V. Divine Worship, עבודה.
In the Midrash the following legend is related: When, at the conclusion of the seventh day, the sun had set and darkness had spread over the earth, Adam was afraid that the world was now coming to an end. But the Almighty caused him to find two stones, by means of which he produced light. On seeing this Adam was full of joy, and although he had himself produced the spark, he felt that it was to his Creator and Master that thanks were due, and gave expression to his feelings in the words, “Blessed art Thou, O [[414]]Lord, our God, King of the Universe, who createst the light of the fire.”
Thus the legend traces the beginning of Divine Worship to the first man; and, in fact, the desire to commune with the Creator and to give outward expression to the inner feeling of reverence and allegiance is so general that it seems to be part of man’s nature.
In a different way this feeling was expressed by the sons of Adam, by Cain and Abel. They brought presents to the Lord, probably accompanied by words of praise and prayer. No essential difference is noticed by us in the offerings of the two brothers; each of them brought what seemed best in his eyes. And yet the offering of Cain was rejected, whilst that of Abel was received favourably. An important lesson it is that Scripture teaches here at the very threshold of the history of sacrifices. It is this: The value of an offering does not lie in its outward appearance, in that which is open to man’s judgment, but in something that is known to the Omniscient alone, in the heart of him who approaches his Creator with a gift, in the motives which prompt him to do so, and in the feelings which accompany that act. From these beginnings the two forms of Divine Worship, Sacrifice and Prayer, gradually developed.
Sacrifice (מנחה, קרבן).
What was the main idea that prompted man to bring an offering to the Almighty? He felt, as it were, the existence of a higher Being, the Creator and Ruler of all things; he was conscious that his own life [[415]]and welfare depended on the Will of the Being to whom in reality everything belongs that man believes himself to possess and to enjoy. In order to give expression to this feeling of allegiance man brought the first and best of what he had acquired to the true Owner, and thus introduced[110] himself by such gifts as a faithful subject who is anxious to merit the favour of his Master. That which was at first introduced by man voluntarily, was afterwards sanctioned and regulated by Divine command.
There were two kinds of sacrifices: bloodless sacrifices, minchah and nesech, “flour-offering” and “drink-offering,” and blood sacrifices: animal-offerings. But no difference is discernible between these two kinds with regard to their importance, sanctity, and efficiency. As a rule, the animal-offering was supplemented by minchah and nesech. The treatment of sacrifices varied according as they were intended to express the feeling of reverence, rejoicing, gratitude, or repentance, and special rules had to be observed in each case, the various kinds of sacrifice being עולה “burnt-offering,” or שלמים “peace-offering,” or תודה “thanksgiving,” or חטאת “sin-offering,” or אשם “guilt-offering.” The Law further fixed the place, the time, and the method of sacrificing, and appointed also the persons who alone were allowed to attend to this function, so that no strange element, no [[416]]idolatrous or superstitious customs, could be introduced into the sacrificial service ordained by the Law.
Great stress is laid on the sprinkling of the blood of the sacrifice upon the altar. “The blood,” the Law says, “is the soul of all flesh; and I have given it to you upon the altar to make an atonement for the soul” (Lev. xvii. 11). We are thus reminded that, in so far as the animal life is concerned, “the pre-eminence of man over the beast is nought,” and yet the Creator gave us the right to shed the blood of animals in order to save our life. Why? Because man has a higher mission to fulfil; he has been created in the image of God.
These and similar reflections were suggested by the different elements constituting the sacrificial rite. With the destruction of the Temple sacrifices ceased; with the Restoration of Israel and the Rebuilding of the Temple the Sacrificial Service will likewise be resumed. (Comp. Mal. iii. 4). There are persons who believe that the Sacrificial Service, implying much of anthropomorphism, could not have been intended to be permanent, and that it was only a concession made to the fashion and the low degree of culture of the age. Those who reject sacrifices on this account must also reject prayer, which is likewise based on a certain degree of anthropomorphism, though less strikingly than sacrifice. If the law concerning offerings were only intended for a certain age, such limitation would have been indicated in the Law. In the absence of such indication we have no right to criticise the Word of God, and to think that we are too advanced in culture to obey the Divine commands, It has been further argued that, [[417]]according to Maimonides and his followers, the laws concerning sacrifices only served as a means of counteracting the idolatrous tendencies of the age. But Maimonides never went so far as to contend that these laws have served their purpose, and are now null and void. Even those laws which have been enacted by human authority remain in force till they are repealed in a regular and legal manner. But what human being can claim a right to abolish laws given by the Almighty? Whether any of the laws of the Torah will ever be abrogated we do not know, but we are sure that, in case of such abrogation taking place, it will be done by a revelation as convincing as that on Mount Sinai.
