DOCUMENTARY SUPPLEMENT
The purpose of these notes is to meet an insistent demand for authorities for the statements made in the body of the book. As was mentioned in the Introduction, in a work of this compass and aim, mere lack of space forbade all but the barest outlines, so that often an appearance of dogmatism was the result.
There is a vast literature on the subjects discussed and to give all the references would be almost a physical impossibility. It is particularly difficult to name all that has appeared in periodicals, since they have become so numerous, especially during the last few years.
The author has in mind to refer only to those works which bear directly on the most essential statements made and, necessarily, to but a part of these. In many cases only books which are most easily available have been used. The author has intentionally quoted chiefly works in English, where these exist, and when using foreign authorities has translated the statements.
It must be clearly understood that the references are given for the facts rather than the theories they contain. In no case, unless specifically stated, is the author committed to the conclusions drawn in the works cited. In order to present all sides, authorities who differ in viewpoint are sometimes listed, the reader being left to make his own decision of the case.
It is hoped that the references will be of assistance to students of anthropology and to those who care to inquire further into the subjects under discussion.
Where an author is quoted frequently or for more than one book, he is referred to merely by name; the book is given by number immediately following. Its full title may be ascertained in the bibliography.
DOCUMENTARY SUPPLEMENT
PART I
INTRODUCTION
Page xix : line 22. Immutability of somatological or bodily characters. Charles B. Davenport, pp. 225 seq. and 252 seq.: William E. Castle, 1, pp. 125 seq.; Frederick Adams Woods, 3, p. 107; and Edwin G. Conklin, 1, pp. 191 seq. See the note to p. 226, 7 for a quotation from Conklin bearing on this point.
xix : 23. Immutability of psychical predispositions and impulses. See note above. Professor Irving Fisher said, on p. 627 of National Vitality, speaking of laws relating to eugenics: “What such laws might accomplish may be judged from the history of two criminal families, the ‘Jukes’ and the ‘Tribe of Ishmael.’ Out of 1,200 descendants from the founder of the ‘Jukes’ through 75 years, 310 were professional paupers ... 50 were prostitutes, 7 murderers, 60 habitual thieves, and 130 common criminals.” Certainly these facts were not all due entirely to identity or similarity of environment. On p. 675 we read: “Similarly, the ‘Tribe of Ishmael,’ numbering 1,692 individuals in six generations, has produced 121 known prostitutes and has bred hundreds of petty thieves, vagrants and murderers. The history of the tribe is a swiftly moving picture of social degeneration and gross parasitism extending from its seventeenth century convict ancestry to the present day horde of wandering and criminal descendants.” See R. L. Dugdale and Oscar C. McCulloch, pp. 154–159. For transmission of opposite tendencies see pp. 675–676, Fisher. The Jukes were a family of Dutch descent, living in an isolated valley in the mountains of northern New York. The Ishmaels were a family of central Indiana which came from Maryland through Kentucky. The Kalikak family is another striking instance. See also Davenport, 1, and the note to p. 226: 7.
xxi : 5. Professor Charles B. Davenport says in correspondence: “By the way, it was Judge John Lowell who added ‘free and’ to the words of the Declaration in writing the Constitution of Massachusetts in the latter part of the eighteenth century.”
xxiii : 20–25. A Statistical Account of the British Empire. J. R. McCulloch, vol. I, pp. 400 seq.
CHAPTER I. RACE AND DEMOCRACY
4 : 6. Archbishop Ussher, 1581–1656. See the New Schaff-Herzog Religious Encyclopedia; also other religious encyclopedias. Taylor, Origin of the Aryans, p. 8.
5 : 15. See Émile Faguet, Le Culte de l’Incompétence.
6 : 3. Cf. The Loyalists of Massachusetts, by James H. Stark.
9 : 7. A good description of conditions is to be found in Bryce’s The Remarkable History of the Hudson’s Bay Company, p. 73, all of chapter XLII and elsewhere.
10 : 3 seq. Charles B. Davenport, passim, has discussed migratory instincts, see especially 1.
10 : 16–17. These conditions are quaintly described in what is known as the Italian Relation, translated by Charlotte Augusta Sneyd. See especially pp. 34 and 36. The resulting laws may be found in Sir James Fitzjames Stephen’s History of the Criminal Law of England, vol. III, pp. 267 seq.; Pollard’s Political History of England, vol. VI, pp. 29–30; Green’s History of the English People, vol. II, pp. 20; and elsewhere.
11 : 3. See the note to p. 79: 15.
11 : 17. See Notes to p. 218: 16.
11 : 20. For a very interesting series of letters written from Santo Domingo in 1808 concerning conditions among the whites as the negro slaves were gaining the ascendancy, consult the anonymous Secret History, or The Horrors of Santo Domingo, in a series of letters written by a lady at Cape François to Colonel Burr (late Vice-President of the United States), principally during the command of General Rochambeau. Lothrop Stoddard, in his French Revolution in San Domingo, pp. 25 seq., gives a vivid picture of these times and conditions.
11 : 24. Immigration Restriction and World Eugenics, Prescott Hall, pp. 125–127.
CHAPTER II. THE PHYSICAL BASIS OF RACE
13 : 7. See W. D. Matthew, Climate and Evolution; John C. Merriam, The Beginnings of Human History, Read from the Geological Record: The Emergence of Man, especially pp. 208–209 of the first part; and Madison Grant, The Origin and Relationships of North American Mammals, pp. 5–7.
13 : 20. Mendelism. See Edwin G. Conklin, 1, chap. III, C, pp. 224 seq., or 2, vol. X, no. 2, pp. 170 seq. Also Punnett’s Mendelism, or the appendix to Castle’s Genetics and Eugenics, which is a translation of Mendel’s paper. Practically all late writers on heredity give Mendel’s principles.
13 : 22–14 : 10 For these and other statements on heredity see the writings of Charles B. Davenport, Frederic Adams Woods, G. Archdall Reid, Edwin G. Conklin, Thomas Hunt Morgan, E. B. Wilson, J. Arthur Thomson, William E. Castle, and Henry Fairfield Osborn, 2.
14 : 10 seq. Blends. E. G. Conklin remarks in correspondence: “In so far as races interbreed, their characters mingle but do not blend or fuse, and come out again in all their purity in descendants.” See also the same authority, 1, pp. 208, 280, 282–287.
Every now and then an observation is met with which corroborates this statement. The inheritance from one parent or the other of the shape of the skull, in a fairly pure form, has been noted a number of times.
Fleure and James in their study of the Anthropological Types in Wales, p. 39, make the following observation: “It may be said that certain component features of head form, in many cases, seem to segregate more or less in Mendelian fashion, but this is a matter for further investigation; we are on safer ground in saying that the children of parents of different head form very frequently show a fairly complete resemblance to one or other parent, i. e., that head form is frequently inherited in a fairly pure fashion.”
Von Luschan found still more striking evidence of this in his study of modern Greeks, which he describes in his Early Inhabitants of Western Asia. He has found that the children of parents of different head form inherit in quite strict fashion the shape of skull of one or the other parent, and that the population, instead of being mesaticephalic, is to-day as distinctly divided into two groups, dolichol- and brachycephalic, as in prehistoric times, in spite of the constant intermixture that has occurred.
14 : 18. See notes to p. 13. This is a statement made by Dr. Davenport, in correspondence.
15 : 17. On the Neanderthal and Cro-Magnon types consult Professor Arthur Keith, 1, pp. 101–120, and 2; also Henry Fairfield Osborn, 1, the table on p. 23, pp. 214 seq., 289 seq., 291–305 and elsewhere, and the authorities given.
On the resurgence of types, see Beddoe, 4; Fleure and James; Giuffrida-Ruggeri; Parsons; and numerous other recent anthropologists.
15 : 25. See the notes to p. xix of the Introduction to this book, and Keith, 2.
15 : 29 seq. Professor G. Elliot Smith, The Ancient Egyptians, chap. IV, and pp. 41 seq. On p. 43 we read: “If we want to add to such sources of information and complete the picture of the early Egyptian ... he can be found reincarnated in his modern descendants with surprisingly little change, either in physical characteristics or mode of life, to show for the passage of six thousand years.” On p. 44: “Although alien elements from north and south have been coming into Upper Egypt for fifty centuries, it has been a process of percolation, and not an overwhelming rush; the population has been able to assimilate the alien minority and retain its own distinctive features and customs with only slight change; and however large a proportion of the population has taken on hybrid traits resulting from Negro, Arab, or Armenoid admixture, there still remain in the Thebaid large numbers of its people who present features and bodily conformation precisely similar to those of their remote ancestors, the Proto-Egyptians.” See also G. Sergi, 1, p. 65, and 4, p. 200.
17 : 5. See Franz Boas, Changes in the Bodily Form of the Descendants of Immigrants, pp. 9, 27, etc.
17 : 28–18 : 7. See the notes to p. 13.
18 : 13. See notes to p. 14. Also Ripley, pp. 465–466 for a statement as to brunetness.
18 : 24–19 : 2. E. G. Conklin, 1, pp. 454–455, and 2, especially vol. X, no. 1, pp. 55–58.
