Notes.
In addition to the customs already mentioned, there are a few calling for some observation, customs which might seem superstitious, but are not so if properly understood.
When life is extinct the eyes of the deceased are closed, and in some cases also the mouth is kept shut. This is probably done out of regard for the dead, that their face should not present a too ghastly and repulsive appearance. The custom is mentioned in the Mishnah, Shabbath xxiii. 5, and is also alluded to in the words, “And Joseph shall put his hands upon thine eyes” (Gen. xlvi. 4).
From the house in which there was a dead person, and from the houses in its immediate neighbourhood, the water was poured out. According to Num. xix., everything in the house—and, under certain conditions, also in the neighbouring houses—was unclean; the water was poured out, from fear lest it be used in preparing holy food, such as terumah (“heave-offering”). Furthermore, a kohen is not allowed to enter such a house, and the pouring away of the water served as an indication that a dead person was in the house.
An important element in the preparation for the burial is the “cleaning” and robing of the body (טהרה); the cleansing of the body before it returns to the earth is to be a symbol of the purification of the soul by the mercy of God.
It is customary that those who came into contact with the deceased during his lifetime express regret for any offence they may have committed, knowingly or unknowingly, against him—a good custom, that might serve as an exhortation to us all to be careful in our actions towards our living fellow-men.
Whenever we mention the name of a deceased friend or relative we add, as a mark of respect, עליהן) השלום or עלין (עליה עליהם, זכרונו (זכרונה) לברכה, זכר צדיק לברכה or נוחו (נוחה) עדן (abbreviated, זצל, ז״ל, ע״ה or נ״ע), “Peace be to him (her or them),” “his (or her) memory be for a blessing,” “the memory of the righteous be for a blessing,” or “his (or her) rest be Eden.” Comp. Zunz, Zur Literatur u. Geschichte. Similarly we add to the names of living friends and relatives the wish שיחיה (שתחיה), or נרו יאיר “May he (or she) live,” or “May his light continue to shine.” [[497]]
[1] Lit., “The accepting of the yoke of the heaven’s dominion;” “The accepting of the yoke of the precepts.” The expression “yoke” is here by no means derogatory. It simply indicates the duty which in the one case “the dominion of heaven,” and in the other case “the Divine precepts,” impose upon us. ↑ [a] [b]
[2] Hebrew titles of books are often fanciful names, which more or less distinctly imply either the nature or contents of the books, or the name of their authors. The Hebrew names for the fourteen books of Mishneh-torah are as follows: (1) מדע “Knowledge;” (2) אהבה “Love;” (3) זמנים “Seasons;” (4) נשים “Women;” (5) קדושה “Sanctification;” (6) הפלאה “Distinction;” (7) זרעים “Seeds;” (8) עבודה “Service;” (9) קרבנות “Sacrifices;” (10) טהרה “Purity;” (11) נזיקין “Damages;” (12) קנין “Acquisition:” (13) משפטים “Disputes;” (14) שופטים “Judges.” Rabbenu Jakob calls his work ארבעה טורים “Four Rows,” a name borrowed from Exod. xxviii. 17. The names of the four parts are: ארח חיים “Path of Life” (Ps. xvi. 11); יורה דעה “Teacher of knowledge” (Isa. xxviii. 9); אבן העזר “Stone of Help” (1 Sam. vii. 12, and Gen. ii. 18), and חשן משפט “Breastplate of Judgment” (Exod. xxviii. 15). [↑]
[3] I.e., if a person has no fear of God, he is himself the sole cause of its absence, and he alone is responsible for it. [↑]
[4] The words of the Mishnah are בכל מדה ומדה שהוא מודד לך הוי מודה לו מאד The meanings of three roots are combined in this interpretation of the words בכל מאדך viz., מאד “exceedingly,” מודד “measuring,” and מודה “thanking.” The three words are similar in sound. [↑]
[5] The term עיון תפלה (lit., “reflecting on prayer”) has two meanings: (1) reflecting on the prayer while uttering it; devotion; in German, Andacht; (2) reflecting on the prayer after having uttered it, while we are waiting for the sure fulfilment of the wishes expressed in it. [↑]
[6] In the whole Book of Esther the name of God does not occur even once. It is not mere chance; there are several passages where the mention of the Divine Being is expected, and it is believed that the omission is due to the fear of a subsequent desecration of the book in the hands of the Persians. [↑]
[7] I.e., the word consisting of four letters, yod, hé, vav and hé. [↑]
[8] E.g., by giving bad advice and transgressing the law, “Thou shalt not put a stumbling block before the blind” (Lev. xix. 14). [↑]
[9] Comp. the saying, לא עכברא גמבא אלא חורא “Not the mouse is the thief, but the hole.” [↑]
[10] Those who become security for a stranger are blamed (Prov. vi. 1 seq.) as acting rashly, and foolishly endangering their peace and welfare. [↑]
[12] The Hebrew is composed of the names of the three consecutive Sidras, Lev. xvi.–xxiv. [↑]
[13] Lit., inquiring, scil., what the condition of the patient is, and what is needed for his recovery. [↑]
[15] The prayer for the head of the State, beginning הנתן תשועה למלכים has its origin in this sense of loyalty towards the State in which we live. [↑]
[16] I.e., When the old and experienced counsel to pull down a house, the pulling down is essential to its rebuilding; whilst the counsel of young and inexperienced men to build may imply destructive elements. [↑]
[17] There are some exceptions to this rule:—The Reader wears the talith during every Service; in some congregations mourners wear it when they recite kaddish. On the Day of Atonement the whole congregation wear the talith during all the Services. On the Fast of Ab the talith is put on before the Afternoon Service instead of during the Morning Service. [↑]
[18] There are two forms of the blessing which accompanies the performance [[330]]of a Divine precept: the precept is expressed (1) by a noun which is preceded by the preposition עא “concerning;” (2) by the infinitive of a verb preceded by the preposition ל “to,” e.g., “concerning the commandment of tsitsith,” and “to wrap ourselves with a garment provided with tsitsith.” The latter form is used (1) when the blessing is recited before the performance of the mitsvah has commenced; (2) when he who performs the mitsvah is personally commanded to perform it. In all other cases the first form is used. Hence על מצות ציצת, because we are, as a rule, not in a fit state for prayer when we put it on, and therefore recite the blessing later on; על מקרא מגלה; because he who reads might just as well be one of the listeners. We say להניח תפלין at the commencement of the mitsvah; על מצות תפלין before the second part. (See Babyl. Talm. Pesachim, p. 7.) [↑]
[19] The term תפלין reminds us of תפלה “prayer,” and denotes things used during prayer. Originally it had probably the more general signification: ornament or head-ornament; in the Chaldee Version it is the translation of טטפות, which denotes “head-ornament.” (Comp. Mishnah Shabbath vi. 1.) [↑]
[20] Two sides of the bayith have the shin impressed on them, the right and the left; but in different forms, on the right the letter has three strokes (ש), on the left it has four strokes (
), in order to ensure the right order of the four paragraphs (פרשיות) which the bayith contains from right to left. [↑]
[21] The knot formed by the רצועות of the tefillah shel rosh has the shape of a daleth, that of the tefillah shel yad is like a yod; these two letters added to the shin of the tefillin shel rosh read shaddai, “Almighty.” [↑]