On the other hand, the revival of the Sacrificial Service must likewise be sanctioned by the divine voice of a prophet. The mere acquisition of the Temple Mount or of all Palestine by Jews, by war, or political combinations, or purchase, would not justify the revival. It is only the return of the Jews to Palestine, and the rebuilding of the Temple by Divine command and by Divine intervention, that will be followed by the restoration of the Sacrificial Service. And however contrary the slaughter of animals, the sprinkling of their blood, and the burning of their flesh be to our taste, we ought to look forward with eagerness and pleasure for the revival of the full Temple Service as an event that will enable us to do the Will of the Almighty revealed in the Torah. Instead of modelling the Divine laws according to our liking, we ought rather to regulate the latter according to the teaching of Scripture, and suppress it when contrary to the express Will of God. We therefore give [[418]]expression to our hope “for the restoration of the Temple with its ancient Service” in frequent and fervent prayers, and in accordance with the exhortation of Hosea (xiv. 2) we read each day during the Service Scriptural passages referring to the sacrifice of the day.
“Sacrifices have been condemned by prophets and psalmists”! But in the passages which seem antagonistic to sacrifices only those sacrifices are referred to which are brought in a wrong spirit or from bad motives. (Comp. 1 Sam. xv. 22; Isa. i. 11–13, xliii. 24, lxvi. 2; Jer. vii. 21; Hosea vi. 6; Amos v. 25; Ps. l. 8.)
Prayers, תפלה[111]
Prayer is the general name for that form of Divine Worship which is expressed in words; it has a wider scope than sacrifices, for it is not limited to a special place, or to a certain time, or to one privileged family. It is accessible to all, in all places and at all times. All alike are addressed by the Psalmist, “Let everything that hath breath praise the Lord. Praise ye the Lord” (Ps. cl. 6).
There is no direct commandment in the Torah concerning prayer; it is rather assumed as a matter of course, and as inseparable from our belief in God. According to Tradition (Sifre on Deut. xi. 13), the exhortation to serve God with all the heart implies the duty of prayer. “What duty depends on the heart? It is the duty of prayer.” (Comp. Maim. Mishneh-torah, [[419]]Hilchoth Tefillah i. 1.) The following are a few of the general rules laid down by our Sages with regard to Prayer:—
“Better little with devotion (כונה) than much without devotion” (Shulchan-aruch, Orach Chayyim i. 4).
“During prayer bear in mind before whom you stand” (Babyl. T., Berachoth 28b).
“The value of the words uttered with the lips is determined by the devotion of the heart” (Babyl. T., Berachoth 15b).
What is devotion? The concentration of all our attention upon the words we utter, the banishment of all foreign thoughts from the mind, and the consciousness that we stand in the presence of the Almighty, whom it is our duty to love, fear, and obey. A prayer uttered in this frame of mind is called “a prayer without lips of deceit” (Ps. xvii. 1). Comp. Maim., l. c., iv. 15.
It is a matter of course that indecorous conduct, unbecoming attitudes, and the like cannot harmonise with true devotion. With regard to language, form, time, and place of prayer nothing was fixed originally; all was regulated by the momentary impulse of the heart of the worshipper. But people who considered themselves incapable of giving adequate expression to their devotional feelings borrowed the words of those more capable than themselves and followed their leading. Such a course was also necessary for common and united devotion. When a certain prayer or a certain order of Service was frequently repeated at the same season and in the same place, the form, the time, and the place of prayer became to a certain degree fixed by custom—[[420]]minhag—and that which had in the beginning been voluntary (רשות) was subsequently made law or duty (מצוה or חובה).[112]
The minhag is a most important element in Jewish religious life. What one has been accustomed to do for a long time, or even from his earliest youth, is deeply impressed on the heart, and is not readily surrendered. Such customs are sometimes more cherished and more firmly adhered to than express precepts.[113] It is the outcome of this respect for custom that in all countries the Jews pray in Hebrew. But nevertheless the general principle remains in force that it is not the language that determines the value of prayer but “the devotion of the heart,” and those who do not understand Hebrew may give expression to “the devotion of their heart” in the language they understand and speak. Women, who as a rule were not expected to be Hebrew scholars, used to read translations of the Hebrew prayers in the vernacular instead of, or in addition to, the original; they had also prayers composed for them in the vernacular (תחנות). And in more ancient times, when the Jews of Babylon had adopted the Aramean dialect spoken in that country, and retained it also after their return to Palestine, many prayers were composed in the more familiar [[421]]language, although Hebrew was retained for the principal prayers. Hebrew has a special claim to privilege and distinction among the Jews. It is our national language, which our forefathers once spoke; it is the language in which the Almighty addressed the prophets, and through them the Israelites; the language in which God revealed His Will to the Israelites on Mount Sinai; the language in which the holy Psalmist sang the praises of the Creator, the priests blessed the people, and worshippers prayed in the Temple at Jerusalem. It must be the pride of every Jew to be enabled to pray at home, and especially in the Synagogues, in that same language, and if Hebrew be not the language of his every-day life, he should seek to perfect his knowledge of it to such an extent that he shall be able to understand the prayers and to pray with his whole heart. Those who seek the abolition of Hebrew in our Services aim, consciously or unconsciously, at the destruction of our nationality as the people of the Lord, by breaking asunder one important link which connects us with the wonderful past of our nation.