19 : 3. Anders Retzius was the first to make use of the head form in anthropological study, and to give the impetus to the index measurement system in The Form of the Skulls of the Northern Peoples of Europe. See also A. C. Haddon, 1, chap. I, in which he discusses these traits in full, and Ripley, chap. III, especially pp. 55 seq. Modern physical anthropologists still agree that the skull form is a most stable and reliable character.
19 : 25. Ripley, p. 39.
19 : 27–pp. 20 and 21. Beddoe, Broca, Collignon, Livi, Topinard and a host of other anthropologists all affirm the existence of three European racial types, which Ripley has discussed exhaustively. Deniker alone differs from them in classifying the populations of Europe, from the same data, into six principal races and four or more sub-races. See Appendix D, in Ripley’s Races of Europe.
The three terms, Nordic, Alpine and Mediterranean, have now become quite generally accepted designations for the three European races. The term Nord, rather than Nordic, has been chosen, perhaps more wisely, by some authors. In the present book these names are applied with quite different connotations from those usually understood.
It cannot be too clearly stated that in speaking of Nordics, the proto-type was probably quite generalized, with hair shades including the browns and reds. In the author’s opinion the blond Scandinavian represents an extreme specialization of Nordic characters. (See p. 167 of this book.)
20 : 5–24. The term Nordic was first used by Deniker. The authorities for the descriptions of these races may all be found in Ripley. The Mediterranean race was first defined by Sergi, who also calls it Eurafrican. The term Alpine, proposed by Linnæus, was revived by DeLapouge, and later adopted by Ripley, since when it has come into general use. Sergi and Zaborowski prefer that of Eurasian. While this latter name does cover the requirements, since it correctly signifies not only the European and Asiatic range of the people under discussion, but also their actual relationship to Asiatics, it is objectionable because it implies the adoption of the similarly constructed term Eurafrican, which, as defined by Sergi, is misleading. Correct as Eurafrican may be for signifying the European and African range of the Mediterranean race, it involves an acceptance of the theory put forward by its sponsor, that the Mediterranean race originated in Africa and is closely related to the negro, both being long skulled peoples, descended from a common stock, the Eurafrican.
The chief objection to the term Mediterranean is that the race extends in habitat beyond the Mediterranean region, but the name is now so generally accepted and this fact so well known that misunderstandings are unlikely. The term Alpine, also, is not as inappropriate as it might seem, since the word Alps is frequently not confined to the Swiss ranges but extended to many other mountain chains, and Alpine, like the term Mediterranean, is not, at this late date, apt to be misunderstood.
20 : 24–21: 9. Von Luschan, The Early Inhabitants of Western Asia, pp. 221–244, and G. Elliot Smith, The Ancient Egyptians.
22 : 10. Thomson, Heredity, p. 387; Darwin, Descent of Man; Boas, Modern Populations of America, p. 571.
22: 25. Haddon, 1, pp. 15 seq.
22 : 29. The same, pp. 12–14.
23 : 8. Clark Wissler, in The American Indian, makes clear the general uniformity of American Indian types in chap. XVIII. See also Haddon, 1, p. 8, and Hrdlička, The Genesis of the American Indian, pp. 559 seq.
23 : 13. Haddon, 1, pp. 10 and 11. There are numerous other references to this fact, especially in articles in various anthropological journals, and general works on anthropology, such as those of Deniker, Collignon, Martin and Ratzel.
23 : 16. For the differentiation of skull types in Europe during the Paleolithic period, see Keith, 2, the chapters on Pre-Neolithic, Mousterian and Neanderthal man; and 1, pp. 74 seq.; as well as Osborn, 1, who also gives the dates of the Paleolithic in the table on p. 18.
24 : 3–5. This claim was put forth by Sergi, in his Mediterranean Race, pp. 252, 258–259, and was followed by Ripley in his Races of Europe.
24 : 14. Deniker, Races of Man, pp. 48–49; Ripley, p. 465.
25 : 5. Topinard, 1, 4; Collignon, 1; and Virchow, 1, p. 325; Ripley, p. 64. Ripley says: “If the hair be light, one can generally be sure that the eyes will be of a corresponding shade. Bassanovitch, ... p. 29, strikingly confirms this rule even for so dark a population as the Bulgarian.”
25 : 6. See p. 163 of this book on the Albanians.
25 : 8. Ripley, pp. 75–76 and the footnote on p. 76.
25 : 11. Deniker, 2, p. 51. Also Davenport, passim.
25 : 13. Sir Edmund Loder, in correspondence, February, 1917, asks: “Has it been noticed at Creedmore and elsewhere in America that nearly all noted shots have blue eyes? It has been very noticeable at Wimbledon and Bisby, where it was quite exceptional to find a man in the front rank of marksmen with dark colored eyes. There was, however, one man who shot in my team who had very dark eyes and was one of the best shots of the day.”
25 : 16. There are said to be blue eyes occasionally in other races, where traces of Nordic blood cannot be discovered. Green and blue eyes have been found among the Rendeli (Desert Masai), although they are otherwise normal negroes.
25 : 19. The following quotation is from Von Luschan, 1, p. 224: “In Marmaritza near Halikarnassos, where a British squadron had a winter station for many years, a very great proportion of the children is said to be ‘flaxen-haired.’” According to a statement made to the author by Professor G. Elliot Smith on May 4, 1920, a similar nest of blondness is found in the Egyptian delta near Aboukir and is due to the fact that after the battle of the Nile the Seaforth Highlanders were long stationed there. At one time this blondness was supposed to bear some relation to the ancient Lybian blondness depicted on the monuments.
25 : 25 seq. On the Berbers see Sergi, 4, pp. 59 seq., and Topinard, 3. In regard to the Albanians, Ripley refers to their blondness, on p. 414, as follows: “The Albanian colonists, studied by Livi and Zampa in Calabria, still, after four centuries of Italian residence and intermixture, cling to many of their primitive characteristics, notably their brachycephaly and their relative blondness.” See also Zampa, 1, and Deniker, 1, for scientific discussions of their physical characters. Giuffrida-Ruggeri gives a summary of the most recent literature on Albania.
25 : 29–26: 6. See Beddoe, The Races of Britain, pp. 14, 15 and passim.
26 : 18. Beddoe, 4, p. 147.
27 : 1 seq. See Ripley, pp. 399–400 for a summary of observations on this point. See also Darwin, Descent of Man, pp. 340–341 and 344 seq.; and Fleure and James, p. 49.
27 : 14–28: 19. Haddon, 1, p. 2; also 2; Deniker, 2, chap. II and passim.
28 : 19. Davenport, passim; Ripley, passim; and any general book on anthropology.
28 : 24–29: 17. Ripley, pp. 80, 81, 84, 108–109, 131, 132, 252, 271, 307. Also see Davenport and Conklin, passim, and the notes to p. 18 of this book.
30 : 18–31: 8. For a very interesting discussion of this question see Conklin, 2, vol. IX, no. 6, pp. 492–6; Deniker, 2, p. 18; Haddon, 2, chap. IV; and Louis R. Sullivan, The Growth of the Nasal Bridge in Children, are other authorities. Some special studies of the nose have been made by Majer and Koperniki, Weisbach, and Olechnowicz, for which see Ripley, pp. 39 4–395. Jacobs, pp. 23–62, is particularly good on nostrility.
31 : 9. Deniker, 2, p. 83.
31 : 13. On the shape of the foot as a racial character see Rudolf Martin, Lehrbuch der Anthropologie, pp. 317 seq.; and Beddoe, 4, pp. 245 seq.; W. K. Gregory, 2, p. 14, and John C. Merriam, vol. IX, pp. 202 seq., have both discussed the evolution of the foot and the hand, and the anatomical differences which distinguish those of man from those of the apes.
31 : 16. P. Topinard, 2, chap. X, and Rudolf Martin, pp. 367 seq.
32 : 4. Beard lighter than head hair. Darwin, Descent of Man, p. 850.
32 : 8. The red-haired branch of the Nordics. On red hair see Beddoe, 4, pp. 3, 151–156; Fleure and James, Anthropological Types in Wales, pp. 118 seq.; Ripley, pp. 205–207, based on Arbo; T. Rice Holmes, Cæsar’s Conquest of Gaul, p. 337; and F. G. Parsons, Anthropological Observations on German Prisoners of War, pp. 32 seq.
32 : 21. See notes to p. 66.
33 : 7. Haddon, 1, p. 9 seq.; Deniker, Races of Man; Ratzel, History of Mankind; etc.
33 : 13. Haddon, 1, p. 16 seq.; Deniker; Ratzel; etc.
33 : 23–34: 21. Haddon, 1, pp. 2 and 3, and Deniker, 2, pp. 42 seq. While this classification is substantially sound, and sufficient for our purpose, recent investigations have shown that other factors also contribute to straightness or kinkiness, such as coarseness of texture, as opposed to fineness. Probably these will be determined by Mr. Louis R. Sullivan, of the American Museum of Natural History, who is working on the subject. It has been found that the Japanese and Eskimo are exceptions to the rule of “straight hair, round cross section,” for they show an ellipse. There is also a wide range of variation in the cross-sections of hair for individuals of any race, who are classified according to the preponderance of cross-sections of a single type. For a fine series of plates which are photographs of the magnified hair of individuals of various races, see Das Haupthaar und seiner Bildungsstatte bei den Rassen des Menschen, Gustave Fritsch. Another recent paper is the study by Leon Augustus Hausmann of Cornell, “The Microscopic Structure of the Hair as an Aid in Race Determination.”