[22] In the evening it was but natural that tsitsith and tefillin should be laid aside, as the greater part of the night was devoted to sleep; the rule was therefore generally adopted: “The night is not the proper time for laying tefillin” (לילה לאו זמן תפילין). The opposite principle, however, “The night is likewise a suitable time for laying tefillin” (לילה זמן תפלין), had also its advocates among Rabbinical authorities (Babyl. Talm. Menachoth 36b). [↑]
[23] With the completion of the thirteenth year a boy becomes of age in reference to the fulfilment of all religious duties. He is then called Bar-mitsvah (lit. “a son of the commandment”), a member of the Jewish community, upon whom devolve all such duties as a Jew has to perform. On the Sabbath following that birthday he is called to the Law, either to read a portion of the Sidra or to listen to its reading, and publicly acknowledge God as the Giver of the Law. [↑]
[25] See Daily Prayer Book, Morning Service. [↑]
[26] There are, besides, on the back of the scroll, just behind the names of God in the first line three words of a mystic character consisting of the letters following in the alphabet the letters of these divine names. The words have in themselves no meaning, and it may be that their object is simply to indicate from outside where the names of God are written, and to prevent a nail being driven through that part in fixing the mezuzah to the door-post. [↑]
[27] Mishneh-torah III., Zemannim, Hil. Shabbath, ch. xxx. § 1. [↑]
[28] Maimonides applies these terms to Sabbath; but they apply generally with equal force to the Festivals. [↑]
[29] We “remember” also the Sabbath or Festival by naming after it the preceding day, the night following, and in the case of Festivals the day [[341]]following: the eve of Sabbath or Festival ערב שבת, ערב יום טוב; the night after Sabbath or Festival, מוצאי שבת, מוצאי יום טוב; “the day after the Festival,” אסרו חג (lit., “bind the Festival,” with reference to Ps. cxviii. 27). [↑]
[30] A similar ceremony takes place before the first meal in the morning. A cup of wine or other spirituous liquor is poured out, some Biblical passages referring to the Sabbath are recited, and the usual blessing is said before partaking of the beverage. The blessing containing the Kiddush is not said, and the ceremony has the name Kiddush or Kiddusha rabba, “great Kiddush,” only on account of its similarity with the evening Kiddush. The passages recited are the following: Exod. xxxi. 16, 17, xx. 8–11; Isa. lviii. 13, 14. [↑]
[31] ברוך אתה … בורא פרי הגפן “Blessed art thou, O Lord, our God, King of the universe, who hast created the fruit of the vine.” In the absence of wine, or if wine is disliked or injurious to health, the blessing over bread is substituted for that over wine.—The blessings are generally preceded by the word סברי “Is it your pleasure, scil., that I read?” whereby it is simply intended to call the attention of the company to the prayer. [↑]
[32] See p. 352, on the difference between the holiness of Sabbath and that of Festivals.—The last two ברכות, viz. בורא מאורי האש and [[342]]המבדיל are added; the second part of the latter is slightly modified in order to suit the transition from Sabbath to Festival.—The Habhdalah on the night following the Day of Atonement consists of three ברכות, that over spices being omitted, except if Jom-kippur falls on Sabbath; in that case the Habhdalah includes all the four ברכות. [↑]
[33] Habhdalah is likewise omitted when Sabbath is closely followed by the Fast of Ab. On Sabbath night, eating and drinking being forbidden, only the one blessing, בורא מאורי האש is recited; that over spices is omitted, and the remaining two blessings are recited on Sunday evening after the fast. [↑]
[34] Although the whole of the Day of Atonement is devoted to Divine Service, less time is given to reading from the Law than on Sabbath, in order to leave more time for Prayers, Confessions, and Meditations. Rabbi Akiba, however, was of opinion that seven should be called up [[347]]to the Law on the Day of Atonement, and six on Sabbath (B. Talm. Megillah 23a). [↑]
[35] The distance allowed is called תחום שבת “a Sabbath-journey,” and is 2000 cubits in every direction; it is reckoned from the outskirts of the place in which we live. If, however, a person desires to perform a mitsvah, such as milah, at a place distant about a double Sabbath-journey from his domicile, he may fix before Sabbath his abode for that day half-way between the two places, and then traverse on Sabbath the whole distance from the one place to the other. This change of abode is called erubhe thechumin, “combination of two Sabbath-journeys into one,” by changing the centre from which they are measured. [↑]
[36] They are called אבות מלאכות “principal kinds of work,” and are those which directly or indirectly were wanted in the erection of the Tabernacle, and were therefore included in the prohibition of doing any work for this purpose (Exod. xxxi. 15 and xxxv. 2).
There are certain things which cannot be brought under any of these heads, and are nevertheless prohibited, because they frequently lead to a breach of the Sabbath laws; e.g., riding in a carriage or in any kind of conveyance; playing music. These prohibitions are called שבות i.e., acts prohibited on Sabbath and Holy-days by our Sages; or גזרה (lit., “decree”), safeguard against breaking the Law.
Divine precepts, however, ordained for the Sabbath—e.g., sacrifices—or for a certain day, which happens to fall on a Sabbath—e.g., initiation of a male child into the covenant of Abraham on the eighth day of its birth, or saving the life of a fellow-man in case of illness or any other danger—must be performed although they may involve any of the acts otherwise prohibited on the day of rest. [↑]
[37] The preparation of food is only permitted on Holy-days if wanted for the same day, except when Sabbath follows immediately after the Holy-day. In that case it is allowable to prepare the food for Sabbath on the Holy-day, provided such preparation has commenced before and need only be continued on the Holy-day. The preparation made for Sabbath before the Holy-day comes in is called erubh tabhshilin, “combination of dishes,” i.e., of the dishes prepared for Sabbath on the eve of the Festival (ערב יום טוב) and of those prepared on the Festival itself; it is accompanied by a blessing and a declaration of the significance of the erubh. The following is the blessing: ברוך … אשר קדשנו במצותיו וצונו על מצות ערוב “Blessed art thou … who hast [[353]]sanctified us by thy commandments, and hast ordained for us the mitsvah of erubh.”
It may here be noted that there are, besides, three kinds of erubh, viz.:—
1. Erubh techumim. See above, page 350.
2. Erubh chatseroth (lit., “combination of the houses in a court”). According to the traditional law, we must not carry anything on Sabbath from a private place (רשות היחיד) into the street (רשות הרבים). The former is defined to be a locality belonging to one person or family, and separated from the public by a fence. The Jewish inhabitants of a court or a town closed on all sides combine to form one family, and thus turn the רשות הרבים into רשות היחיד. The symbol of such combination consists of some food kept in a room, to which all have access (e.g., the Synagogue). This is the origin and meaning of the Passover-cake (מצה) which may still be noticed in some of the Continental Synagogues.