Equally indifferent with regard to the value of prayer are its length and its form. The Bible offers examples for all kinds and lengths of prayer. If one wishes to pray in a few words, he need only follow the example of Moses, who in the moment of anguish uttered nothing beyond the words, “O God, heal her now” (Num. xii. 13). If one prefers a long prayer, he may also take Moses as a guide, who prayed forty days for the forgiveness of the Israelites after they had made the golden calf (Deut. ix. 18, 25). Both prayers [[422]]were equally efficacious. Miriam was healed, and the Israelites obtained pardon. With regard to the form, we have in the Bible prayers in prose and in poetry; some uttered in simple speech, others in song; some with musical accompaniment, some without it. All of them seem to have been at first the response to a momentary impulse, but were afterwards repeated on similar occasions in the original or in a modified form.
Among the various motives that impel us to seek communion with our Father, is the desire for certain things which we have not, and the conviction that it is solely in His hand to fulfil our wishes.[114] A genuine prayer of this kind—for the fulfilment of certain wishes of ours—is impossible without the belief in the efficacy of prayer. We cannot with certainty expect that our petition will be granted, but we hope that it will; we submit our wishes to the Will of the Almighty. The Hebrew name for prayer תפלה implied the idea of judgment, as if we judged whether the concession of our petition might fairly be anticipated. Such judgment, however, is not to be considered as decisive; and if our request is to be granted, it will be as an act of mercy and grace (רחמים ותחנונים), and not because it is a claim fully proved (קבע).[115] We hope that our prayer will be granted, but never lose sight of the condition “if it please God.” There are a few exceptional cases. Prophets like Moses (Exod. viii. 6), Samuel (1 Sam. [[423]]xii. 17), Elijah (1 Kings xviii.), Elisha (2 Kings iv. 33 sqq.), and others, men inspired by the Almighty, were, on certain occasions, sure of the effect of their prayer. In the Mishnah (Taanith iii. 8) the case of Choni (חוני המעגל) is mentioned, who spoke with certainty of the result of his prayer. It must, however, in the latter case be added that the head of the Sanhedrin, Shimeon ben Shatach, blamed him for his conduct.
This we know for certain, that whenever and wherever we respond to an inner impulse by the utterance of a prayer, God is near us, for “He is nigh unto all them that call upon him, to all that call upon him in truth” (Ps. cxlv. 18); that we and the place on which we stand are hallowed by the Divine Presence. Places once hallowed by such devotion, whether of our own or of our fellow-men, we like to visit again and again for the same purpose. The spot of Jacob’s first communion with God thus became “the house of God;” and even during the period when there was one central Sanctuary for the Sacrificial Service in Israel, at Gilgal, Mizpah, Shiloh, and later in Jerusalem, there were houses of God throughout the country for devotion unaccompanied by sacrifices. These were “the meeting-places of God” (Ps. lxxiv. 8), in which the Israelites assembled to meet their Creator. Such houses of God were established wherever Jews settled; their main purpose was united devotion; but they served also many other purposes—in fact, every holy, good, and noble cause. The house of God was the Assembly-house, Synagogue (בית הכנסת), in which the affairs of the community (צרכי צבור) were settled; [[424]]the young had there their school, adults came there for religious instruction, and found there opportunity for the study of the Law, and the poor and stranger received there support and hospitality.
In a Jewish Synagogue there were two important features, the platform (בימה) and an ark (תבה) containing scrolls of the Law. From the platform in the middle of the Synagogue, the lessons from the Pentateuch and the Prophets were recited, and everything else that was directly or indirectly addressed to the congregants. But prayers addressed to the Most High were offered up from a lower place near the Holy Ark,[116] in accordance with the words of the Psalmist (cxxx. 1), “Out of the depth have I cried unto thee, O Lord.”
The Ark, or Holy Ark (ארון or ארון הקדש), in almost all modern Synagogues—in places west of Jerusalem—occupies the middle of the east side of the Synagogue. In the time of the Talmud the Synagogues were to some extent made to resemble the Tabernacle which the Israelites built in the wilderness or the Temple in Jerusalem. The entrance was from the east, and the Ark, which was to represent the Most Holy, was in the west. The Ark was, like the original one, movable. It was called tebhah, lit. “box,” in order to distinguish it from the original. The recess in which it was kept was the Hechal or Kodesh, “The Holy.” The tebhah seems to have served both as a [[425]]receptacle for the scrolls of the Law, and as a desk on which these were put whenever they were required for the reading of the Torah. On certain extraordinary occasions, when, on account of the absence of rain, a general fast was ordered, the tebhah, with a Sefer-torah on it, was carried into the street,[117] where a special service was held.