35 : 27. Livi, Antropometria Militare, and Ripley, pp. 115, 255 and 258.
36. Deniker, 1; Zampa, 1,2; Weisbach, 1, 2, 3; and others given by Ripley, pp. 411–415.
CHAPTER III. RACE AND HABITAT
37 : 6. Sir G. Archdall Reid, The Principles of Heredity, chaps. VII, VIII, IX.
37 : 17. Ripley discusses them in full in chap. VI.
37 : 20–38 : 2. W. Boyd Dawkins, Early Man in Britain, p. 233; Keane, Ethnology, pp. 110 seq.; Osborn, Men of the Old Stone Age, pp. 220, 479–486 seq.; Keith, Antiquity of Man, p. 16.
38 : 10. Ellsworth Huntington, 1, p. 83; Charles E. Woodruff, 1, pp. 85–86; also the Report of the Smithsonian Institution for 1891, which contains an article on “Isothermal Zones.”
38 : 17 seq. Ellsworth Huntington, 1, pp. 86 seq.
40 : 27. Ellsworth Huntington, 1, pp. 14, 27.
41 : 25–42. G. Retzius, On the So-called North European Race of Mankind, p. 300; and many other authorities.
43 : 23. Ripley, pp. 352 seq. and 470.
44 : 17. G. Elliot Smith, 1, p. 61; G. Sergi, 4.
44 : 26. Ripley, pp. 443 and 582–583.
45 : 2. Beddoe, 4, p. 270.
CHAPTER IV. THE COMPETITION OF RACES
47 : 17. Prescott F. Hall, Immigration Restriction and World Eugenics.
49 : 15–51. See the Eugenics Record Office Bulletins, 10A and 10B, by Harry H. Laughlin, Cold Spring Harbor, Long Island. Part I is “The Scope of the Committee’s Work”; Part II, “The Legal, Legislative and Administrative Aspects of Sterilization.” See also H. H. Hart, Sterilization as a Practical Measure; and Raymond Pearl, The Sterilization of Degenerates; as well as The Eugenical News for April, May and August, 1918.
52 : 17. Sir Francis Galton, Hereditary Genius, pp. 351–359; Darwin, The Descent of Man, p. 218.
53 : 6. Galton, Hereditary Genius, pp. 345–346.
55 : 3 seq. Sir G. Archdall Reid, 2, p. 182; The Handbook of the American Indian, under Health and Disease; Payne, A History of the New World Called America; and elsewhere in early accounts. Also, Paul Popenoe, One Phase of Man’s Modern Evolution, p. 618.
CHAPTER V. RACE, LANGUAGE AND NATIONALITY
60 : 18. See the note to p. 18.
62 : 2. Ripley, passim; and the notes to pp. 142 : 23, 172 : 22, 187 : 23, 188 : 15, 195 : 18, 213 and 247 of this book.
63 : 13. This absence of round skulls was universally accepted, but recent studies show an appreciable Alpine element which is increasing.
64 : 2 seq. See pp. 201 and 203.
64 : 18. Ripley discusses the Slavs in full in chap. XIII, and gives the original sources for all of his information.
65 : 1. Ripley, pp. 422–428.
65 : 3. Von Luschan, 1; Ripley, pp. 406–411.
65 : 14. Ripley, pp. 361 seq.
66 : 4. Blumenbach was the first to divide the races into Caucasian, Mongolian, Ethiopian, American and Malayan, in his De Generis Humani Varietate Nativa, in 1775.
66 : 8–23. Ossetes. For a full description of these people see Zaborowski, Les peuples aryens d’Asie et d’Europe, pp. 246–272. Deniker likewise treats of them in Races of Man, p. 356. Minns, Scythians and Greeks, p. 37, says: “Klaproth first proved in 1822 that the Ossetes are the same as the Caucasian Alans, and this is supported by the testimony of the chroniclers, Russian, Georgian, Greek and Arab. From Ammianus Marcellinus (XXXI, II, 16–25) we know that at the time of the Huns’ invasion these Alans pastured their herds over the plains to the north of the Caucasus, and made raids upon the coast of the Mæotis and the peninsula of Taman. The Huns passed through their land, plundering Ermanrich, the king of the Goths.... Ammianus means by Alans all the nomadic tribes about the Tanais (Don) and gives a description of their habits, borrowed from the account of the Scythians in Herodotus. For the first three centuries of our era we find these Alans mentioned (Pliny, N. H., IV, 80; Dionysius Perigetes, 305, 306; Fl. Josephus, Bell. Jud., VII, VII, 4; Ptolemy, etc.), as neighbors of the Sarmatians on this side or the other of the Don, living the same life and counting as one of their tribes. That is, that the Ossetes, Jasy, Alans, Sarmatians[[4]] are all of one stock, once nomad, now confined to the valleys of the central chain of the Caucasus. The Ossetes are tall, well-made, and inclined to be fair, corresponding to the description of the Alans in Ammianus (XXXI, II, 21) and their Iranian language answers to the accounts of the Sarmatians, of whom Pliny says ‘Medorum ut ferunt soboles’ (N. H., VI, 19).”
[4]. The author agrees with Zaborowski and differs from Minns in his belief that the Ossetes are of Nordic stock while the Sarmatians were Alpines.
Chantre found among the Ossetes 30 per cent of blonds. See Chantre, 2.
66 : 16. Alans. See Jordanes, History of the Goths, Mierow translation. Procopius, writing about 550 A. D., says: “At this time the Alani and the Absagi were Christians and friends of the Romans of old and lived in the neighborhood of the Caucasus.” In his vol. III, chap. II, 2–8, we read of the period from 395–425 A. D. “There were many Gothic nations in earlier times just as also at the present, but the greatest and most important of all are the Goths, Vandals, Visigoths and Gepædes. In ancient times, however, they were named Sauromatæ and Melanchlæni, and there were some too who called these nations Getic. All these, while they are distinguished from one another by their names, as has been said, do not differ in anything else at all. For they all have white bodies and fair hair and are tall and handsome to look upon, and they use the same laws, and practise a common religion. For they are all of the Arian faith and have one language called ‘Gothic.’” (Procopius thinks they all came originally from one tribe, and were distinguished later by the names of those who led each group of old. They dwelt north of the Danube and later the Gepædes took possession of the portion south of the river. In regard to the derivation of the Goths and other tribes from the Sauromatæ, compare the note on Sarmatians, for p. 143 : 21.) As to the Goths in the Crimea see Zeuss, Die Deutschen, pp. 432 seq.; F. Kluge, Geschichte der götischen Sprache, pp. 515 seq. Crim-götisch existed as a language in southern Russia up to the 16th century.
66 : 23. Scythians. See the note to p. 214 : 10.
66: 24. Indo-European. The earliest known occurrence of this term is in an article in The Quarterly Review for 1813, written by Doctor Thomas Young (no. XIX, p. 225).
Indo-Germanic. This term, although said not to have been invented by Klaproth, was used by him as early as 1823. See Leo Meyer, in Über den Ursprung der Namen Indo-Germanen, Semiten und Ugro-finner, Göttingergelehrte Nachrichten, philologisch-historische Klasse, 1901, pp. 454 seq.
67 : 4. The idea of an Aryan race was first promulgated by Oscar Schrader in his Sprachvergleichung und Urgeschichte. That there was an original Aryan tongue but no Aryan race was the idea of Broca. Pösche identified the Aryans with the Reihengraber type. Consult also Penka, Herkunft der Arier and Origines Ariacæ.
67 : 12. See Zaborowski, 1, pp. 1–10.
67 : 15. See the notes to p. 70: 22 seq.
67 : 19. See the notes to p. 242: 5.
68 : 11. See pp. 192–193 and elsewhere, in this book.
CHAPTER VI. RACE AND LANGUAGE
69 : 10. See T. Rice Holmes, 2, pp. 185–199. The same thing may have happened in Britain at Cæsar’s conquest, and still more in the Saxon conquest.
70 : 4 seq. See p. 206 : 13 and note.
70 : 12–71: 6. These paragraphs elicited a very interesting letter from a British officer in Howrah, Bengal, India, in October, 1919. He says: “May I offer one or two remarks on points of detail? On p. 70 it is stated ‘The Hindu to-day speaks a very ancient form of Aryan language but there remains not one recognizable trace of the blood of the white conquerors who poured in through the passes of the Northwest,’ and again at p. 261, ‘Of all the wonderful conquests of the Sacæ there remain as evidence of their invasions only these Indian and Afghan languages. Dim traces of their blood, as stated before, have been found in the Pamirs and in Afghanistan, but in the South their blond traits have vanished, even from the Punjab. It may be that the stature of some of the Afghan hill tribes and of the Sikhs, and some of the facial characters of the latter, are derived from this source, but all blondness of skin, hair and eye of the original Sacæ have utterly vanished.’