3. Erubh par excellence.—An opening left in a fence or wall round a רשות היחיד must at least have some token that indicates the closing of the space; e.g., a wire drawn through the open space from one part of the fence to the other. Such symbol is called erubh, “combination of the various parts of the fence or wall into one.” Such erubh may likewise be noticed in some of the Continental towns. In all these cases the symbol was not introduced for the purpose of permitting the actual transgression of a law, but rather for the purpose of reminding us of what the law forbids us to do; since, in fact, that which becomes permitted through these symbols is even in their absence no direct breach of any of the Sabbath laws. [↑]
[38] Comp. the two forms of the prayer השכיבנו in the Evening Service for week-days and for Sabbath, in the Spanish Ritual. [↑]
[39] שבת היא מלזעוק ורפואה (ונחמה) קרובה לבוא ושבתו בשלום
“To-day is Sabbath and we must not lament, for recovery (comfort) is near to come; now keep Sabbath in peace.” [↑]
[40] עשה שבתך חול ואל תצטרך לבריות (B. Talm. Shabbath, 18a). [↑]
[42] Another explanation of this custom has been suggested. Bread and wine being before us, it is doubtful which should have the preference for the purpose of Kiddush; the bread is therefore covered, so that no choice is left (Tur Orach Chayyim 271). Bread being the ordinary requisite at our meals, the use of wine for Kiddush is considered more indicative of the distinction of the day. If, however, wine is disliked or injurious, bread is used us its substitute (page 341, note 2). [↑]
[43] A peculiar ceremony may here be noticed. Some pass the knife over the bread before the berachah is said. The origin of this custom is this: the rule has been laid down that there should not be a long interval between the berachah and the partaking of the food. The knife and the bread are therefore kept ready, and originally an incision was made into the loaf in order to shorten that interval as much as possible. [↑]
[44] ברוך א׳ י׳ א׳ מ׳ ה׳ אשר קדשנו במצותיו וצונו להפריש חלה, “Blessed art thou, O Lord, our God, King of the Universe, who hast sanctified us by thy commandments, and commanded us to separate challah.” [↑]
[45] Comp. Mishnah Shabbath ii. 16. [↑]
[46] Some kindle the lights first, and then say the blessing whilst their hands are spread out before the lights. The origin of this latter practice is this: It happens sometimes that the housewife is not ready in time for kindling the lights, and lets another do it for her, she reserving to herself the privilege of saying the berachah later on. In that case the holding of the hands before the lights and withdrawing them after the blessing represents symbolically the kindling of the lights. What was originally done in exceptional cases became subsequently the rule. [↑]
[47] Calendar is derived from the Latin Calendæ, which signifies the first of the month. The Hebrew term לוח, used for “Calendar” or “Almanac,” denotes “table” or “tablet.” In the Talmud. Sod (or Yesod) ha-ibbur is used in the sense of “the theory of the Calendar:” [[361]]literally, the term denotes the fixing of the additional day to the month or the additional month to the year. [↑]
[48] Or more exactly, 29 days, 12 hours, 44 minutes, 3⅓ seconds. The technical formula in Hebrew is: כ״ט י״ב תש״צג 29 days, 12793⁄1080 hours. [↑]
[49] In the first month the barley becomes ripe; in the second the whole vegetation of the country stands in its full splendour; in the seventh the hardy fruit, which withstood the heat of the summer, ripens; and in the eighth the first rain of the season comes down. [↑]
[50] The meaning of most of these names is uncertain. The two names Elul and Tishri seem to denote “the disappearance” and “the beginning” of the year. [↑]
[51] The adjustment is necessary for the right observance of Passover, which must be celebrated in the first month (Exod. xii. 2), the month of Abib (Deut. xvi. 1), that is, in the spring, when in Palestine the corn begins to ripen. Without the periodical insertion of a month, Passover would be celebrated in every succeeding year eleven days earlier than in the previous one, and in course of time at different seasons, contrary to the Law. [↑]
[52] The Hebrew term חדש has a double meaning “beginning of the month” and “month;” comp. שבת, “day of rest,” and also “week,” or the period that passes between two consecutive Sabbaths. [↑]
[53] In Hebrew molad, “birth.” [↑]
[54] The molad of Tishri in the year 1 is assumed to have been on Sunday evening between eleven and twelve. (בהר״ד) [↑]
[55] In this tradition the period of the Persian rule in Palestine, which lasted over two centuries, is contracted to thirty-four years. It is possible that the years were counted according to the years of Release (שמטה) or the years of the Jubilee, and these were probably not kept immediately after the return of the Jews from Babylon. [↑]
[56] See Mishnah, Megillah iii. 4. [↑]
[57] Talm. Jerush., Shekalim i. 1. [↑]
[58] Mishnah, Shekalim i. 1. [↑]
[59] According to Tradition, Exod. xii. 2 not only deals with the appointment of Nisan as the first month of the year, but implies also the rules for fixing ראש חדש, New-moon, or the first of the month; and this verse, with its traditional interpretation, was therefore considered as the basis of the Jewish Calendar. Hence the prominence given to this section of the Pentateuch by having it read on the 1st of Nisan or on the Sabbath before the 1st of Nisan. [↑]
[60] Various reasons are given for this title. According to Tradition, the 10th of Nisan in the year of the Exodus was on Saturday; it was considered a great event, a miracle, in fact, that the Israelites could on that day select a lamb for sacrifice without being molested by their Egyptian masters, who at other times would have stoned them for such daring (Exod. viii. 22). Another reason is this: The Sabbath before any of the chief Festivals was called the great Sabbath on account of [[372]]the instruction sought and given respecting the importance and the observances of the coming Festival (see Zunz, Ritus. p. 9). This name has only been preserved in the case of the Sabbath before Passover.—It is, however, possible that “the great day,” the predominant idea in the haphtarah of the day, suggested the name.
It is the custom in some congregations to read in the Afternoon-service of Shabbath haggadol part of the Haggadah instead of the Psalms (civ. and cxx.–cxxxiv.). [↑]
[61] The word פסח “Passover,” signifies (1) the act of passing over or sparing (Exod. xii. 11); (2) the sacrifice of passover, especially as object to the verb עשה “to make” (ibid. 47, 48); (3) the time when the passover was offered and consumed; i.e., the 14th of Nisan, afternoon and evening (Lev. xxiii. 5; Num. xxviii. 16); (4) the whole of Passover (Mishnah, and in all post-Biblical literature).
The day on which an Israelite brought a sacrifice was a Festival to him and his family; and no work was done on that day. Accordingly on the afternoon of the 14th of Nisan, ערב פסח, the time fixed for the Passover-offering, no work was done; some abstained from [[373]]work the whole day (Mishnah, Pesachim iv. 1; comp. also ibid. 5).—It is customary for the first-born to fast the whole or part of ערב פסח (Talm. Jerus. x. 1, and Masecheth Soferim xxi. 3). They might rather be expected to feast in memory of the deliverance of the first-born Israelites in Egypt. But the case is similar to that of Purim. Both the day of danger and the day of victory are celebrated; the one by fasting (fast of Esther), the other by feasting (Purim). So here the 14th of Nisan was for the first-born the day of danger, the following night the season of deliverance. Hence the fasting during the day and the feasting in the evening. The day suggests thoughts like the following: Our forefathers were saved from danger: should we deserve to be saved if danger threatened us? Such reflections may have been the origin of the fast of the first-born on the eve of Passover. Some also fast on this day, or at least abstain on it from a full meal, in order to do honour to the festive meal in the evening and approach it with appetite (לתיאבון). A similar custom obtains, though not to the same extent, on the eve of Sabbath and of every Festival (Mishnah, Pesachim x. 1). [↑]
[62] Within the four days there was ample time for examining the lamb, whether it was really תמים, without blemish, and fit both for sacrifice and for human food.—Some suggest that the keeping of the lamb for four days was to be a test of the faith of the Israelites, whether they would obey the Will of God in spite of the dreaded wrath of the Egyptians. [↑]
[63] Their faith in God had to be shown by their willingly going forth whither the command of God led them, without taking with them any provision for the journey. The lamb which they had prepared was to be consumed before they left Egypt, and whatever was left had to be burnt. This was probably also the object of the precepts that no bone of the lamb was to be broken, and no part of it was to be carried from one house to another; for the breaking of the bones and the carrying part of the meat about from place to place would facilitate its being stored away for the journey.—Other precepts, which implied haste and readiness, e.g., the roasting it with fire, eating it with loins girded, &c., were to teach the Israelites the lesson that they were to be always ready and willing to do God’s bidding. [↑]
[64] An instance of Passover being put off because of the unfitness of the priests to offer up sacrifices is met with in the Second Book of [[376]]Chronicles (xxx. 2). It seems similar to the rule of Pesach sheni, but is in reality different from it. King Hezekiah did not put off the Passover sacrifice for a month on account of the uncleanness of the priests, but he made the preceding year a leap-year, and the month which would have been the second became the first, whilst the first was counted as the thirteenth of the past year (comp. Mishnah, Pesachim iv. 9). [↑]
[65] It is only the fermentation of any of these five kinds of grain that forms חמץ. Fermentation of grapes or other fruit constitutes no חמץ. [↑]
[66] חמץ is both אסור באכילה and אסור בהנאה (Mishnah, Pesachim ii. 1). [↑]
[67] It is now the custom to eat חמץ on Erebh Pesach, only during the first third of the day; i.e., till about ten o’clock in the morning (ibid. i. 4). [↑]
[68] Ibid. i. 1.—The evening was chosen for this task, because with a taper or lamp the corners and dark recesses can be better searched than by daylight. Besides, in the evening, when every one has finished his day’s work, people are more at ease to do the searching in a thorough manner. [↑]
[69] The formula with על is employed here, because we need not do the searching by ourselves; it may be done by a substitute.—Although we only search in the evening, we use the term על ביעור חמץ “concerning the removal or the destruction of the chamets,” because this removal or destruction is the object of the searching. [↑]
[70] The declaration, printed usually on the first page of the Haggadah, is made twice: once in the evening after the searching of the chamets, and once in the morning after its removal; with this difference, that in the evening only the chamets that has not been found is disclaimed; in the morning all chamets, if left in the house, is disclaimed, whether it has been noticed in the course of searching or not. [↑]
[71] There are different kinds of the process of kasher: (1) by making the articles in question red hot—this applies to the iron oven and other iron vessels; (2) by dipping the vessel in boiling water, or pouring boiling water over it, or letting the water in the vessel boil over. The object of this process is to free the vessel from any chamets it may have [[379]]absorbed.—Before the process of kasher begins, the vessel must, of course, be thoroughly cleaned. [↑]
[72] The four cups of wine are not taken at once; but one serves for Kiddush, as on Sabbath and Holy-days; the second is taken at the conclusion of the first part of the Seder; the third after Grace, it being customary also on ordinary days to take a cup of wine after Grace; the fourth at the conclusion of the second part of the Seder. The four cups [[380]]are also said to indicate our joy in reference to four elements constituting the redemption, and implied in the four terms: והוצאתי, וגאלתי, והצלתי, and ולקחתי, (Exod. vi. 6, 7), liberation from bondage, deliverance from service, redemption from all dependence on Egypt, and appointment as “the people of the Lord.”—These four cups were considered of such importance for the Seder-evening that the poor were provided as of right with wine for the arba kosoth (Mishnah, Pesachim x. 1).—Although the number of the four cups of wine is sanctioned by the reference to the above four expressions of redemption, a fifth cup may, if needed, be interpolated before singing Ps. cxxxvi. (Tosaphoth, Pesachim 117b).