The reason why the entrance to the Sanctuary and to the Synagogues was from the east, and the worshippers consequently stood during prayer with their face toward the west, may, according to the Mishnah (Succah v. 4), be explained thus: The principal prayer of the day being that in the morning, the Jews, as a protest against the sun-worship of the idolaters, who at that hour were accustomed to greet the sun with their prayer, turned away from the east and offered up their prayer to the Almighty in the opposite direction. When sun-worship had ceased, probably after the destruction of the second Temple, the national grief and hope found expression in the custom of praying toward the Sanctuary in Jerusalem. Hence the Jews who live west of Jerusalem stand during prayer with the face toward the east, while those east of Jerusalem turn westward. This custom is, besides, supported by the following passage from the prayer of King Solomon: “And they pray unto thee toward their land, which thou gavest unto their fathers, the [[426]]city which thou hast chosen, and the house which I have built for thy name” (1 Kings viii. 48).[118]
In most Synagogues there is a continual lamp (נר תמיד) burning. It is a Biblical institution, but only designed for the Sanctuary; its presence in the Synagogue is of comparatively modern date. The ner tamid of the Sanctuary, however, is explained to be a lamp burning “from evening to morning” (Exod. xxvii. 21). A golden candlestick standing in the Sanctuary against the south side, with its seven branches arranged from east to west, served this purpose. According to Tradition it was the second branch, counting from east to west, which really burnt continually; but this was not considered as implied in the term ner tamid, which only meant “a continual lamp” in the sense of a lamp that burns regularly every night.
The ner tamid in the Synagogue, which burns continually day and night, is not mentioned by any of the earlier Rabbinical authors. It has been introduced as a symbol representing our conviction that from the Synagogue shall continually come forth the light of instruction, the light of comfort and blessing, and the light of love and peace.
In the Synagogue women are separated from men. There was also in the Temple an עזרת נשים “court of the women,” distinguished from the עזרת אנשים “court of the men,” to which women had no access. During the Feast of Tabernacles, when the great rejoicings in the Temple attracted a large assembly, special care was taken (תקון גדול היה שם) that the separation of the sexes should be maintained (Mishnah, Succah v. 2; and [[427]]Talm. B., Succah 51b). This precedent has been followed in the Synagogue, and has been accepted as law up to this day.
Reservedness and modesty (צניעות) have always been the pride and ornament of Jewish women, both in their homes and in the Synagogue; hence also their taking a silent part in the public devotion is an honour to them, and by no means derogatory.
In addition to the above-mentioned points, a Synagogue ought to be distinguished by the greatest possible simplicity, by the absence of all kinds of images, portraits, or statues representing living beings, whether real or imaginary. The Jewish religion is void of every visible symbol; and the so-called magen-david (the double triangle) is probably not of Jewish origin, and has no connection with our holy religion. It is not a symbol of this kind, but some inscription of a passage from the Scriptures that in most houses of worship reminds us of the sacredness of the place. We enter it with due reverence, manifesting it outwardly, in our peculiar traditional manner, by keeping the head covered. It is our ancient custom to cover the head when engaged in prayers, in reading the Bible or Talmud and their commentaries. This outward sign serves to remind us that not only our Service but even our literature is something holy, and its study a religious act (מצוה).[119]
Before we proceed to describe the details of our [[428]]ritual, we mention one important point in which the present Synagogal Service differs from the ancient Service in the Temple. From what we are told in the Scriptures and in the Talmud, we learn that instrumental music was an essential element in the Service, and that King David and his successors paid great attention to it, whilst, with a few exceptions, it is almost entirely absent from our Synagogues. The principal reason why instrumental music is excluded from the Synagogue is its prohibition on Sabbaths and Holy-days by Rabbinical law (Babyl. T., Erubin 104a). This prohibition, like many other enactments, did not apply to the Temple Service; for the sacrificial laws had to be obeyed, irrespective of the fact that they involved acts which, if performed apart from the Temple Service, would constitute a breach of the Sabbath laws. Apart from the Temple Service the Sabbath laws remained in full force for the priests as well as for the general public.