“This hardly agrees with my own observations during two years’ service in the Punjab and Northwest Frontier Province. I should say that among the Pathans living in British territory about Peshawar, blond traits,—fair skin, the color of old ivory, red or brown hair, grey, green, or blue eyes,—are as common as really black hair is in Scotland; while among Panjabi Mussulmans living about Jhelum these traits are, if not common, at least not extremely rare. Judging from the experience of one squadron of cavalry, I should put the proportion of men with blond traits at not less than one per cent. The women, whom one does not see, must be fairer than the men, as elsewhere. I have seen a small Panjabi Mahommedan girl, from about Dera Ismail Khan with yellow hair. I have also seen a Sikh with red hair, but that was certainly exceptional.
“These remarks are based on what I have seen myself, though no statistics are kept and it is possible that I am generalizing from insufficient data. It would not, however, I think, be too much to say that ‘Blond traits are not uncommon in Afghanistan, and are even to be found among Mussulmans in the Northwestern Panjab.’ (Afghans and Indian Mussulmans of course sometimes dye their beards red, but this artificial blondness has not been confused with the real thing.)”
The following quotation is from The Outlook for March 10, 1920, which contains an article entitled “The Present Situation in India,” by Major-General Thomas D. Pilcher, of the British Army.
“Beside these castes there are tribes, and the Brahmin from the Punjab has very little indeed in common with the Brahmin from Bengal or Madras. Many Pathans and Punjabi Mohammedans have blue eyes and are no darker than a southern European, whereas some of the depressed tribes are as black as Negroes. Many of the northern peoples are at least as tall as men of our own race, whereas other tribes do not average five feet.”
70 : 16. Castes. Deniker, 2, p. 403: “About 2,000 castes may be enumerated at the present day, but year by year new ones are being called into existence as a certain number disappear.” In his footnote Deniker says: “The so-called primitive division into four castes: Brahmans (priests), Kshatriya (soldiers), Vaisyas (husbandmen and merchants), and Sudra (common people, outcasts, subject peoples?), mentioned in the later texts of the Vedas, is rather an indication of the division into three principal classes of the ruling race as opposed, in a homogeneous whole, to the conquered aboriginal race (fourth caste).” He continues: “The essential characteristics of all castes, persisting amid every change of form, are endogamy within themselves and the regulation forbidding them to come into contact one with another and partake of food together.”
See also Zaborowski, Les peuples aryens, p. 65. There is, of course, an enormous number of books which deal with the caste system of India.
71 : 7. Sir G. Archdall Reid, 2, p. 186: “If history teaches any lesson with clearness, it is this, that conquest, to be permanent, must be accompanied with extermination; otherwise, in the fulness of time, the natives expel or absorb the conquerors. The Saxon conquest of England was permanent; of the Norman conquest there remains scarcely a trace.”
71 : 24. See pp. 217–222 and notes.
72 : 4. See the notes to p. 141 : 4 seq.
72 : 19. Ripley, pp. 219–220, says: “The race question in Germany came to the front some years ago under rather peculiar circumstances. Shortly after the Franco-Prussian War, De Quatrefages promulgated the theory ... that the dominant people in Germany were not Teutons at all, but were directly descended from the Finns. Being nothing but Finns, they were to be classed with the Lapps and other peoples of western Russia.... Coming at a time of profound national humiliation in France ... the book created a profound sensation.... A champion of the Germans was not hard to find. Professor Virchow of Berlin set himself to work to disprove the theory which thus damned the dominant people of the empire. The controversy, half political and half scientific, waxed hot at times.... One great benefit flowed indirectly from it all, however. The German government was induced to authorize the official census of the color of hair and eyes of the six million school children of the empire.... It established beyond question the differences in pigmentation between the North and the South of Germany. At the same time it showed the similarity in blondness between all the peoples along the Baltic. The Hohenzollern territory was as Teutonic in this respect as the Hanoverian.”
73 : 6. Deniker is one of these. See his Races of Man, p. 334. Collignon is another. See the Bulletin de la Société d’anthropologie, Paris, 1883, p. 463; and L’Anthropologie, no. 2, for 1890.
73 : 11. See Keith, 3, p. 19; Beddoe, 4, p. 39; and Ripley, section on Germany.
73 : 19. Beddoe, 4, pp. 39–40; Deniker, 2, p. 339; Ripley, p. 294.
74 : 12. See the note to p. 198 : 22.
CHAPTER VII. THE EUROPEAN RACES IN COLONIES
76 : 16. An old edition of the Encyclopædia Britannica states: “The pure white population [of Venezuela] is estimated at only one per cent of the whole, the remainder of the inhabitants being Negroes (originally slaves, now all free), Indians and mixed races (Mulattoes and Zambos).”
The 11th edition of the Encyclopædia Britannica estimates the percentage of whites, the creole element (whites of European descent), at 10 per cent, as in Colombia, and the mixed races at 70 per cent, the remainder consisting of Africans, Indians and resident foreigners.
76 : 19. Jamaica. The New International Encyclopedia, 1915 edition, gives as follows figures which agree with the 1915 Statesman’s Yearbook:
| Year | White | Colored | Black | Others | Total |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| 1861 | 13,816 | 81,065 | 346,374 | 441,255 | |
| 1871 | 13,101 | 100,346 | 392,707 | 506,154 | |
| 1881 | 14,432 | 109,946 | 444,186 | 12,240 | 580,804 |
| 1891 | 14,692 | 121,955 | 488,624 | 14,220 | 639,491 |
| 1911 | 15,605 | 163,201 | 630,181 | [[5]]22,396 | 831,383 |
[5]. East Indians, 17,380; Chinese, 2,111; not stated, 2,905.
76 : 21. The 11th edition of the Encyclopædia Britannica gives the entire population of Mexico as 13,607,259, of which less than one-fifth (19 per cent) were classed as whites, 38 per cent as Indians, and 43 per cent as mixed bloods. There were 57,507 foreign residents, including a few Chinese and Filipinos.
78 : 5. The Argentine Republic. In 1810 the population was approximately 250,000; in 1895, 3,955,110; in 1914, 7,885,237. For a total of fifty-nine years in which the statistics have been kept, the number of immigrants from Montevideo is 4,711,013. They were divided by nationality as follows:
| Italians | 2,259,933 |
| Spaniards | 1,492,848 |
| French | 225,049 |
| English | 56,448 |
| Austrians | 81,186 |
| Swiss | 33,326 |
| Germans | 62,329 |
| Belgians | 23,091 |
| Russians | 135,962 |
| Ottomans | 121,177 |
| Other nationalities | 189,664 |
For added information on the Argentine, see the Statistical Book of the Argentine Republic, 1915; Argentine Geography, published by Urien & Colombo; and Juan Alsina’s European Immigration to the Argentine.
78 : 22. Philippines. The following figures were taken from the New International Encyclopedia and the Statesman’s Yearbook for 1915. The size of the population was established in June, 1914.
| Total population | 8,650,937 | ||
| Native-born | 6,931,548 | or | 99.2% |
| Chinese | 41,035 | or | 0.6% |
| Americans and Europeans | 20,000 | or | 0.3% |
The natives are mostly of the Malayan race with the exception of 25,000 Negrito tribesmen.
78 : 24. Dutch East Indies. The figures are taken from the census of 1905.
| Total population is approximately | 38,000,000 |
| Europeans | 80,910 |
| Chinese | 563,000 |
| Arabs | 29,000 |
| Other Orientals | 23,000 |
78 : 25. British India. The figures are from the census of 1911:
| Total population | 315,156,396 |
| (Of these 650,502 were not born in India.) | |
The remainder are divided according to the languages spoken:
| East Asiatics | 4,410,000 |
| Tibeto-Chinese | 12,970,000 |
| Dravidian | 62,720,000 |
| Aryan | 232,820,000 |
| European | 320,000 |
81 : 5. See Francis Parkman, The Old Régime in Canada, vol. II, pp. 12 and 13.
82 : 10. See Sir Harry Johnston, The Negro in the New World, p. 343.
83 : 8. See the Genealogical Records of the Society of the Colonial Wars.
84 : 6. See the notes to p. 38.
84 : 11 seq. A letter from Abraham C. Strite, a lawyer of Hagerstown, Maryland, contains additional information on the so-called Pennsylvania Dutch. Mr. Strite says: “They are not Palatine Germans, but largely Swiss who speak a dialect of German. The writer happens to be of this stock. Its characteristics are round head, black hair, dark brown eyes, stocky stature, brunet type, all clearly indicating, according to your analysis, an Alpine origin. This description fairly well averages up the prevailing Pennsylvania Dutch type of this section although there are some red heads and some blonds which would indicate a Nordic admixture, again meeting your argument. There are many other varieties of Teutons in this section, but I am confining my remarks to the class known as the Pennsylvania Dutch. I have never made any head measurements among them but I am of the opinion that the round-headed type vastly predominates. The ancestors of these people emigrated from southern Europe, mostly Switzerland, in quite some numbers between the years 1700 and 1775, and settled in Lancaster County, Pa.; from thence they have spread out over the adjoining sections of Pennsylvania, down through the Cumberland valley and into the valley of Virginia, and to-day they form an important element of the population. They are the organizers in America of the religious sect known as the Mennonites.