It is customary to pour in an extra cup and keep it ready for any new-comer that might join the company. The cup is called כוס של אליהו “the cup of Elijah,” because his advent may be looked for at any time. Comp. Mal. iii. 23. [↑]
[73] Two of them are the “double portion,” לחם משנה, of Sabbath and Holy-day. The third represents the לחם עני “bread of poverty,” and is therefore broken into pieces, in order to be distinguished from the others as “bread of poverty.” The bread of poverty is intended to remind us of the bread of poverty or affliction eaten by our forefathers when kept as slaves in Egypt. But les extrèmes se touchent; it is remarkable that this very term לחם עני admits also of the meaning “bread of song,” and has been interpreted to signify the bread eaten at a joyous meal, such as the Israelites in Egypt ate the night of their liberation. It is possible that the author of the opening paragraph of the Haggadah purposely employed the term לחם עניא in this double sense (Pes. 115a).
Among some Israelites it is the custom to style the three unleavened cakes, Cohen, Levi, and Israel. The three matsoth, as a play upon words, are also called mitsvoth, “commandments;” i.e., matsoth employed in fulfilment of the commandment, “In the evening ye shall eat unleavened bread.” These matsoth are distinguished from the rest by being baked especially for this purpose. Some are careful in regard to these matsoth to have every process in their preparation, from the cutting of the wheat to the baking of the matsoth, done for the express purpose of the Seder, and to have the wheat and the flour well guarded from moisture or any foreign admixture. Matsoth prepared in this way [[381]]are called מצה שמורה, “guarded matsoth.” People still more particular have all their unleavened bread for Passover prepared in this way. [↑]
[74] The vegetables, that were ordinarily taken as a relish and a means of producing appetite for the meal, have only been introduced here (Pesachim 114b) for the purpose of attracting the attention of the children. According to the custom of those ancient days, the master of the house had before him a table covered with the different dishes required for the meal, and sent portions to every member of the company. When the meal was finished, before Grace, this table was removed. But on the Seder-evening the table was removed immediately after the partaking of a little parsley or other vegetables. The child, accustomed on ordinary evenings to have supper without such an introduction, asks expressly or implicitly why things are different to-night, adding also other questions. Instead of parsley, other vegetables, or even some of the bitter herbs, may be taken. This last act not being an essential element in the Service, and not being obligatory, is not preceded by the berachah, “Blessed art thou … who hast commanded us, &c.,” but “Blessed art thou … who hast created the fruit of the earth.”—At present the table is not removed, but the lifting up of the Seder-dish while reciting the first paragraph (הא לחמא) is the survival of that custom. [↑]
[75] Two views are expressed in the Talmud concerning charoseth: (1) it is a medicinal protective against the evil effects of the bitter herbs; (2) it is an essential part of the mitsvah, a symbol and reminder of the bricks and mortar with which the Israelites had to do the work imposed on them by their taskmasters (B. Talm., Pesachim 115b); it may also serve to suggest to us the idea that there is a means of softening the bitterness of oppression, viz., faith in God (Mishnah, Pesachim x. 3). [↑]
[76] The bone and the egg are symbols of two dishes that used in the time of the Temple to be on the table: the Passover sacrifice and the festive offering called חגיגה; the latter was added when the company was large (ibid. vi. 3, and B. Talm., Pes. 114b). [↑]
[77] The eating of anything dipped in water or in any other liquid was usually preceded by the washing of the hands. But as the eating of vegetables at this point is not obligatory, the reader alone washes his hands, but without reciting the blessing, על נטילת ידים. [↑]
[79] Comp. p. 380, note 1. The part laid aside is called afikuman, a name of which many curious etymologies have been suggested. The meaning is clear; it is that which is eaten just before the table is removed (p. 381, note 1), or before the dishes are cleared away: the dessert. The name is therefore a compound of two Chaldaic words, afiku-man, “dish-remover,” i.e., the dessert after which all dishes are removed and the company is ready for Grace (B. T. Pesachim 86a Rashi). [↑]
[80] The term is derived from the words of the Pentateuch, והגדת לבנך “And thou shall tell thy son” (Exod. xiii. 8). Hence also the name of the book Haggadah. [↑]
[81] The first paragraph is not an invitation sent forth to those whom it cannot reach, but an appeal to those present to join heartily in the Service and the succeeding meal; that none should feel ashamed of his poverty, none elated on account of his possessions; all having been brethren in past troubles, and in the deliverance from them, and all destined alike to share in the glories of the coming redemption. [↑]
[82] The questions have been arranged according to their importance; otherwise the third question might have been expected first (see p. 381, note 1). The expression “dipping” (טבול) used in this question merely signifies “taking some relish,” in distinction from the real and solid meal, and the meaning of the question is, “Why do we to-night partake twice of the vegetables before approaching the actual meal? It indicates a festive supper. What is the reason for this?” [↑]
[83] The three different forms correspond perhaps to the three characters or ages of the inquirers: the ignorant, the simple, and the sceptic; [[384]]whilst the answer to the wise has not been formulated, but depends on his question, and the capacity of the father to instruct him. It is only the general question as to the difference between the Seder-evening and other evenings that is answered in these three forms. Each of these forms was probably followed by the explanation of Pesach, Matsah, and Maror. [↑]
[84] The Midrashic comparison of “finger of God” to “His hand” and the multiplication of the number of plagues must not be understood as intended to gratify our feeling of revenge, but merely as a simple and child-like illustration of the greatness of the Divine Power displayed on those occasions.—Rabbi Jehudah, probably from a feeling of tender sympathies with the sufferers, would not mention even the full names of the plagues, but merely indicated them by initial letters. [↑]
[85] It seems that in the time of the Talmud the one piece was eaten after the first blessing, and the other after the second. As, therefore, [[386]]the partaking of matsah has taken place before the second blessing, the formula על אכילת מצה is used (see p. 329, note 2). The same is the case with regard to the blessing before “eating bitter herbs,” as it was not contrary to usage to partake of bitter herbs instead of karpas at the beginning of the Service. [↑]
[86] The afikuman has been reserved wrapped in a napkin (reminding of Exod. xii. 34), in order that the meal should finish up with matsah, just as in the time of the Temple it finished up with meat of the Passover-sacrifice.—In the Talmud (Pes. 109a) the rule is given וחוטפין מצה “We make haste to come quickly to the eating of matsah,” before the younger members of the company become drowsy or fall asleep. The words וחוטפין מצה have erroneously been interpreted, “We should snatch away the matsah,” and this interpretation caused the Service to be accompanied by a certain kind of childish amusement: some one of the company stealthily possesses himself of the matsah laid aside for afikuman, and does not surrender it until the master of the house promises him some present—The custom is unseemly and ought to be discouraged. [↑]
[87] After Grace a few verses from the Bible (Ps. lxxix. 6, 7, and Lam. iii. 66) have been added, beginning שפך חמתך and containing a prayer for God’s wrath to be poured forth over the godless people who seek the destruction of Israel. The cause of the addition is this: The season of Passover was, in the Middle Ages, a season of constant terror and danger to the Jews, because of the hostilities of their Christian neighbours against them. Helpless and defenceless, the Jews had no other way of meeting their foe than to cry to Him “who is near to all who call upon Him in truth.” The conduct of their neighbours towards them hardly suggested thoughts of love, especially at that moment. For it frequently happened that several families met in one house for the purpose of hearing the Seder-Service. They dispersed after the first part of the Service, took their meals at home, and assembled later in the evening for the second part of the Seder. Sometimes another course was taken. One person read the Service in several houses consecutively for the benefit of those who were not capable of doing so for themselves; then, after having had his meal, he began his circuit again for reading the second part of the Service. The return of the Reader or of the several families was anxiously waited for. The opening of the door before שפך חמתך, at present meaningless, had its origin in this circumstance. On returning to the second part of the Service, the guests had too often a sad tale to tell of their experiences in the street, and filled with indignation, they gave expression to their feeling in the above verses. We continue to read these verses now, but in a different spirit. We live in peace with our neighbours, protected by the laws of the country and unmolested in the performance of our religious duties. We have nothing but feelings and thoughts of love for our fellow-men, and in reciting these verses we merely condemn the wickedness of those who seek the destruction of the people of the Lord. Our Christian neighbours may certainly join us in this condemnation. [↑]