There were also other considerations that helped to keep instrumental music out of the Synagogue Service. Its absence, though not directly a sign of mourning, served to preserve the memory of the destruction of the Temple, and to strengthen our longing for its restoration. It is also urged that the introduction of instrumental music into the Service would not satisfy any real want of Jewish worshippers, but would merely be a concession to the desire to assimilate our Divine Service to that of our non-Jewish neighbours, contrary to the prohibition of chukkoth haggoyim contained in the words, “Ye shall not walk in their statutes” (Lev. xviii. 3), i.e., in the statutes of the Gentiles. But, on [[429]]the other hand, it has been argued that the feeling once expressed by the nation in the words “This is my God, and I will worship him in a beautiful manner” (Exod. xv. 2), still animates us. It is said that it is our duty to make our Service as beautiful and as attractive as possible. This argument deserves consideration, and might even outweigh some of the above-mentioned arguments against the introduction of music into our Service, if we were sure of the result of such introduction. But this is by no means the case, for the experiment, where tried, has not been successful if judged by the most practical test. The number of worshippers has not been increased, and discontent has not been removed. Whether the devotion of the worshippers has been improved, refined, or intensified by music is a question that cannot be answered with certainty. Even if the answer were satisfactory, it could only apply to the introduction of instrumental music into our Service on week-days, on Friday evening before the commencement of Sabbath, but not on Sabbaths and Holy-days.
The Ritual.
In the Bible there is no indication of a fixed ritual; there are, however, a few instances of forms of prayer prescribed for certain occasions. There is the priests’ blessing (Num. vi. 24–26); the thanksgiving on bringing the first-fruit offering to the Temple (Deut. xxvi. 3–10); prayer on distributing the tithes which accumulated in three years (ibid. 13–15). David (Ps. lv. 18) says, “Evening, and morning, and at [[430]]noonday do I pray;” Daniel “kneeled upon his knees three times a day and prayed, and gave thanks before his God, as he did aforetime” (Dan. vi. 11); but nothing is said about the form and the contents of these prayers. The Mishnah first speaks of certain fixed forms of prayer: the “Eighteen” (שמונה עשרה), the reading of Shema (קריאת שמע), and Benedictions (ברכות). The composition of the tefillah, “Prayer” par excellence, is attributed to the Men of the Great Synagogue (אנשי כנסת הגדולה), but only in its outlines. The number of the paragraphs, the theme of each paragraph, and the formula by which it is concluded may then have been fixed, the rest being left to be filled up by each supplicant according to his capacity. It was but natural that prayers uttered repeatedly by men eminent for their piety should be eagerly copied by others, and gradually become, to some extent at least, fixed forms of prayer. The tefillah, however, in the time of the Mishnah was by no means identical with the tefillah of the Men of the Great Synagogue. The destruction of the Temple necessitated several changes; e.g., the prayers for the welfare of Jerusalem, for the prosperity of Israel and of the Holy Land, and for the acceptance of the Service in the Temple were altered in accordance with the new state of affairs.
The Mishnah speaks of the tefillah as a well-known existing institution; it seems that it was the regular prayer in the Synagogue Service, and the discussion whether the tefillah should be repeated every day in extenso or in an abbreviated form (Mishnah, Berachoth iv. 3) refers probably to the prayer recited privatim (תפלת יחיד), and not to the Service in the Synagogue. [[431]]The prescribed “Eighteen Blessings” were the framework, into which each man was expected to fit in his peculiar, individual supplications; whilst in the public Service the tefillah remained uniform. In the days of Rabban Gamliel of Jamnia, and with his sanction, an important addition was made by Samuel: a prayer for the discomfiture of those who by slander, denunciation, or other wicked means attempt to undermine the existence of the Jewish religion and community (ברכת הצדוקים or ברכת המינים).[120] In some congregations two other paragraphs (את צמח and ולירושלם) were at the same time combined into one, in order to keep to the traditional “Eighteen Blessings.”[121]
The reading of shema in the evening and in the morning, the three sections constituting the shema, and the order of these sections, are assumed in the Mishnah as fully established by law and usage. Only a few regulations are discussed concerning the time and the mode of the reading. There was this difference between the custom of the Babylonian Jews and that of their brethren in Palestine, that the latter omitted in the evening the passage referring to tsitsith. Later on, however, the Palestine Jews conformed to the Babylonian custom. Suggestions have been made [[432]]to substitute other Biblical passages for shema, but they have been rejected. Several attempts have been made to introduce, as an addition to the three sections of shema, the reading of the Decalogue; the addition was disallowed, lest people should be misled to think that the Ten Commandments alone were to be observed, and that the other laws were not binding (Babyl. T., Berachoth 12a).[122]
The Benedictions which precede and follow the reading of shema were fixed in the time of the Mishnah as regards number, order, and form; but the contents were left unsettled for some time (Mishnah, Berachoth i. 4); in the Gemara their wording is still a subject for discussion. The same can be said with regard to the relative order of shema and tefillah. For the Evening Service the tefillah seems to have generally been considered as optional. As to Benedictions in general, their obligatory character is assumed in the Mishnah as admitted by all, and only their form seems to have been fixed by the regulations mentioned in Berachoth vi.–ix.
The Mishnah (Megillah iii. 4–iv. 10) includes a number of regulations concerning the reading of the Law, the Prophets, and the Book of Esther. Detailed rules were laid down for the reader and the translator (methurgeman), pointing out which passages should be omitted in the translation, and which should be omitted [[433]]even in the original. It seems that there was a regular, consecutive reading, which was interrupted on extraordinary days by the reading of passages referring to these days.