“The early settlers of Germantown who were Mennonites, were of Palatine stock. Of this there can be no doubt. Later immigration to Lancaster County, Pennsylvania, which constituted the bulk of the Pennsylvania Dutch stock will be found, I think, largely to have come from Switzerland, although not exclusively. Rupp’s 30,000 Names of Immigrants to America gives the names, dates and sailings of this Mennonite stock. Your conclusions are correct enough for all practical purposes but it seemed to me that the immigrants from Switzerland and from the Palatinate might be distinguished.”
Doctor C. P. Noble, of Radnor, Pa., writes concerning the Pennsylvania Dutch: “I have seen much of them as patients and as I have observed them they have the medium stature and stocky build of the Alpines, also they have, usually, broad, round faces which are associated with brachycephaly and certainly they have always exhibited peasant traits. Moreover, it is unusual to find a blond among them.”
Doctor Jordan, of the Pennsylvania Historical Society, furnished Doctor Noble with some data concerning them. That there were some Alpine elements among them will appear from what follows. Doctor Jordan agreed that the present day Pennsylvania Germans are almost exclusively brunet, with stocky bodies of moderate height. Existing portraits of various leaders among them when they arrived in Pennsylvania showed the same types. Furthermore, Doctor Jordan’s extensive reading of early documents relating to them tends to confirm the belief that the present day descendants represent the original types. Tall blonds are very rare among them.
Doctor Noble knows some individuals with Nordic traits, but these were acquired by intermarriage with Anglo-Saxons. Most of these groups came from southern Germany, from Silesia on the east to the Palatinate on the west.
The following are Doctor Jordan’s notes:
Moravians. They were located in Pennsylvania, at first in Bethlehem and later in Nazareth. The land in Nazareth was purchased of Whitfield, the predestinarian Methodist.
The Moravian immigration was carefully supervised. The church either owned or chartered the vessels which brought over the immigrants. Frequently it was definitely arranged as to how many artisans of each trade should come over so that they would prosper on arrival.
The Moravian immigration was small—about 500 up to 1750. Until about 1840 the Moravian settlements were closed towns—no non-Moravians could buy property.
Not one quarter of the present Moravians are descendants of the early settlers. The rest are converts or descendants of converts. A connection exists between the Moravians, Huss and his Protestant followers, and the Waldenses. A short résumé of this will be found in the Encyclopædia Britannica—under Huss and Moravians—from the world standpoint.
Moravians migrated from Bohemia to Saxony and were protected by Count Zinzendorf—a liberal Lutheran—and lived on his estates. He assisted in their migration to Pennsylvania. Some went to Georgia and later to Pennsylvania.
Schwenkfelders. These were the followers of Kaspar Schwenkenfeld (1490–1561). See the Encyclopædia Britannica for a short account. They formed a sect in Silesia which has persisted. In 1720 a commission of Jesuits was sent to convert them by force. Most of them fled into Saxony and were protected by Count Zinzendorf. From thence they migrated to Holland, England and Pennsylvania. Frederick the Great, when he seized Silesia, protected those remaining there.
Ursinus College, Collegeville, is Schwenkfelder. The sect is not large and was located in or around Montgomery County. Their migration to Saxony and also to Pennsylvania antedated that of the Moravians. Generally speaking, they have been much more aggressive and vigorous than the Moravians.
The Dunkards, Mennonites, Amish, and Seventh Day Baptists (Wissahickon and Ephrata, Pennsylvania), came from south Germany and the Palatinate.
The Harmony Society, small in numbers, the Lutherans and German Reformed, came largely from south Germany and the Palatinate, but also from other parts of Germany. The Lutherans and the Reformed were the large sects in Pennsylvania.
Germans from the Hudson valley migrated to Berks County around Reading. The Swedes in New Jersey were almost exclusively below Philadelphia—from Gloucester down the Delaware River. Before the Revolution there were about 30,000 Germans in Pennsylvania, out of a total estimated population of 100,000 to 120,000.
84 : 16. Scotch-Irish. See The Scotch-Irish in America, by Henry Jones Ford; and also Sir George Trevelyan on the Irish Protestants in chap. XI, vol. II, of George III and Charles Fox.
87 : 24. In this connection it is interesting to note that an early Egyptian king said almost the same concerning the negroes of his time. The quotation is taken from Hall’s Ancient History of the Near East, pp. 161–162, and is a translation of a portion of the manifesto of Senusert III, of the XIIth dynasty, which he caused to be set up at the time of the Nubian wars: “Vigor is valiant, but cowardice is vile. He is a coward who is vanquished on his own frontier, since the negro will fall prostrate at a word; answer him, and he retreats; if one is vigorous, he turns his back, retiring even when on the way to attack. Behold, these people have nothing terrible about them; they are feeble and insignificant; they have buttocks for hearts. I have seen it, even I, the majesty; it is no lie....”
88 : 9. Barrett Wendell, A Literary History of America, chap. III.
88 : 28. The belief in the approximation of the Anglo-Saxon in America to the Amerindian is widespread, but is entirely without justification, scientific or otherwise.
89 : 1. Hall, Immigration Restriction and World Eugenics, and especially his Immigration, pp. 107–112.
91 : 1. Hall, 2.
94 : 1. Beddoe, 5, p. 416. For similar conclusions see DeLapouge, passim; G. Retzius, 3; and Roese, Beiträge zur Europäischen Rassenkunde. Fleure and James, pp. 125 and 151–152 make similar observations.
PART II
EUROPEAN RACES IN HISTORY
CHAPTER I. EOLITHIC MAN
97 : 10. Osborn, 1, the tables on pp. 18 and 41.
98 : 15. Galton, pp. 309–310; Woods, 1, chap. XVIII.
99 : 5–10. A Statistical Study of American Men of Science, J. McKeen Cattell, especially Science, vol. XXXII, no. 828, pp. 553–555.
99 : 22. The authorities quoted by J. B. Bury in his History of Greece are complete and concise. In chap. I he discusses the Dorian conquest from p. 57 forward, and the Homeric-Mycenæan period (1600–1100 B. C.) from p. 20. A very interesting instance of the truth of the picture of Mycenæan culture as drawn by Homer occurs on p. 50, where it is stated that much described by the poet, even to small articles, has been unearthed during archæological investigations. “Although the poets who composed the Iliad and Odyssey probably did not live before the ninth century, they derived their matter from older lays.”
99 : 27. Crete. For systems of Cretan writing see Sir Arthur J. Evans, Cretan Pictographs and Pre-Phœnician Script, Further Discoveries of Cretan and Ægean Script, Reports of Excavations at Cnossus, Prehistoric Tombs of Knossos, and Scripta Minoa. That the aboriginal “Eteocretan” language existed until historic times is attested by the discoveries of later inscriptions belonging to the fifth and succeeding centuries B. C., which were written in Greek letters at this time but in the indigenous, undecipherable tongue. They are described by Comparetti, Mon. Ant., III, pp. 451 seq., and by R. S. Conway, 2, 3, especially pp. 125 seq., in vol. VIII. In 1908 another discovery was made by the Italian Mission at Phæstus, of a clay disk with printed hieroglyphics which did not belong to the Cretan system of writing. It is supposed to have come from Asia Minor.
For other discoveries in Crete and other authorities see R. M. Burrowes, C. H. and H. B. Dawes. On Cretan pottery see Sir Duncan Mackenzie, 2, and Sir Arthur Evans, 2. Sir Duncan Mackenzie also has a book on the Cretan palaces. Bury, in his History of Greece, pp. 9 seq., gives a brief description of Crete as revealed by archæologists. According to them, the palaces of Cnossus and Phæstus were erected before 2100 B. C., when Cretan civilization was well advanced. See also the note to p. 119 : 1 of this book.
99 : 28. Azilian period. See p. 115 of this book.
100 : 20 seq. Osborn, 1, p. 49 seq., and the note VII of the appendix. See also the notes to p. 13 of this book.
100 : 28. Progressive dessication. Ellsworth Huntington, 2.
101 : 5. Arboreal Man. See the work of W. K. Gregory, especially 3, p. 277; and John C. Merriam, pp. 203 and 206–207.
101 : 12. Osborn, 1, note VII, p. 511, of the appendix; and Merriam, pp. 205–208.
101 : 15. J. Pilgrim, The Correlation of the Siwaliks with Mammal Horizons of Europe.
101 : 21. Java and the Pithecanthropus erectus. Dubois, E. Fischer, and particularly G. Schwalbe. For the land connection of Java with the mainland see Alfred Russel Wallace’s Island Life, and The Geography of Mammals, by W. L. and P. L. Sclater.
101 : 27. Gunz glaciation. See Osborn’s table of Geologic Time, in 1, p. 41. The date given here is that made by Penck.
102 : 1. W. D. Matthew, Revision of the Lower Eocene Primates, and W. K. Gregory, The Evolution of the Primates.
102 : 13. Schoetensack, Der Unterkiefer des Homo Heidelbergensis aus den Sanden von Mauer bei Heidelberg im Beitrag zur Paläontologie des Menschen.
102 : 21. At the beginning of this Eolithic period wood was used for clubs and probably as levers along with the chance flints. Perhaps it was employed even earlier, but of course no remains would come down to us.