[89] An omer is, according to Tradition, equal to the space occupied by 43⅙ eggs of ordinary size; it is about half a gallon. [↑]
[90] Or היום … לעמר שהם … (Portug. Ritual). [↑]
[91] As the month of Iyar corresponds to some extent to May, some assert, without foundation, that the Jews hold no weddings this month, because May is held by non-Jews to be an unlucky season for marriages. Jews who refuse to celebrate marriages in May for this reason are guilty of gross superstition. [↑]
[92] According to the traditional interpretation of ממחרת השבת “from the morrow after the Sabbath,” the term “Sabbath” signifies “day of rest” or “festival,” and refers to the first day of Passover (comp. Lev. xxiii. 32). The Sadducees, and afterwards the Karaites, contested the correctness of this interpretation, but without success (see Babyl. Talm., Menachoth 65; and Ibn Ezra on Lev. xxiii. 15). [↑]
[93] The collection of these passages is called תקון לליל שבועות. A similar collection for the seventh night of Tabernacles is called תקון לליל הושענא רבא. See p. 398, note 1. [↑]
[94] On Sabbath the lulabh is not taken, because it might be necessary to carry it from place to place through the street (רשות הרבים), and [[397]]this is forbidden (see Mishnah, Shabbath i. 1 and vii. 2). For the same reason the shofar is not blown on the first day of New-year, if it happens to fall on Saturday. In the Temple, however, there was no occasion for the above apprehension; the lulabh was therefore taken and the shofar was blown on Sabbath (Mishnah, Succah iv. 1, and Rosh ha-shanah iv. 1). [↑]
[95] In the Temple willow-branches were placed round the altar, the shofar was blown, and the priests made then a circuit round the altar, with the lulabh in their hands, and singing part of Hallel.—The hoshaanoth refer chiefly to the redemption of Israel and the rebuilding of the Temple.—The circuit round the altar reminds us of the taking of Jericho, and strengthens our hope that in future also the Almighty will be with us, and help us through all difficulties to ultimate victory. [↑]
[96] The lulabh alone is mentioned in the blessing, because it is the most prominent, and the other three species seem to be its appendages.—The form על נטילת is explained by the fact that we generally hold the four species in our hand, and thus commence the mitsvah, before the berachah (see p. 329, note 2).—The three species, palm-branch, myrtle, and willow, are usually bound together by means of leaves of the palm-tree. Some used to add golden bands to these leaves (Mishnah, Succah iii. 8). [↑]
[97] Mishnah, Succah iv. 5.—In the Temple the shofar was sounded during the priests’ circuit round the altar. A similar custom exists in the Spanish and Portuguese Synagogues on Hoshaana-rabba.—Tradition attributed great importance to the Morning Service on Hoshaana-rabba, and made it a kind of sequel to the Service on the “Solemn Days,” as if to give another opportunity of repentance to those who had not made full use of the means of grace afforded by the Day of Atonement, before the final sentence (גמר חתימה תובה) is pronounced. The preceding evening is therefore spent by many in devotional exercises (תקון לליל הושענא רבא). Comp. p. 394.
It is an old custom to take a few extra twigs of the willow-tree on this day and keep them in one’s hand during the chanting of the hoshaanoth. These branches, when shaken or struck, lose their leaves one after the other; so do the trees from which the branches have been cut, and so also all other trees. But the rain and heat sent by God in due time give them fresh life, and they produce new leaves. A similar experience is ours. The struggle for life reduces our strength and weakens our health; cares and troubles discourage us. But faith in God and trust in His Providence renew our strength; our health improves, our cares and troubles are diminished, and we feel ourselves restored to fresh life. [↑]
[98] Lit. “the eighth day, a festival.”—A prayer for rain (גשם) is inserted in the Musaf-Service, and corresponds to the prayer for dew on the first day of Passover; for fine weather we pray on the first day of the Festival, for rain on the eighth day. From Shemini-atsereth to the Musaf of the first day of Passover the words משיב הרוח ומוריד הגשם “Thou causest the wind to blow and the rain to fall,” are inserted in the second paragraph of the Amidah. The words do not contain a direct prayer for rain, but a praise of Him who causes the rain to fall (גבורות גשמים), whilst the daily direct prayer for rain (ותן טל ומטר “Give dew and rain”) begins about two months later,—the time when the pilgrims that had come from distant countries to Jerusalem to the Festival were assumed to have reached their homes. [↑]
[99] It has always been considered a special mitsvah and honour to be called to the reading either of the last or of the first section of the Pentateuch. Those on whom this honour is conferred are called respectively חתן תורה “Bridegroom of the Law,” and חתן בראשית “Bridegroom of the first section of the Law.” In the rejoicing with the Law special efforts are made to induce the younger members of the congregation to take part. They are usually invited to join the procession with the scrolls of the Law round the Synagogue, and have also the privilege of being called to the Torah, although they are not yet thirteen years old. This and similar things are done in order to inspire our children with love for the Torah and for the study of the Torah. [↑]
[100] Whilst the three Festivals demanded great sacrifices of each individual Israelite—to undertake a pilgrimage to the Temple, and not to appear empty before the Lord—the “Solemn Days” demanded only abstention from work, and on one day also from food. The Sacrificial Service on the Day of Atonement concerned directly the High-Priest and the priests in the Temple, the public at large but indirectly; and if great multitudes assembled in the Temple, it was curiosity rather than duty that brought them there. More importance was therefore attached by chroniclers and historians to the three Festivals and the national gathering in and round the Temple on the Feasts of Pilgrimage than to the Day of Memorial or the Day of Atonement. The Law [[401]]deemed it necessary to urge on the Israelites the celebration of the former more frequently than that of the latter. When Solomon at the dedication of the Temple celebrated with the Israelites twice seven days, the first seven days probably commenced the 1st of Tishri on the Festival (1 Kings viii. 2), and the second seven days on the 15th of the month; therefore they are reckoned separately (ibid. viii. 65; 2 Chron. vii. 9, 10). Ezra, who read the Law to the Jews on the 1st of Tishri (Neh. viii. 2), which was a Holy-day (ibid. 10), read it also on the second day, which may likewise have been a special day for reading the Law, probably the Day of Atonement, and here they learnt that they were commanded to build booths for the next Festival. They must therefore have heard Leviticus xxiii., which includes the commandment concerning the fasting on the Day of Atonement. It may also be noticed that, although the commandment concerning the Day of Atonement is not mentioned in Exodus, the day is referred to as a well-known institution (Exod. xxx. 10). [↑]
[101] The reason Tradition assigns for this observance is as follows: After the giving of the Law Moses ascended Mount Sinai on the 7th of Sivan, and descended on the fortieth day, the 17th of Tammuz, with the tables of testimony. On the 18th he ascended again, and spent forty days in prayer for forgiveness for Israel; and ascended for the third time on the 1st of Elul, and returned on the 10th of Tishri with the Divine message, “I have pardoned in accordance with thy words of prayer.” Cherishing the hope that we may ourselves receive such a heavenly response on the Day of Atonement, we follow the example of Moses, and add these Selichoth or devotional exercises to our daily prayers, while the sound of the shofar aids in awakening us to earnest reflection and true improvement.