The ritual which was adopted for the priests in the Temple was an abridged form of the ritual then in general use. It was as follows: They commenced with a benediction—the first of those which precede the shema (יוצר אור); then they read the Decalogue, shema (the three paragraphs), and three further benedictions, אמת ויציב, עבודה (corresponding to רצה in our prayer), and the blessing of the priests (Mishnah, Tamid v. 1).
A special ritual is also mentioned in the Talmud (Mishnah, Taanith iv. 2) for the Maamadoth and the Fast-days.[123] There were four Services daily, as on the Day of Atonement. The principal feature in the Service of the Maamadoth was the reading of the first chapter of Genesis.
At the conclusion of the Talmud (about 500 C.E.) the essential parts of our present ritual were already in a settled state; the shema with the benedictions preceding and following, the tefillah with its variations for New-moon, Sabbath, and Holy-days, the reading from the Law and the prophets, and Hallel. The Seder evening Service was complete in its main parts. [[434]]Of the Benedictions (Berachoth) on various occasions both form and contents were fixed, and the rule was laid down by Rabbi Meir (Berachoth 40a) that he who uttered a berachah in a form different from that fixed by our Sages has not fulfilled his duty (or, according to Maimonides, Hilchoth Berachoth i. 5, is in error). Notwithstanding this rule, however, changes were made; new benedictions were introduced and old ones discontinued.[124]—Kaddish and Kedushah seem to have formed part of the Service; of the latter the Talmud mentions the name, of the former the response: “May his great Name be praised” יהא שמו הגדול מבורך or יהא שמיה רבא מ׳ (Comp. Babyl. Talm., Berachoth 3a).
In the next period, that of the Geonim, we meet with the complete Siddur, “Arrangement” or “Order” of Service for ordinary days, for Sabbaths and Festivals, Benedictions for all occasions, and Piyyutim as optional additions. Such a Siddur was arranged by the Gaon Rabbenu Saadiah (892–942), and another by the Gaon Rabbenu Amram (about 880). Henceforth the principal prayers underwent only insignificant alterations. Of the next period the most important Siddurim are those included in the Mishneh-torah, at the end of the second book, and that contained in the Machzor Vitry.[125]
The additional prayers and piyyutim, being optional, varied according to the taste of each congregation and [[435]]its leaders; in course of time these variations became permanent; the same was the case with minor changes, especially in the less essential elements of the Service, and thus the various Minhagim (Rites) of the various congregations came into existence. The principal Minhagim of importance for us are: the Polish, the Sephardic, the German, and the Italian Rites.[126] In the following description of the Ritual only the two rites adopted in the principal Synagogues of the Anglo-Jewish congregations in England will be noted.
Prayers at Fixed Times.
Although we constantly enjoy the blessings of God, the very breath we breathe being the gift of our Heavenly Father, yet certain seasons of the day, of the week, of the month, and of the year have been selected as especially fit for reminding us of God’s kindness, and predisposing our heart to devotion. Thus in the day, morning, noon and evening have been fixed for prayer; in the week, Sabbath; in the month, New-moon; in the year, the Festivals.
We have three daily Services: Maaribh, “Evening prayer;” Shacharith, “Morning prayer,”[127] and Minchah, “Afternoon prayer.” On Sabbath, New-moon, and Festivals an “Additional prayer,” Musaf, is inserted [[436]]between the Morning and the Afternoon Services, and on the Day of Atonement, Neïlah, “Concluding Service,” is added after Minchah.
The two most essential elements in these Services are: (1) the Reading of Shema (קריאת שמע), in the Maaribh and the Shacharith; (2) the Tefillah or Amidah, common to all the Services.
1. The Reading of Shema.
In obedience to the precept, “Thou shalt speak of them,” i.e., of “the words which I command thee this day—when thou liest down and when thou risest up,” three sections of the Law are read daily in the morning and in the evening, viz., (1) Deut. vi. 4–9, beginning שמע “Hear;” (2) Ibid. xi. 13–21, beginning והיה אם שמע תשמעו “And it shall be if ye will diligently hearken;” (3) Num. xv. 37–41, beginning ויאמר יי “And the Lord said.” The first section teaches the Unity of God, and our duty to love this One God with all our heart, to make His Word the subject of our constant meditation, and to instil it into the heart of the young.—The second section contains the lesson of reward and punishment: that our success depends on our obedience to the Will of God. This important truth must constantly be kept before our eyes and before the eyes of our children.—The third section contains the commandment of tsitsith, the object of which is to remind us of God’s precepts: “Ye shall see it and remember all the commandments of the Lord and do them, and that ye seek not after your own heart and your own eyes, after which ye use to go astray, that [[437]]you remember and do all my commandments, and be holy unto your God.”