CHAPTER II. PALEOLITHIC MAN
For the material in this chapter the authorities, such as Cartailhac, Boule, Breuil, Obermaier and Rutot are all given in Osborn, 1, together with useful discussions of the evidence. In special instances additional sources are inserted here.
105 : 17. Piltdown Man. See Charles Dawson, the discoverer, 1, 2 and 3. There is a tremendous bibliography on the Piltdown Man.
106 : 1. The Jaw of the Piltdown Man, Gerrit S. Miller. From a later paper by Mr. Miller (2) we quote the following from pp. 43–44:
“The combined characters of the jaw, molars and skull were made the basis of a genus Eoanthropus, placed in the family Hominidæ.... While the brain case is human in structure, the jaw and teeth have not yet been shown to present any character diagnostic of man; the recognized features in which they resemble human jaws and teeth are merely those which men and apes possess in common. On the other hand, the symphyseal region of the jaw, the canine tooth and the molars are unlike those known to occur in any race of men.... Until the combination of a human brain case and nasal bones with an ape-like mandible, ape-like lower molars and an ape-like upper canine has actually been seen in one animal, the ordinary procedure of both zoology and paleontology would refer each set of fragments to a member of the family which the characters indicate. The name Eoanthropus dawsoni has therefore been restricted to the human elements of the original composite (Family Hominidæ), and the name Pan vetus has been proposed for the animal represented by the jaw (Family Pongidæ).”
See also The Dawn Man of Piltdown, England, by W. K. Gregory. Ray Lancaster has made some interesting observations and is the most recent authority on this subject.
106 : 14. On the Neanderthal Man see Osborn and his authorities.
107 : 21. A note on p. 385 of Rice Holmes’s Ancient Britain is useful in this connection. “MM. de Quatrefages and Hamy affirm that the Neanderthal race has left a permanent imprint on the population, and refer to various skulls of the Neolithic and later periods which resemble more or less closely that of Neanderthal. Moreover, it is generally admitted that even at the present day a few individuals here and there belong to the same type. But it does not follow that these persons to whom Dr. Beddoe and M. Hamy refer were descended from men who lived in Britain in the Paleolithic age.”
Taylor, Origin of the Aryans, mentions several famous men who had typical Neanderthal skulls, among them Robert Bruce.
108 : 1 seq. Beddoe, 4, pp. 265–266; Ripley, pp. 326–334, but especially pp. 266, 330–331.
108: 16. Alés Hrdlička, The Most Ancient Skeletal Remains of Man, considers the Neanderthal type extinct, as do Keith, Antiquity of Man, passim, and A. C. Haddon. Consult Barnard Davis, Thesaurus Craniorum, especially p. 70, and Beddoe, 2, as well as Osborn, 1, p. 217.
108 : 18. Firbolgs. See the note above to line 1; also Taylor, Origin of the Aryans, p. 78.
109 : 8. Broca, according to Osborn, is responsible for this theory.
109 : 17 seq. See pp. 329 seq. of Galton’s Hereditary Genius.
110 : 8. In Dordogne, France, there are people who look as it is thought the Cro-Magnons did. These modern people may belong to that type in the same way that here and there people resembling the Neanderthals are still found. In Dordogne these Cro-Magnon features are quite common, and differ markedly from those of other Frenchmen. For studies of this type see Collignon, 1. For full discussions of the ancient Cro-Magnons see Keith, 1 and 2, and Osborn, 1.
110 : 11. Dr. Charles B. Davenport, in correspondence, remarks: “There can be no doubt that the prolific shall inherit the earth or the proletariat shall inherit the earth, which is etymologically the same thing. We see this law in action in Russia to-day.... Can we build a wall high enough around this country, so as to keep out these cheaper races, or will it be only a feeble dam which will make the flood all the worse when it breaks? Or should we admit the four million picks and shovels which many of our capitalists are urging Congress to admit in order to secure what wealth we can for the moment, leaving it for our descendants to abandon the country to the blacks, browns and yellows, and seek an asylum in New Zealand? I am inclined to think that the thing to do is to make better selection of immigrants, admitting them in fairly large numbers so long as we can sift out the defective strains.”
111 : 20 seq. É. Cartailhac says, in La France préhistorique: “The race of Cro-Magnon is well determined. There is no doubt about their high stature and Topinard is not the only one who believes that they were blonds.” See also G. Retzius, 3. But he derives the Nordics from them. On the other hand, the Dordogne people to-day are dark, and many anthropologists are inclined to the belief that the Cro-Magnons were brunets, a theory in which the writer heartily concurs.
112 : 1. L’Abbé H. Breuil, Les subdivisions du paléolithique supérieur et leur signification, pp. 203–205. Other writers such as Nilsson and Dawkins have also held this theory.
112 : 21. One of the few references to the bare possibility of a Magdalenian dog occurs in Obermaier’s El Hombre Fósil, the footnote on pp. 221 and 223. From this it appears that certain conclusions are drawn that if the Alpera paintings are of late Magdalenian age, if certain nondescript animals in those paintings are intended for dogs and if those dogs are meant to be in a state of domestication, then there can be no doubt whatever that the dog was domesticated in Magdalenian times. But Obermaier does not feel that this furnishes satisfactory proof.
112 : 25–p. 113. Bow and Arrow. Obermaier, 1, chap. V, The Upper Paleolithic, p. 112, says: “The coarse stone implements of the lower Paleolithic no longer exist, being replaced by an industry of very fine flints and ... certain lances with points made of bone, horn or ivory, which were very generally used. The use of the bow is proved by certain representations in mural pictures (i. e., the Archers of Alpera, etc., eastern Spain, Magdalenian; Archer of Laussel, France, Aurignacian).” See the corresponding plates in chap. VII.
On p. 217 of chap. VII, Quaternary Art, there is a man depicted in the pose of an archer. On p. 239 Obermaier says: “Among ... [the paintings of Alpera] are sketches of more than 70 human figures, ... 13 are shown in the act of shooting an arrow at other men or animals.”[[6]] On p. 241 he continues: “The paintings of eastern Spain of Quaternary age also show archers.” A recent letter from the Abbé Henri Breuil says that the bow and arrow did not exist in France in Paleolithic times, and he is, of course, aware of the Laussel figure found by Lalanne and referred to by Obermaier as proof. Alpera is agreed by Obermaier to be of Tardenoisian age, consequently of the transition period to the Neolithic. Beside Alpera, the only other instance of pictured bows and arrows noted occurs at Calpatá, said to be of Upper Paleolithic age and Capsian industry.
[6]. If the Alpera paintings are of this (Magdalenian?) period, then the bow certainly existed at this time, but there is reason to believe that the paintings belong to a later epoch.
See Fig. 174, p. 353, of Osborn, 1, giving a large bison drawing in the cavern of Niaux on the Ariège, showing the supposed spear or arrowheads, attached to large shafts, which are represented as having pierced its side. On p. 354 Osborn says: “It is possible, although not probable, that the bow was introduced at this time and that a less perfect flint point, fastened to a shaft like an arrowhead, and projected with great velocity and accuracy, proved to be far more effective than the spear.... From these drawings and symbols (Fig. 174), it would appear that barbed weapons of some kind were used in the chase, but no barbed flints occur at any time in the Paleolithic, nor has any trace been found of bone barbed arrowheads, or any direct evidence of the existence of the bow.” On p. 410: “Here [Cavern of Niaux] for the first time are revealed the early Magdalenian methods of hunting the bison, for upon their flanks are clearly traced one or more arrow or spear heads with the shafts still attached; the most positive proof of the use of the arrow is the apparent termination of the wooden shaft in the feathers which are rudely represented in three of the drawings.”
113 : 3. Osborn, p. 456: “The flint industry [of the Azilian] continues the degeneration begun in the Magdalenian and exhibits a new life and impulse only in the fashioning of extremely small or microlithic tools and weapons known as ‘Tardenoisian.’” See also pp. 465–475 for a more complete discussion and their distribution as traced by de Mortillet. Also Breuil, 2, pp. 2–6, and 3, pp. 165–238, but especially pp. 232–233.
Osborn continues, p. 450: “If it is true ... that Europe at the same time became more densely forested, the chase may have become more difficult and the Cro-Magnons may have begun to depend more and more upon the life of the streams and the art of fishing. It is generally agreed that the harpoons were chiefly used for fishing, and that many of the microlithic flints, which now begin to appear more abundantly, may have been attached to a shaft for the same purpose. We know that similar microliths were used as arrowpoints in pre-dynastic Egypt.”
The microliths may have been used on darts for bird hunting.
113 : 21. See Osborn, pp. 333 seq., and in this book the note to p. 143 : 13 on the Tripolje culture.
115 : 9. Compare what Rice Holmes has to say on pp. 99–100 of his Ancient Britain.
117 : 18. Maglemose. This culture was first found and described by G. F. L. Sarauw, in a work entitled En Stenolden Boplads: Maglemose ved Mullerup. The same material is given in “Trouvaille fait dans le nord de l’Europe datant de la période de l’hiatus,” in the Congrès préhistorique de France. A site equivalent to the Maglemose in culture, but discovered later, is described in “Une trouvaille de l’ancien âge de la pierre” (Braband), by MM. Thomsen and Jessen. See also Obermaier, 2, pp. 467–469.
