at last, with some trouble, the Gazelle disengages itself from its pursuer, the other Falcon, which is flying near, takes the place of the one thrown off; the latter, in its turn, again resumes the assault when its companion has fallen. The birds thus hinder the running of the Gazelle, so that the dogs easily overtake it."

In Egypt the Falcon is trained for this kind of sport by taking it young, limiting the quantity of its food, and then frequently bringing it into the presence of sheep: being in a famished state, the bird unhesitatingly darts on them.

Hawking is also held in high esteem in India, both by the natives and Europeans resident there. It is no rare thing to see young ladies reviving all the customs of the Middle Ages, and penetrating into the jungles mounted on elephants, accompanied by their Falcons, which are flown at the charming blue antelope.

In China and Japan hawking is also very popular: in the course of a day's journey it is no uncommon thing to meet persons pursuing this sport.

The birds which form the next family differ from the Falcon in having no teeth in the upper mandible of the bill; their tarsi, also, are longer, and their wings shorter. Their flight, too, is both less high and less rapid than that of the Falcon. They are found in all parts of the globe, presenting some slight modifications due to the influence of climate. They generally feed on small birds and reptiles, and exceptionally on very small mammals. They are divided into Goshawks proper and Sparrow-hawks.

There are various species of the Goshawk, all characterised by very strong tarsi, one only of which, the Common Goshawk, is a native of Europe.

Fig. 295.—Goshawks (Astur palumbarius).

Fig. 296.—Common Sparrow-hawk (Accipiter nisus).

The Common Goshawk ([Fig. 295]) is by no means rare in France and England. In summer it frequents the oak and beech woods which cover the mountain-sides, and sometimes ventures near habitations to carry off Fowls and Pigeons. At the commencement of autumn it descends into the plains, making its nest on the skirts of some extensive wood, from which it darts out upon Partridges, Grouse, or young Leverets, which form its principal food. It pursues Larks with such ardour that it often falls into the snares laid for these birds; but it will never attempt to get free from the trap until it has satiated its sanguinary appetite. When hunting for its prey it skims over the ground and bushes, carefully inspecting each. Should it perceive a victim, it approaches with caution until within striking distance, when it suddenly darts upon its prey with unerring precision. This bird is as large as the Gyrfalcon, but, although equal in cunning and address, is possessed of less courage.

The Goshawk is difficult to tame; its ferocious nature is not subdued by captivity. In 1850, a young one four months old, kept in the Botanical Garden of the Natural History Society of Savoy, killed with its claws and bill a Kite the same age as itself, which had been its companion for fifteen days. The young savage tore its victim to pieces and fed on the carcass, although it had not the least necessity for food, being perfectly well cared for.

The Common Goshawk is also found in the North of Africa. Two other species are known in North America.

The Sparrow-hawks are distinguished from the preceding birds by the slenderness of their tarsi. The Common Sparrow-hawk ([Fig. 296]) is found all over Europe. In France it is a constant resident. Although smaller, it has much the same habits as the Goshawk, but is bolder, and will carry off Partridges, or other small game, under the very hands of sportsmen or gamekeepers. It will even attack and devour Fowls and chickens in the poultry-yard, and so absorbed does it become in the enjoyment of its feast that a person may sometimes get sufficiently near to capture it. In the plains where game is abundant, Sparrow-hawks are very destructive, and consequently are seldom spared when within gunshot.

The Sparrow-hawk (Accipiter fringillarius of some authors) will become gentle and tame in captivity. Dr. Franklin mentions an instance of one of these birds, belonging to a friend of his, which lived with two Pigeons. This bird had succeeded in gaining the affection of all who knew it, and was, it is said, as playful as a cat.

Africa possesses two species of Sparrow-hawk: the Dwarf Sparrow-hawk (A. minullus), which does not exceed the Blackbird in size. As intrepid, although not so strong, as its European brother, it often ventures to attack Kites and Buzzards, and, by its agility, harasses them with impunity. The Chanting Falcon (Melierax musicus), which is about the size of the Goshawk, sings in the vicinity of the female during the season of incubation. It is the only musician among birds of the Rapacious order, and therefore has claim to honourable mention.

Fig. 297.—The Kite (Milvus regalis).

Both the Goshawks and the Sparrow-hawks were employed in hawking in days of old, but their relative value was much inferior to that of the Falcon.

The birds which belong to the Kite genus (Milvus) are characterised as follows:—Beak curved from the base, and not toothed; tarsi short, slender, and feathered on the upper part; wings very long; tail long, and more or less forked; colour generally brown. Several species are known, but their characteristics are identical.