The reading of the shema is preceded by two berachoth: (1) יוצר אור Praise of the Creator for the regular sequence of day and night, light and darkness; (2) אהבה רבה or אהבת עולם Praise of His goodness in giving us the Torah, and prayer for His assistance in the study of the Torah. The shema is followed by a berachah on the Redemption of Israel; it contains a reflection on the last words of shema, “I am the Lord your God,” an expression of our faith in the truth of these words, which strengthen our belief in the future Redemption of Israel.[128] In the Evening Service a second berachah follows, beginning השכיבנו, and containing a prayer for protection during the night.[129]
2. The Tefillah or Amidah.
The Tefillah, “Prayer” par excellence, is called Amidah (lit., “standing”), because the worshipper stands during the time he offers it up. It is also called Shemoneh-esreh, “Eighteen,” because it contains on most occasions eighteen (or nineteen, comp. p. 431) paragraphs, each concluding with a benediction. [[438]]
The first three paragraphs contain praise of God’s goodness to us, the descendants of the pious patriarchs (1), His omnipotence (2), and His holiness (3).
The next thirteen paragraphs are petitions for our individual and national well-being. For our individual well-being (4–9), namely, for reason and wisdom (4), assistance in our endeavour to return to God (5), forgiveness of our sins (6), deliverance from trouble (7), from illness (8), and from want (9).—For our national well-being (10–15), namely, for the gathering of those who are scattered (10), under good leaders (11), protected from the evil designs of our foes (12), for the support of the faithful (13), the rebuilding of Jerusalem (14), and the advent of Messiah (15). The sixteenth paragraph is a prayer that our petition may be accepted.—The last three paragraphs include a petition for the re-establishment of Divine Service in the Temple of Jerusalem (17), thanksgiving (18), and prayer for peace and prosperity (19). When the prayer is finished we express the wish that our lips, from which prayer to God has come forth, may not be defiled by unworthy language.
On Sabbaths, Holy-days, and in every Musaph the thirteen middle paragraphs are replaced by one in which reference is made to the characteristic feature of the day; in the Musaph of New-year three berachoth (p. 404) are substituted for the thirteen middle berachoth of the ordinary tefillah. The thirteen paragraphs have been eliminated in order that we should not be reminded on Sabbath and Holy-days of our failings, wants, and troubles; that those seasons should be [[439]]marked by a happier and more cheerful mood than ordinary days (supra, p. 354).
There are two shorter forms of the tefillah for urgent occasions: the one is a substitute for the “Eighteen,” in which the middle thirteen paragraphs are contracted into one; it is called הביננו (the first word of this middle section), or מעין שמונה עשרה “abstract of the ‘Eighteen.’ ” The other is a contraction of the Friday evening tefillah, and is called מעין שבע “abstract of the ‘Seven’ ” (scil., paragraphs forming the tefillah), originally intended for those who were too late for the full Service.[130]
Each of the above Services ends with a prayer called after its initial word alenu, “It is our duty.” In this prayer we thank God that we have the privilege of proclaiming His Unity, and express our hope to see the worship of the One God adopted by all mankind. It is omitted between two Services following closely the one upon the other.
In addition to the above, the Service contains the following parts:—
(1.) ברכות השחר “Blessings of the Morning,” forming the first part of the Morning Service. It contains benedictions, reflections, and prayers suggested by the change from night to day, from sleep to wakefulness, from rest to activity.
(2.) Psalms.—Our Service contains various groups of psalms: chief among them the mizmorim or pesuke dezimrah (“songs” or “verses of song”), and shir shel yom (“song of the day”), in the Morning Service. The former include Ps. cxlv. to cl., some other psalms, and [[440]]the song of Moses (Exod. xv.). The latter correspond to the songs of the Levites in the Temple, and consist of Ps. xxiv. (for Sunday), xlviii. (for Monday), lxxxii. (for Tuesday), xciv. (for Wednesday), lxxxi. (for Thursday), xciii. (for Friday), and xcii. (for Saturday).—The repetition of Ps. cxlv. three times a day, twice during Shacharith and once during Minchah, is an old minhag (Babyl. Talm., Berachoth, p. 4b).
(3.) Supplications (תחנונים) added in the Morning and the Afternoon Services after the tefillah.
(4.) Readings from the Bible and Post-Biblical Sacred Literature, such as Num. vi. 22 sqq. (priests’ blessing); Gen. xxii. (binding of Isaac); Exod. xvi. (manna); Mishnah, Peah i. 1, and Babyl. T., Shabbath 127a, in the earlier part of the Morning Service; and words of comfort (beginning ובא לציון) from the Prophets after the “Supplications.” Originally an exposition of the Written and the Oral Law followed the “Supplications,” and concluded with Messianic prophecies, recited in Hebrew and in the Chaldee Version.
(5.) Biblical and Post-Biblical passages referring to the Sacrificial Service, in the Morning and the Afternoon Services.