117 : 23. The Abbé Breuil, Les peintures rupestres d’Espagne (with Serrano Gomez and Cabre Aguilo), IV, “Les Abris del Bosque à Alpéra (Albacete)” says: “Other peoples known at present only from their industries, were advancing toward the close of the Upper Paleolithic along the northern and southern shores of the Baltic and persisted for an appreciable time before the arrival of the tribes introducing the early Neolithic-Campignian culture which accumulated in the Kitchen Middens along the same shores. Like the southern races of the Azilian-Tardenoisian times these northerly tribes were truly Pre-Neolithic, ignorant of both agriculture and pottery; they brought with them no domesticated animals excepting the dog, which is known at Mugem, at Tourasse and at Oban, in northwestern Scotland.”
CHAPTER III. THE NEOLITHIC AND BRONZE AGES
119: 1. See the Osborn tables. As evidence of far earlier dates of the Neolithic in the east we may quote Sir A. J. Evans, 2, p. 721. He calculates that the earliest settlement at Knossos in Crete, which was Neolithic, is about 12,000 years old, for he assumes that in the western court of the palace the average rate of deposit was fairly continuous. Professor Montelius, in L’Anthropologie, t. XVII, p. 137, argues from the stratigraphy of finds at Susa that the beginning of the Neolithic Age in the east may be dated about 18,000 B. C.
119: 6. See the note to p. 147.
119: 15. Balkh. Balkh, in Afghanistan, was the capital of Bactria, the ancient name of the country between the range of the Hindu Kush and the Oxus, and is now for the most part a mass of ruins, situated on the right bank of the Balkh River. The antiquity and greatness of the place are recognized by the native populations who speak of it as the “Mother of Cities,” and it is certain that at a very early date it was the rival of Ecbatana, Nineveh, and Babylon.
Bactria was subjugated by Cyrus and from then on formed one of the satrapies of the Persian Empire. Zaborowski, 1, p. 43, says: “After the conquests of Alexander there was founded a Greco-Bactrian kingdom ... which embraced Sogdiana, Bactria and Afghanistan. The Greco-Bactrian kings struck a quantity of coins. They bore a double legend, the one Greek, the other still called Bactrian, which is not Zend, nor even the language really spoken in Bactria. It is a popular dialect derived from Sanskrit.” Again on p. 185: “Zend has been called, and is still called, Bactrian or Old Bactrian, it may be because Bactria has been conceived as the original country or an ancient place of sojourn of the Persians; it may be because Zoroaster, a Median Magus, had, according to a legend, fled to the Bactrians where he found protection under Prince Vishtaspa. Eulogy of this prince is often incorporated in the sayings of Zoroaster.”
Later a new race appeared, tribes called Scythians by the Greeks, amongst which the Tochari, identical with the Yuë-Chih of the Chinese, were the most important. According to Chinese sources, they entered Sogdiana in 159 B. C.; in 139 they conquered Bactria, and during the next generation they had made an end to the Greek rule in eastern Iran. In the middle of the first century B. C. the whole of eastern Iran and western India belonged to the great “Indo-Scythian” Empire. In the third century the Kushan dynasty began to decline; about 320 A. D. the Gupta Empire was founded in India. In the fifth the Ephtalites, or “White Huns,” subjugated Bactria; then the Turks, about A. D. 560, overran the country north of the Oxus. In 1220 Jenghis Khan sacked Balkh and levelled all buildings capable of defence, while Timur repeated this treatment in the fourteenth century. Notwithstanding this, Marco Polo could still, in the following century, describe it as “a noble city and a great.”
See also Raphael Pumpelly, Explorations in Turkestan, where 10,000 years is said to be the age of the remains of early civilization. More modern authorities, however, do not accept these ancient dates.
119: 21. Osborn, 1, p. 479.
120: 1 seq. Osborn, 1, pp. 493–495; Ripley, pp. 486–487, and also S. Reinach, 3, and G. Sergi, 2, pp. 199–220.
120: 28 seq. Oman, England before the Norman Conquest, pp. 642 seq., says: “The position which he [Harold] chose is that where the road from London to Hastings emerges from the forest, on the ground named Senlac, where the village of Rattle now stands.... This hill formed the battleground.... On reaching the lower slopes of the English position the archers began to let fly their shafts, and not without effect, for as long as the shooting was at long range, there was little reply, since Harold had but few bowmen in his ranks, (the Fyrd, it is said, came to the fight with no defensive weapons but the shield, and were ill-equipped, with javelins and instruments of husbandry turned to warlike uses), and the abattis, whatever its length or height, would not give complete protection to the English. But when the advance reached closer quarters, it was met with a furious hail of missiles of all sorts—darts, lances, casting axes, and stone clubs such as William of Poictiers describes, and the Bayeux Tapestry portrays—rude weapons, more appropriate to the neolithic age.... Many a moral has been drawn from this great fight.... Neither desperate courage, nor numbers that must have been at least equal to those of the invader, could save from defeat an army which was composed in too great a proportion of untrained troops, and which was behind the times in its organization.... But the English stood by the customs of their ancestors, and, a few years before, Earl Ralph’s attempt to make the thegnhood learn cavalry tactics (see the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle), had been met by sullen resistance and had no effect.”
121 : 4. See the note top. 128 : 2.
121 : 15. F. Keller, The Lake-Dwellings of Switzerland and Other Parts of Europe; Schenck, La Suisse préhistorique, pp. 533–549; G. and A. de Mortillet, Le Préhistorique, part 3, and Munro, The Lake Dwellings of Europe. The lake-dwelling, known as Pont de la Thièle, between the lakes of Bienne and Neuchâtel, according to Grilliéron’s calculations, is dated 5000 B. C. See Keller, p. 462; Lyell, Antiquity of Man, p. 29; Avebury, Prehistoric Times, p. 401; and De Mortillet, Le Préhistorique, p. 621.
121 : 17. Schenck, p. 190, says concerning Switzerland: “There were three [cultural] stages, stone, bronze, and iron.... On the other hand, from the anthropological point of view, this subdivision can also be made. In the first stage [Neolithic Lacustrian], we find only brachycephalic crania; in the second there are an almost equal number of brachycephalic and dolichocephalic; in the third there is a predominance of dolichocephalic” (that is, Schenck divides the Neolithic into three periods according to skulls, and the last runs into the age transitionary to bronze).
See also G. Hervé, Les populations lacustres, p. 140; His and Rütimeyer, Crania Helvetica, pp. 12, 34, etc.; and the note on p. 275 of Rice Holmes’s Cæsar’s Conquest of Gaul. Ripley gives useful and concise discussions on pp. 120, 471, 488 and 501.
121 : 19. See both Keller and Schenck for the numbers of dwellings.
121 : 22. There were, of course, the caves and rock shelters used during a large part of the year, but probably no other regularly constructed dwellings served as permanent, all-the-year-round places of abode prior to the lake dwellings, and it is doubtful if these were inhabited in winter. It is generally believed that the custom of building pile villages arose from considerations of safety. This protection would be absent when the lakes were frozen over, and at the same time the huts would be exposed on all sides, including the floor, to the wintry blasts sweeping the lakes. They would in this way be rendered practically uninhabitable during the winter season.
Keller declares that the same type of dwelling is found in the whole circle of countries which were formerly Celtic. (Introduction, p. 2.) The Crannoges of Scotland and Ireland continued in use until the age of iron in those countries. In Switzerland the lake dwellings disappeared about the first century (p. 7). The population was numerous (p. 432), large enough to have to depend upon cattle and agriculture (p. 479).
This type of dwelling is found from Ireland to Japan, and even in South America. Many lake dwellings exist at the present day. The Welsh, Scotch and Irish Crannoges are related in structure to the European fascine types (Keller, p. 684 and Introduction). Others are built somewhat differently, and are, of course, of independent origin. An ancient site was unearthed at Finsbury, on the outskirts of London not long since, where there used to be a marsh. The inhabitants of this lake-dwelling were native outcasts during Romano-British times.
121 : 26. See Schenck, and Keller, p. 6. On p. 140 of Keller we read: “The Pile Dwellings of eastern Switzerland ceased to exist before the bronze age or at its beginnings; those of western Switzerland came to their full development during this period.” On p. 37, describing the settlement of Mooseedorfsee Keller says: “A very striking circumstance ought to be mentioned, namely, that even heavy implements, such as stone chisels, grinding or sharpening stones, etc., were found quite high in the relic bed, while lighter objects, such as those made out of bone, were met with much deeper.” It is known that the Mooseedorfsee settlement is very old. No metal has been found here, but a bone arrowhead is described by Keller on p. 38. He remarks that the bones of very large animals were uncommonly numerous. It seems as if the earlier inhabitants were users of bone rather than of stone implements.