The Kite (Milvus regalis), [Fig. 297], thus named on account of affording amusement for princes, who hunted it with the Falcon, and even the Sparrow-hawk, measures two feet in height, the spread of its wings being not less than five feet. Of all the Falcon tribe this bird is gifted with the most graceful, rapid, and sustained powers of flight. It is so incessantly on the wing, that it appears scarcely to require rest. Love for soaring through space must be the cause of this activity, as it never pursues its prey, but descends upon it from the prodigious heights at which it may be hovering with incredible velocity, and seizing it in its claws, bears it to some adjacent tree to be devoured. Its food consists of leverets, moles, rats, field-mice, reptiles, and fish—the latter it catches on the surface of the water. It builds its nest on lofty trees, rarely on rocks. It is a constant resident in some parts of France, and is met with in nearly all countries of Europe.

The Black Kite (Milvus niger) is very common in Russia, and has a particular penchant for fish. It is not, however, above assisting Vultures in devouring carrion, and may be seen hovering over the city of Moscow to pick up the fragments which are thrown into the streets. In autumn these Kites assemble in flocks, and, crossing the Black Sea, proceed to winter in Egypt, where they are so tame that they perch on the windows of the houses. In the spring they return to Europe.

The Parasite Kite (Milvus ægyptius) is thus named by Levaillant because his whole system of life seems to be at the expense of man, either by devastating his poultry-yards or robbing with extraordinary impudence travellers encamping in the open air. This celebrated naturalist relates that whenever he made a halt, some of these birds came and perched on his waggons for the purpose of stealing.

"At Cairo," says Dr. Petit, in the account of his travels in Abyssinia, "I one day saw a Kite snatch suddenly from the hands of an Arab woman a piece of bread and cheese, at the very moment she was raising it to her mouth. At Chizé, in Abyssinia, another Kite carried away, from under the very nose of my dog, which was guarding it, a portion of a sheep just killed. The same thing took place several times in view of my servants."

The same authority adds that these birds sometimes assemble in innumerable flocks; for he has seen thousands hovering over an Egyptian village.

The American Kite (Ictinia mississipiensis) is remarkable for its deeply-forked tail, which it uses as a rudder to guide it in flying, when it describes the most elegant curves; hence the name Forked-tail Pilot, which is sometimes given it. Essentially migratory, they may be seen in spring and autumn proceeding North or South. They are protected by law; for, aided by the Buzzards, they are of great service in clearing away garbage. They have no fear of water, and pounce upon fish when opportunity offers. In the harbours of the Southern States they may frequently be seen perched on carcasses floating in the tide-way.

The bill and claws of the Kite are weak in comparison with its size; it therefore wisely avoids coming in collision with birds of prey better armed than itself. This has been sufficient to give it the character of cowardice.

Kites are easily tamed, and if taken young they will soon become familiar.

Buzzards (Buteo) have long wings, a large head, and a rather squat figure; the tarsi are short, or of medium size; and the beak curved from the base; in fact, their appearance is heavy and ungraceful. They do not chase their prey when it is on the wing, but secrete themselves on a tree or other elevation, where they wait until a victim passes within reach. When thus occupied, they will remain for several hours in the most complete immobility, presenting an air of drowsiness which has become proverbial. This stupid look is owing to their nonchalant and apathetic attitude, and also to the weakness of their eyes, which are affected by the glare of strong light.

They generally build their nests on the loftiest trees, occasionally in thickets of brushwood growing among rocks. When frost occurs they approach settlements and make forays upon poultry. If pressed by hunger, they become excessively bold. Their general food consists of small birds, rodents, serpents, insects, and sometimes corn. They are easily tamed. M. Degland mentions one which lived in perfect harmony with a sporting dog, and even went so far as to share its food. Buffon also speaks of another which was so attached to its master that it could not be happy unless in his company; it was present at all his meals, when it would caress him with its head and bill; and, although this bird always enjoyed the most complete liberty, every evening it returned to roost on the window-sill. One day when its master was riding on horseback, it followed him for more than two leagues, hovering over him in the air.

Mr. Yarrell relates of these birds, which are much attached to their progeny, that in the town of Uxbridge a Buzzard kept in a domestic state having manifested a desire for building, the means were furnished, and two Hen's eggs placed under her. The young chickens were hatched and reared as if they had been her own. On another occasion, in order to save the trouble of sitting, some chickens just hatching were placed in her nest; these she killed, evidently feeling that she was not allied to them, by any maternal tie.

Fig. 298.—Common Buzzards (Buteo vulgaris).

The principal species are the Common Buzzard (Buteo vulgaris), [Fig. 298], which is found all over Europe—it was until lately very common in England; the Honey Buzzard (Pernis apivorus), a native of Eastern Europe—this bird is partial to bees, wasps, and their larvæ, of which its food principally consists—it will also eat grain, and, in a domestic state, fruit; and the Rough-legged Buzzard (Archibuteo lagopus), so called on account of the feathers which cover its tarsi down to the toes: it is a native of Europe, North Africa, Asia, and America. Ptarmigans are their principal food, and cold climates their favourite habitat.