In addition to the above Services, read either in the Synagogue or privately at home, there is a special prayer read by us before retiring to rest. The chief element in it is the first section of shema; hence the name קריאת שמע שעל המטה “Reading of shema before going to bed.” Some psalms and supplications are generally added. [[441]]
Public Service, תפלה בצבור.[131]
The following points mark off the Public Service from the various forms of private prayer:—
(1.) Kaddish, “Sanctification,” a prayer for the universal sanctification of God’s name, which will distinguish the age of Messiah. In the second part of the Kaddish we pray for the Messianic peace, and in the last sentence express our hope that it may soon be granted.
Formerly the Kaddish concluded the Service; at present it is recited at the end of the Service in its full form (קדיש שלם “the whole Kaddish”); the first half (חצי קדיש “half-Kaddish”) has its place at the end of a section of the Service—e.g., after the פסוקי דזמרה in the Morning Service; a third form is recited by mourners after עלינו and after special hymns or psalms; it is the whole Kaddish with the omission of the sentence beginning תתקבל. It is called קדיש יתום “Kaddish of the orphan,” and is intended to express the mourner’s faith in God and his resignation to His Will.—Sometimes a special Kaddish, called Kaddish dirabbanan, is recited after the reading of some Talmudic or Midrashic passages. It is the same as Kaddish shalem, except that the sentence beginning תתקבל is replaced by a prayer for the welfare of the scholars, the Rabbis, and their pupils. [[442]]
(2.) Repetition of the tefillah by the Reader, with the addition of Kedushah before the third paragraph, and the Priests’ Blessing before the last paragraph, of the tefillah. The Kedushah, “Proclamation of the Holiness of God,” is based on the visions of Isa. vi. and of Ezek. iii., with citation of three verses, Isa. vi. 3, Ezek. iii. 12, and Ps. cxlvi. 10, in which the Holiness, Glory, and Kingdom of God are proclaimed.
The Priests’ Blessing, originally spoken by priests, descendants of Aaron, is now in most Synagogues included by the Reader in the tefillah by way of quotation; only on Holy-days it is pronounced by the priests.
(3.) קריאת התורה “the Reading of the Law,” and the “Lessons from the Prophets” (הפטרה), with the benedictions preceding and following (supra, p. 348).
Occasional Prayers—Benedictions, ברכות.
The feeling of our dependence on the goodness of God must constantly be present to our mind. Whatever we enjoy, be it in the form of eating or drinking, or some pleasing or remarkable sight, an agreeable smell, a festivity on a joyful event, or the performance of a Divine commandment (מצוה); whatever befall us, whether it be pleasant or unpleasant—all this we consider as sent to us by the Will of the Almighty, and we express our conviction by a suitable berachah. The general rule is thus laid down by our Sages: It is unlawful for man to enjoy anything on earth without previously acknowledging by a berachah that God is the source whence the enjoyment is derived. For [[443]]different cases different forms of “blessings” have been fixed by our Sages. In some cases the enjoyment is also followed by a prayer of thanksgiving, the most important being the prayer after meals, called ברכת המזון “Benediction for food or Grace.”[132] In the Mishnah it is called “Three Blessings” (שלש ברכות), because it consisted originally of three paragraphs, each ending with a benediction. The three paragraphs are the following: (1) ברכת הזן (“Benediction commencing הזן”), in which we praise God’s providential care of all creatures. (2) הודאה “Thanksgiving,” or ברכת הארץ (Benediction referring to Palestine). In this paragraph we offer thanks for our individual sustenance, as well as for our national gifts: Palestine, the Covenant, and the Law. (3) Prayer for the restoration of Zion and the rebuilding of the Temple (בנין ירושלם).—Subsequently a fourth paragraph was added (הטוב והמטיב “who is good and causes His creatures to be good”) in commemoration of the relief given to the Jews after the close of the war with Hadrian.[133]—On certain occasions, e.g., at a wedding repast, suitable additions are made. Besides these, various supplications have been added in later times.
There are various short forms of this ברכת המזון; the shortest is that for children, “Blessed be the Merciful, the Giver of this bread.”[134]—When three grown-up male persons or more have their meal together, [[444]]a special introductory form is used, called זמון “summons to prayer,” one of the company acting as Reader, and the rest forming the congregation.
Another form of thanksgiving is the “Abstract of the Three Blessings” (מעין שלש), consisting of one paragraph which contains the whole of the Grace in a contracted form, and is used after cake, wine, and the like.
No restriction is enforced upon us if we desire on our part to give expression to our feeling of gratitude and reverence toward the Almighty in our own words on occasions not provided for in the ancient forms of benedictions and prayers. In order, however, to make a distinction between the forms of obligatory berachoth fixed by our Sages and the optional ones introduced by ourselves, we do not employ the words, “O Lord, our God, King of the Universe,” which are essential in the former.