There are various names for these additional prayers: תחנונים “Supplications,” and סליחות “Prayers for forgiveness,” the latter being the general name for the early additional Service. Some of them have special names: פתיחה “opening” (i.e., the first prayer); פזמון “psalm,” a hymn sung or recited alternately by the Reader and the congregation; עקדה a composition referring to the binding of Isaac; תחנה “supplication,” generally at the end of the Selichoth. Prominent among these prayers is the recitation of the Thirteen Attributes of Mercy (Exod. xxxiv. 6, 7) and the “Confession of sins” (ודוי). [↑]
[102] Although Nisan, the month of the departure of the Israelites from Egypt, is the first month, and Passover the first of the Festivals of the year, Tishri, though the seventh month, was in many respects the beginning of the year. In the month of Tishri the Jubilee year commenced, the slaves were liberated, and landed property returned to the original owners (comp. Mishnah, Rosh ha-shanah i. 1). [↑]
[103] The name does, however, occur in the Mishnah as a term long in use and well known. It is impossible to decide when the name was introduced. The words ראש השנה in Ez. (xl. 1) denote the beginning of the year, including ten days or more, but do not signify “New-year.” [↑]
[104] The blowing of the shofar is preceded by the blessing: … ברוך אשר קדשנו … לשמוע קול שופר “Blessed art thou … who hast sanctified us by thy commandments and hast commanded us to hear the sound of the shofar.” This blessing is followed by שהחינו. [↑]
[105] According to Saadiah, the shofar reminds us of the following ten things with which it is directly or indirectly connected:—(1) Creation; (2) Our duty to return to God; (3) Revelation on Mount Sinai; (4) The exhortations of the Prophets; (5) Destruction of the Temple; (6) The binding of Isaac for sacrifice; (7) Imminent danger; (8) Day of Judgment; (9) Redemption of Israel; (10) Resurrection. [↑]
[106] In some congregations it is the custom to walk in the afternoon of New-year along the banks of a river or the sea-shore, in order to reflect on the purifying effect which water has on the body, and to be reminded that even as the body is purified by water, so ought our souls be purified by repentance and the appeal to the help and mercy of God. An appropriate passage from Micah (vii. 18–20) is recited, and the custom has received its name tashlich from the word ותשליך “and thou wilt cast,” which occurs in the passage. [↑]
[107] The confession of sins (ודוי) as contained in our Prayer-book is made by the whole community collectively; and those who have not themselves committed the sins mentioned in the confession regret that they were unable to prevent them from being committed by others. The form of the confession is therefore in the plural: “We have been guilty,” &c. The words אבל אנחנו חטאנו “Indeed we have sinned,” would suffice for the purpose of confession. But the long lists of various forms of sins in the sections beginning אשמנו, על חטא or על חטאים and which are repeatedly recited during the Service, help us to remember our misdoings; what has escaped our attention the first time may be revived in our memory, when we read the confession a second or third time. Especially numerous are the terms denoting sins committed with our tongue; and indeed they are numerous! And where is the person that could say that his tongue has never been employed in falsehood, or slander, or self-praise, or hasty promises, and similar offences? It is necessary that we should reflect over and over again on these vices, and on the way in which to obtain better control over our tongue, and thereby a fuller mastery over the passions of our heart. [↑]
[108] The Evening Service is preceded by a formal rescinding of previous vows. Of what kind were the vows which are thus annulled? None of those that were made by a member of the community individually. No one can by means of this formula free himself from the obligation to fulfil what he has promised to his fellow-man. The declaration concerns the whole congregation, and has probably its origin in the customs of former days, when those who refused to join in the communal work, or to submit to the law of the congregation, or shocked by any act of theirs the conscience of their brethren, or abandoned Judaism outwardly, were excommunicated and shut out from all contact with their co-religionists. Such transgressors, abarjanim, when desirous to pray in the Synagogue on the Day of Atonement, were admitted, and all opposition was silenced by the solemn declaration.
That such was the original object of Kol-nidre is sufficiently clear from its surroundings. It is preceded by the following announcement: “In the name of God, and in the name of the congregation, with the sanction of the Court above, and that of the Court below, we declare that it is permitted to pray together with those who have been transgressors (abarjanim).” Kol-nidre is followed by the verse, “And it shall be forgiven all the congregation of the children of Israel, and the stranger that sojourneth among them; seeing all the people were in ignorance” (Num. xv. 26).
The original object of this declaration does not apply at present; but it serves as a reminder of the following principles:—
1. We should always be disposed to forgive those who, in the heat of strife, acting under strong irritation, have offended us.
2. We should be careful with regard to vows, and before making them consider their effect.
3. We should reflect on human weakness, and consider that what we believe to be able to do to-day may prove impossible for us to-morrow. This reflection would remove every thought of pride from our heart and inspire us with humility. [↑]
[109] At the conclusion of the Service we once more proclaim the Unity of God (שמע ישראל), repeat three times the praise of His kingdom, and seven times that He alone is the Almighty. The sound of the shofar announces, as on the occasion of the Revelation on Mount Sinai, the conclusion of the Holy-day. [↑]
[110] The idea of introduction is implied in the term minchah, “introduction” (from the root נחה “to lead,” “to conduct”).—Minchah, originally denoting any present or offering, was the special name of flour-offerings, probably because flour or corn was the most common minchah offered by people to their sovereign.—Comp. “I will appease him with the present (minchah) that goeth before me, and afterwards I will see his face” (Gen. xxxii. 21). [↑]
[111] תפלה from פלל “to judge,” implies self-examination whether we are worthy of addressing the Most Holy. As to the purifying effect of prayer, see above, p. 183. [↑]
[112] This was necessary for two reasons: it served to foster a disposition for devotion and to assist the multitude in their endeavour to give expression to their feelings; it gave also uniformity to the prayers, which is indispensable in public Divine Worship (תפלה בצבור).—The free effusion of our heart before our Creator is by no means restrained, and is certainly not intended to be excluded by these regulations. [↑]
[113] מנהג עוקר הלכה “Custom overrules law,” is a well-known saying that is frequently acted upon (Soferim xiv. 18). [↑]
[114] Comp. supra, page 183 sqq., on the efficacy of prayer. Comp. page 280 sqq. [↑]
[115] This is one of the three explanations suggested in Babyl. Talm., Berachoth 29b: (1) A burdensome task, of which one desires to get rid; (2) a claim and not a supplication; (3) fixed without any spontaneous addition. [↑]
[116] Hence the phrases in the Talmud, “He went down toward the Ark” (tebhah), or simply “He went down” to read the tefillah. It was not so in all places of worship, because another phrase is sometimes used, “He passed toward the tebhah.” [↑]
[117] On such occasions a large congregation was expected, coming from the whole neighbourhood, and the Synagogue was considered too small. It is also possible that a prayer-meeting in the open air was intended to attract the indifferent, who did not attend the regular Services in the Synagogue. [↑]
[118] See Mishnah, Berachoth iv. 5, 6, and Babyl. Talm., Berachoth 30a. [↑]
[119] As our religion demands frequent recitations of berachoth in the course of the day, the custom spread among the Jews of keeping the head always covered. Comp. Babyl. T., Kiddushin 31a; Shulchan aruch, Orach Chayyim ii. 6. [↑]
[120] Attempts have been made to modify and to soften down the seemingly harsh words against those who design our ruin; some even wish to have the whole paragraph expunged from the prayer. In these attempts it has been ignored that the prayer is not directed against certain persons or nations; it is a petition for the protection of Israel from the wicked plans of evildoers. [↑]
[121] This fact is probably the source of the statement in Midrash Rabboth (Num. xviii.), that the tefillah before the birchath ha-tsadukim was added contained seventeen paragraphs. [↑]