The birds which belong to the Harrier genus are characterised by long and—slender tarsi, covered with feathers on the upper portion only, and also by a sort of collar formed of closely-planted feathers, which surrounds the neck and extends on each side to the ears. Marshy plains, and woods situated in the vicinity of rivers, are their most frequent resorts. They build their nests on the ground, or close to it, in the brushwood, and in this respect differ from most of the Falcon family. When searching for their prey they skim over the ground, and always seize it suddenly, as if by surprise: if the unfortunate is lucky enough to avoid the Harrier's onset it is safe from pursuit. In Europe the best-known species of this family are the Hen Harrier (Circus cyaneus) and the Moor Harrier (Circus æruginosus), [Fig. 299].

Fig. 299.—Moor Harrier (Circus æruginosus).

The former bird is about seventeen inches high; it inhabits all the countries of Europe, and feeds on serpents, rodents, and frogs. When it succeeds in making its way into pigeon-houses or poultry-yards it commits great havoc.

The Moor Harrier feeds principally on game, to which it is extremely destructive. Game preservers consequently are their bitterest enemies. Their flight is not swift except when pouncing on their prey, when it is possessed of great certainty and velocity.

The other species we will mention are the Frog-eating Harrier (Circus ranivorus), which is a native of South Africa, where it feeds principally on frogs and fish; the Pale-chested Harrier and Jardine's Harrier (C. Swainsonii and C. Jardinii); and the Ash-coloured Harrier (C. cinerescens), which is met with in the extreme south of America. The latter has great powers of flight, and is always in motion, never halting except to seize its prey; it is very wild, and can only be approached when feeding.

The Caracaras (Polyborus, Vieillot) are a race of birds which form a link between the Falcon and the Vulture families. They have, like the latter, the projecting crop, goggle eyes; head partly bare of feathers, toes long, especially the middle one, and the claws but slightly crooked. They show a decided taste for putrid carrion. They do not, however, feed exclusively on it, for when opportunity offers they will capture mammals, young birds, reptiles, mollusks, grasshoppers, and even worms. These birds are essentially pedestrians; the slight curvation of their claws renders this easy, and it is not an unfrequent thing to see them walk at a slow pace for considerable distances.

Their name is derived from the cry which they utter. They are peculiar to South America, in which they are found in every latitude, and at all altitudes. They present, however, differences according to the region which they inhabit. Each species fixes itself in a zone, which becomes its special place of habitation. Thus the Brazilian Caracara ([Fig. 300]) is met with everywhere, from the coldest districts to the hottest countries, but only at a slight altitude, and in company with the Chimango Caracara (Milvago chimango), whilst the summits of the Andes are inhabited by the Long-winged Caracara (M. megalopterus); and the Chimachima Caracara (M. chimachima) inhabits the burning plains between the tropics.

The Caracaras, especially the common species and the Chimango, are distinguished from the other Falconides by an excessive amount of sociability: everywhere they seek out the vicinity of man. But we should be labouring under a mistake if we supposed that affection had any share in this alliance; egotism and self-interest are the motives which impel them to act thus. It is to feed at his expense—to devour the fragments of his meals, kill his Domestic Fowls, or take possession of the pieces of meat which are hung in the sun to dry. This bird, however, is useful, for it most efficiently performs the duties of scavengers.

The Caracara will craftily follow the sportsman, and steal away game that is not quickly bagged. It also accompanies travellers across the vast pampas to prey on the carcasses of the worn-out beasts of burden. It will even attack horses and mules which are galled by the pack-saddle, fastening greedily on their wounds, and would actually devour them alive if the quadrupeds had not the sagacity to dislodge them by rolling on the ground. It will also take up its abode near flocks of sheep, and if it can evade the watchfulness of the shepherd, will destroy the newly-born lamb.

Fig. 300.—The Brazilian Caracaras (Polyborus brasiliensis).

Having confidence in its own strength, the Caracara frequently pursues other birds, especially Vultures and Gulls, which it forces to disgorge their food. It will even engage in sanguinary conflicts with its own species for the possession of prey. Contrary to the habit of most birds in a state of freedom, it remains constantly paired, without, however, having more than one or two broods a year. The Caracara lays two eggs; the nest is generally placed on the ground among brushwood.

Besides the four species we have mentioned there is also the Caracara funebris, thus named on account of its plumage, which is almost entirely of a black hue. This bird is still more of a plunderer than the preceding species, and is a native of the shores of Tierra del Fuego, the Falkland Isles, Van Diemen's Land, New Zealand, &c.