[122] In the Temple the priests recited daily the Decalogue, and no objection was raised, because the congregation—priests, Levites, and general worshippers—constantly changed; and secondly, the very Service in the Temple sufficiently proved the existence of other Divine laws.—This ruling applies only to the addition of the Decalogue to the shema, not to its introduction into any other part of the Service. [↑]
[123] The priests were classed in twenty-four divisions; they had to perform a week’s active Service in the Temple by turns; the same was the case with the Levites. The Israelites of the district of which it was the turn of the priests and the Levites to serve in the Temple sent a deputation (Maamad) to Jerusalem, who represented them in the Temple; whilst they themselves held special prayer meetings, called Maamadoth. [↑]
[124] E.g., the addition of הנותן ליעף כח to, and the omission of שלא עשני בור from, the ברכות השחר. [↑]
[125] Machzor, lit., “Cycle” of prayers, both the obligatory and the optional, or the ordinary tefilloth and the piyyutim, for the various seasons of the whole year. It is called Machzor Vitry, after its compiler, Simcha of Vitry (about 1100). [↑]
[126] As to the importance of minhag in our religious life, see above, p. 420. [↑]
[127] According to the Mishnah (Berachoth iv. 1), the time fixed for this Service is the first fourth of the day; but the notions of “early” and “late” are now different from what they were in ancient times. An extension of the time has long been conceded, especially for the Public Service on Sabbaths and Festivals. [↑]
[128] As to the principle expressed in these three berachoth, see supra, p. 170. [↑]
[129] In the German Ritual for week-days a third berachah, beginning ברוך יי לעולם and concluding ועל כל מעשיו, is added. This berachah seems to have been at first a substitute for the Amidah, which was optional in the Maaribh Service. The substitute became in many congregations an integral part of the Maaribh, and was retained even when the Amidah was generally adopted as obligatory. On the eve of Sabbath and Festivals the Amidah was always recited, and there was no need for the substitute. The third berachah is therefore absent from the Maaribh on these evenings. [↑]
[130] See note 2 on p. 446 sq. [↑]
[131] As to the merits of Public Service, see above, p. 284. Ten male persons of thirteen years and upwards constitute a congregation, צבור (or מנין “number” or “quorum”), and their united devotions form Public Service (תפלה בצבור), into which the additions enumerated above are introduced. [↑]
[132] Before meals we wash our hands, say the blessing, על נטילת ידים, and eat a piece of bread after having said the berachah, המוציא.—Some wash their hands a second time (מים אחרונים) before Grace. See Shulchan-aruch, Orach-chayyim clxxxi. [↑]
[133] Comp. Babyl. Talm., Berachoth, p. 48b. [↑]
[134] בריך רחמנא מריה דהאי פיתא or ברוך שאכלנו משלו. [↑]
[135] מתוך שלא לשמה בא לשמה. [↑]
[136] The Reader must be שליח צבור the real representative of, and acceptable to the congregants (Shulchan-aruch I. liii. 4). [↑]
[137] See above, page 417. [↑]
[138] E.g., גשם and טל in the Musaph of the first day of Pesach and the eighth day of Succoth are based on the climatic conditions of Palestine. [↑]
[139] Those who fear that the seemingly harsh expressions might imply or suggest ideas and feelings of a baser kind can easily modify them and remove the sting.—Similarly, expressions contrary to our taste and sense of propriety ought to be removed. [↑]
[140] I.e., of the new corn. This law of חדש applied to the corn sown during the year preceding the festival of Passover and beginning with the previous Passover (Babyl. Talm., Menachoth 69). [↑]
[141] The grafting of two species of trees one upon the other is included in this prohibition. [↑]
[142] E.g., “Neither shall there come upon thee a garment of two kinds of stuff mingled together.” Such mixture is called שעטנז, and applies only to the mixture of wool and linen (Deut. xxii. 11). Another commandment belonging to this category is this: “Thou shalt not plow with an ox and an ass together” (ibid. 10). Ibn Ezra, in his Commentary on the Pentateuch (ad locum), suggests the following reason for this commandment, “The Almighty has mercy upon all His creatures; the strength of the ass being inferior to that of the ox, an unfair demand would be made upon the strength of the former when drawing the ploughshares together with the latter.” [↑]
[143] טרפה originally designated meat of animals torn by wild beasts, but it is used to designate food, especially meat, forbidden by the Law. All permitted food is called kasher (כשר). [↑]
[144] In accordance with the traditional explanation of the commandment, “Thou shalt not destroy the corners of thy beard” (Lev. xix. 27), a razor is not employed, and shaving is avoided; the hair of the beard and the face is clipped with scissors. This prohibition, like that of “rounding the corners of the head” (ibid.), belongs to a group of precepts which aimed at keeping the Israelites away from the idolatrous customs of their heathen neighbours. The second prohibition has led to the fashion noticeable among Russian and Polish Jews of letting the hair of “the corners of the head” (in Hebrew peoth) grow very long.—In the Mishnah (Kethubhoth vii. 6) it is mentioned as a distinctively “Jewish custom” that married women have their head covered when going out. Many Jewish women observe also this [[468]]custom within the house.—With these exceptions there is nothing in his dress and appearance that need distinguish the Jew from the Gentile, only that sometimes Jews are more conservative with regard to fashion than their neighbours, and old-fashioned style is then mistaken for “Jewish fashion.” [↑]
[145] Some people leave on one of the walls of the house a certain piece unpapered and unpainted as a sign of mourning for the destruction of Jerusalem and the Temple. From the same reason, in some congregations, the bridegroom on the wedding-day has ashes strewn on his head. In accordance with Ps. cxxxvii. 6 we remember Jerusalem on various occasions. We recite Ps. cxxxvii. on week-days, and Ps. cxxvi. on Sabbath and Holy-days, after every meal. Again, when we give expression to our sympathy with mourners we pray that God may comfort them together with those who mourn for the destruction of Jerusalem. [↑]
[146] The above-mentioned exceptions, and the fact that the woman is passive in the marriage ceremony as well as in the case of a divorce, have been erroneously interpreted as evidence of the low estimate in which she is held by the Jewish Law. How the Jews were taught to honour their wives may be gathered from the Jewish marriage document, in which the husband promises “to honour his wife in accordance with the rule in practice among Jews, that every husband honours his wife.” There are, unfortunately, also bad Jews who ill-treat, neglect, or entirely abandon their wives; but these cases are exceptions, and proportionately less numerous than among non-Jews. On the whole, Jewish women are treated by their husbands with love and regard, and the good relations that exist between husband and wife ensure the comfort and happiness of both. [↑]
[147] To this respect for feminine modesty is due the arrangement made in the Synagogue for female worshippers (see p. 426). It is also the reason why girls have no ceremony corresponding to the celebration of the bar-mitsvah. [↑]
[148] Women do not like to do needlework on Saturday evening immediately after the close of Sabbath; it was considered a mitsvah to prolong the Sabbath, just as it is a sign of love and esteem if we induce a friend to defer his departure. The saying that only shrouds [[474]]are to be sewn on Sabbath evening may perhaps be traced to Mishnah, Shabbath xxiii. 4. [↑]
[149] In order to have warm food on Sabbath without breaking any of the Sabbath laws, the food is put in an oven which is heated in such a manner that the fire continues to burn without requiring to be stirred or rekindled, or in which the heat is otherwise retained. Such food is called chalet, which is probably a French word, corresponding to the Hebrew חמין “warm.” [↑]
[150] Or חבוב מצוה “love of mitsvah.” [↑]
[153] Jews consider it a duty to have guests (אורחים) at the table on three occasions, viz., the Seder-evening, Purim, and Succoth. [↑]
[154] The blessing generally consists of the priestly benediction, and the words of Jacob, “God make thee like Ephraim and like Manasseh” (Gen. xlviii. 20); Sarah, Rebeccah, Rachel, and Leah being substituted for Ephraim and Manasseh when females are addressed. [↑]
[155] A special Service of the day is called יום כפור קטן. [↑]
[156] Friday evening was especially selected for this purpose; the visitors were treated with fruit and sweets; and this secondary element in the custom became in course of time the principal thing. The custom received the name Shalom-zachar, probably from the usual greeting, “Shalom! (“Peace,” corresponding to our “How do you do?”) O male child!” [↑]
[157] In different countries there were different ways of expressing this sentiment. In some congregations a band (mappah) for the Sepher, with the name and birthday of the child inscribed on it, and ornamented with verses expressive of various good wishes, is presented to the Synagogue. [↑]
[158] I.e., a person who circumcises. [↑]
[159] Of those who assist in the mitsvah, the sandek (godfather), who holds the child during the operation, is the most prominent, and is called בעל ברית (“who is in possession of the covenant,” i.e., of the child to be initiated into the covenant). The religious enthusiasm required for the performance of this mitsvah is symbolically represented by “the chair of Elijah” (כסא של אליהו), upon which the child is placed before the operation; Elijah in Jewish Tradition being the type of religious zeal. [↑]
[160] The Service for the occasion is included in the Daily Prayer-book, by Rev. S. Singer, p. 304. [↑]
[161] For the Blessing and Prayers on this occasion, see Prayer-book, p. 308. [↑]
[162] The chief element in this Service is ברכת הגומל, the thanksgiving for the Divine protection enjoyed in the moment of danger. This Blessing is pronounced by (1) those who have crossed the sea, (2) or a desert, (3) or have recovered from a serious illness, (4) or have been released from prison. (Comp. Ps. cvii.) [↑]
[163] Leviticus was generally taken first. [↑]
[164] A misinterpretation of the dictum of Rabbi Eliezer, “Whoso teaches his daughter torah, teaches her, as it were, levity” (Mishnah, Sotah iii. 4), led many to believe that the Rabbis did not wish the daughters of Israel to know the Law. The dictum refers to a discussion which immediately precedes on the efficacy of the “bitter waters.” Rabbi Eliezer holds that it is dangerous to the morality of a woman to engage her thoughts with the details of the Law concerning a wife suspected of adultery (Num. v.). [↑]
[165] The feast in honour of the bar-mitsvah is סעודת מצוה only when it is accompanied by דברי תורה (“Words of the Law”) spoken by him. [↑]
[166] At festivities a glass was broken in order to remind those present of the transient nature of all earthly things, and thus warn them against excess of joy (Babyl. Talm., Berachoth 31a).—The same is done after the wedding ceremony. [↑]
[167] In the Talmud the custom of the ring is not mentioned; anything could be used, provided it had the value of a perutah, a small coin, and was the property of the bridegroom. Among Jews the use of the ring is a modern fashion. The ring must not contain any jewel or precious stone, the value of which can in many cases not easily be estimated, and which might therefore lead to misunderstanding and dispute. [↑]
[168] There are, besides, various explanations of the term chuppah: (1.) The wreath on the head of the bride when led to the marriage ceremony (הינומא, Mishnah, Kethubhoth ii. 10). (2.) A cover over the head of the bride; in some countries, therefore, instead of erecting a canopy, a talith is held over the bride and bridegroom during the ceremony; in others a separate ceremony of covering the head of the bride takes place before the actual marriage (comp. supra, p. 467, note 1). (3.) A private chamber into which bride and bridegroom retire for breakfast when the ceremony is over. [↑]
[169] In order to prevent mistakes the minister reads the formula slowly, and the bridegroom repeats it; the minister omits the word לי “unto me,” and the bridegroom inserts the word by himself, or assisted by some one else. [↑]
[170] “And of Israel” signifies: “According to the Jewish traditional interpretation of the Law of Moses;” these words are added because the rules of kiddushin are not directly mentioned in the Torah. [↑]
[171] The kethubhah is in its essential elements very old, and dates probably back to the time when the Jews in Palestine spoke Aramaic. The [[486]]settlement described in this document should be made to correspond with the actual deed of settlement legally executed. On the other hand, even the poorer bridegrooms should be induced to make a real settlement corresponding to the promises made in the kethubhah. The system of life insurance facilitates such a course. Otherwise the kethubhah has no importance. [↑]
[172] The contents of these Blessings are: (1) Benediction over wine; (2) praise of God as the Creator of the Universe, (3) as the Creator of man, (4) and of woman; (5) prayer for the comfort of Zion, (6) for the rejoicing of the young couple, and (7) for their united happiness. [↑]
[173] Lit., “Good planet.” The term has entirely lost its original meaning, and denotes simply “hearty congratulation.” [↑]
[174] In the Torah polygamy is not forbidden, but not encouraged. It was a luxury inaccessible to the multitude, and the king is distinctly told that he must not have many wives (Deut. xvii. 17). The principle of monogamy is implied in many Biblical passages, as, e.g., Gen. ii. 20 sqq.; Mal. ii. 14; Ps. cxxviii. 3; Prov. v. 18 sqq. [↑]
[175] A woman divorced from her husband by גט or from her brother-in-law by חליצה cannot marry a kohen. [↑]
[176] In every congregation there is a special society of those who devote themselves to the needs of the sick (חברת בקור חולים). See above, p. 302. [↑]
[177] “Many have made confession and have afterwards recovered” are the very words to be addressed to the patient according to the Shulchan-aruch, Jore deah cccxxxviii. [↑]
[178] See Sefer ha-chayyim, and Daily Prayer-book, p. 314 sqq. [↑]
[180] Those present exclaim: ברוך דין אמת “Blessed art thou … who art the true Judge.” The same is done by those who are not present on hearing the sad news. Relatives rend also their garments (קריעה). [↑]
[181] In Hebrew אוננים and אבלים; the former term is applied to the mourners during the time between the death and the interment of their relatives; the latter after the interment during the whole period of mourning. [↑]
[182] Some consider it a dishonour to the departed to leave the corpse unburied over night, since the Law does not allow even the body of a criminal to be treated in this way. The practice may also have commended itself on sanitary grounds. [↑]
[183] The shroud is made of white linen. The kittel or sargenes is part of the raiment in which the dead are clothed. It is the custom in some countries that the bride presents the bridegroom with this article on the wedding-day; and it is worn by the husband on New-Year’s Day and on the Day of Atonement, and on the Seder-evening during the Service. Some think that the object of wearing it is to remind us of death, and thus turn our thoughts away from the vanities of earthly life.—The custom has probably its origin in the fact that the white kittel was the festive garment of the day. [↑]
[184] In Hebrew בית החיים or בית עלמין “the house of life” or “the house of eternity.” [↑]
[185] The case is known by the name of מת מצוה “the corpse which claims attention as a mitsvah.” [↑]
[186] The usual formula is, “May the Almighty comfort you together with those who mourn for Zion and Jerusalem.” These words are addressed to the mourners when they return from the grave to the Hall, while passing the line (שורה) formed by those present, and are repeated during the week of mourning, especially on Friday evening when the mourners enter the Synagogue. When the Service is over, the mourners return home, and partake of a meal prepared for them by friends or neighbours (סעודת הבראה). In days of old wine was taken on that occasion (Kethubhoth 8b), but this custom, like several others, has dropped into oblivion. In the Grace the section which begins ובנה “And build,” is modified during the week of mourning in order to give expression to the sentiments of the mourners. [↑]
[187] During the week of mourning the mourners (1) remain at home, with the exception of Sabbath; (2) abstain from work and business; (3) hold the Morning and the Evening Services at home, and add appropriate psalms (such as xvi. and xlix.), prayers, and meditations; (4) sit on the floor or on low chairs; (5) listen to no music, avoid play, and all kinds of amusement, and (6) let the hair grow long.—During the rest of the month—or of the year, in case of mourning for father or mother—the last two observances are followed; the hair is only cut when it has become cumbersome as well as unsightly, and a banquet is only attended when it is a סעודת מצוה. [↑]
[188] A symbol of the soul of the departed, in reference to Prov. xx. 27. [↑]
[189] The three principal mitsvoth are: Study of the Law (תורה), Divine Service (עבודה), and Charity (גמלות חסדים). As regards the first, a section of the Mishnah is studied daily; as regards the second, the bereaved, during the year of mourning, or on the Jahrzeit, acts as Reader in the Synagogue for the whole or part of the Service; and as regards the third, relief is given to the poor in memoriam. [↑]