122 : 1. Herodotus, V, 16 describes them. He also is the source of our information regarding the keeping of cattle, although archæological finds have proved the location of stables out on the platforms between the houses. His interesting account is given herewith: “Their manner of living is the following. Platforms supported upon tall piles stand in the middle of the lake, which are approached from land by a single narrow bridge. At the first the piles which bear up the platforms were fixed in their place by the whole body of the citizens, but since that time the custom which has prevailed about fixing them is this: they are brought from a hill called Orbêlus, and every man drives in three for each wife that he marries. Now the men all have many wives apiece; and this is the way in which they live. Each has his own hut, wherein he dwells, upon one of the platforms, and each has also a trap door giving access to the lake beneath; and their wont is to tie their baby children by the foot with a string, to save them from rolling into the water. They feed their horses and their other beasts upon fish, which abound in the lake to such a degree that a man has only to open his trap door and to let down a basket by a rope into the water and then to wait a very short time, when he draws it up quite full of them. The fish are of two kinds, which they call the paprax and the tilon.”
122 : 3. In the Introduction, p. 2, and elsewhere Keller says regarding cattle: “Cattle were kept, not on land, as in the Terramara region, but on the platforms themselves, out in the lakes. Many charred remains of stables and stable refuse have been taken from the lakes, but only from certain parts of the sites, between those of the houses.” See also Schenck, p. 188.
Rice Holmes, pp. 89–90 of Ancient Britain, says of that country that agriculture was limited in the Neolithic, but flourished in the Bronze Age.
122 : 14. The Terramara Period. Keller, pp. 378 seq. As related to Switzerland, pp. 391, 393. For swamp and river bank sites, pp. 391, 397 seq. For bronze in Terramara settlements, p. 386. For the Upper Robenhausian, see Schenck, p. 190, and Montelius, La civilisation primitive en Italie. Peet, The Stone and Bronze Ages in Italy, and Munro, The Lake Dwellings of Europe and Palæolithic Man and the Terramara Settlements must also be read in this connection. Schwerz, Völkerschaften der Schweiz, gives, for the average cranial indices of the Lake Dwellers, 79 during the Stone Age, 75.5 in the Copper Age, and 77 in the Bronze Age. Of these last 14 per cent only were brachycephalic, 20 per cent were extremely long-headed. In the Iron Age 46 per cent were brachycephalic. Consult also Deniker, 2, p. 316.
122 : 21. Ripley, pp. 502–503; Sergi, 2; Robert Munro, 2; Peet, 2.
122 : 27–123: 4. See the note to p. 117 : 18.
123 : 5. On the Kitchen Middens, see especially Madsen, Sophus Müller and others in Affaldsdynger fra Stenaldern i Danmark.
123 : 12. Salomon Reinach, 3 and 5; Deniker, 2, p. 314; and Peake, 2, p. 156, where we find the following: “Over the greater part of Sweden,—all, in fact, except a strip of coastline on the western side of Scania,—and all along the shore of the Baltic from the Gulf of Bothnia southwards and westwards as far as a point midway between the Vistula and the Oder, there are found abundant remains of a primitive civilization which dates from the Neolithic Age, and indeed, from early in that age. This civilization, known as the East Scandinavian or Arctic culture, extended, perhaps later, over the whole of Norway.”
Consult the notes to pp. 125: 4 seq. for western trade.
123 : 20. Sergi, 4; Beddoe, 4, pp. 26, 29; Fleure and James, pp. 122 seq.
123 : 23. Paleolithic Population. Fleure and James, Anthropological Types in Wales, p. 120. Rice Holmes, Ancient Britain, p. 380, says they were confined to the South. No Paleolithic implements were found north of Lincoln, or at least of the East Riding of Yorkshire.
123 : 26. John Munro, The Story of the British Race, p. 45; Rice Holmes, Ancient Britain, p. 68; and Fleure and James, pp. 40, 69–74, 122 seq.
124 : 4. For the Alpines see pp. 134 seq. of this book.
124 : 9. Consult the note to p. 143 on this subject.
124 : 15. On the Nordics see pp. 167 seq. and 213 seq. On the Scandinavian blonds see the note to p. 20 : 5.
124 : 20. See the notes to pp. 168 seq.
125 : 1. G. Elliot Smith, The Ancient Egyptians, especially pp. 146 and 149 seq.; Breasted, 1, 2 and 3; Keane, Ethnology, pp. 72 seq.; Sophus Müller, L’Europe préhistorique, p. 49; Hall, Ancient History of the Near East, p. 3.
125 : 4. Deniker, 2, pp. 314–315: “The great trade route for amber, and perhaps tin, between Denmark and the Archipelago is well known at the present day; it passes through the valley of the Elbe, the Moldau and the Danube. The commercial relations between the north and the south explain the similarities which archæologists find between Scandinavian bronze objects and those of the Ægean district.”
See also E. H. Minns, Scythians and Greeks, for trade in the East, via the Vistula, Dnieper and Danube, pp. 438–446, 458, 459, 465, 493, etc.; and Déchellette, Manuel d’Archéologie, t. I, p. 626, and II, p. 19. Herodotus IV, 33, gives the trade route from the Hyperboreans to Delos. Félix Sartiaux, Troie, La Guerre de Troie, pp. 162, 181, also discusses the trade routes for amber.
125 : 7. Amber. Tacitus, Germania: “They [the tribes of the Æstii] ransack the sea also and are the only people who gather in the shallows and on the shore itself the amber which they call in their tongue ‘glæsum.’ Nor have they, being barbarians, inquired or learned what substance or process produces it; nay, it lay there long among the rest of the flotsam and jetsam of the sea, until Roman luxury gave it a name. To the natives it is useless; it is gathered crude, it is forwarded to Rome unshaped; they are astonished to be paid for it. Yet you may infer that it is the exudation of trees: certain creeping and even winged creatures are continually found embedded; they have been entangled in its liquid form and as the material hardens, are imprisoned. I should suppose, therefore, that, just as in the secluded places of the East, where frankincense and balsam are exuded, so in the islands and lands of the West, there are groves and glades more than ordinarily luxuriant,” etc.
Amber, if rubbed, has magnetic qualities and develops electricity. Our word “electricity” is derived from its Greek name, “electron.” Tacitus says: “If you try the qualities of amber by setting fire to it, it kindles like a torch and soon dissolves into something like pitch and resin.”
125 : 13. Gowland, Metals in Antiquity, pp. 236, 252 seq.
125 : 15 seq. Copper. Reisner’s opinion that the pre-dynastic Egyptians invented the use of copper (Naga-ed-Dêr, I, p. 134) which is followed by Elliot Smith (Ancient Egyptians, p. 3), is not the view held by all scholars. Hall believes that the knowledge of the use of metal came to the prehistoric southern Egyptians (Ancient History of the Near East, p. 90), toward the end of the pre-dynastic age from the north. But he counts the Mount Sinai and Cyprus deposits as northern centres of origin from which a knowledge of the working of the metal radiated.
The mines of the Sinaitic peninsula were worked for copper at the time of Seneferu, about 3733 B. C., and probably much earlier (Gowland, p. 245, and elsewhere), “but long before the actual mining operations were carried on, how long it is impossible to say, the metal must have been obtained by primitive methods from the surface ore. It is hence not unreasonable to assume that at least as early as about 5000 B. C. the metal copper was known and in use in Egypt.” The same writer believes “that an earlier date than 5000 B. C. should be assigned to the first use of copper in the Chaldean region.” In this he bases himself on the discovery of copper figures associated with bricks and tablets bearing the name of King Ur-Nina (about 4500 B. C.), and the fact that the upper Tigris region is known to contain rich deposits of the mineral. Jastrow, Jr., assigns the date of 3000 B. C. to Ur-Nina, which may be more correct. Gowland dates copper in Cyprus at 2500 B. C., or even 3000, judging by the finds at Crete dated 2500 B. C. In the Troad he thinks it was used not later than in Cyprus. For China the date is unknown, but if we accept 2205, given in the Chinese annals as the time when the nine bronze caldrons were cast, which are often mentioned in the historical records, then copper may have been in use as early as 3000, or even earlier. De Morgan dates copper at 4400 B. C. in Egypt, where it was found in the supposed tomb of Menes.
See also Lord Avebury, Prehistoric Times, pp. 71–72, who gives 3730 for copper-working in Sinai, and its first appearance about 5000 B. C. Montelius, 1, p. 380, gives copper in Cyprus as about 2500 B. C., hardly 3000; and for Egypt 5000; he regards it as having been known in Babylon at about the same time. Breasted, Ancient Times, assigns the date of the earliest copper as at least 4000 in Egypt.
125 : 27. Eduard Meyer, 1, p. 41. But cf. Reisner, Naga-ed-Dêr, I, p. 126, note 3. Also Hall, Ancient History of the Near East, p. 28.
126 : 1. Elliot Smith, 1, p. 8: “Most serious scholars who concern themselves with the problems of the ancient history of Egypt and Babylonia have now abandoned these inflated estimates of the lengths of the historical periods in the two empires; and it is now generally admitted that Meyer’s estimate of 3400±100 B. C. is a close approximation to the date of the union of Upper and Lower Egypt and that the blending of Semitic and Sumerian cultures in Babylonia took place shortly after the time of this event in the Nile valley.” See also Hall, Ancient History of the Near East, p. 3.
126 : 7. Bronze. Rice Holmes, 1, p. 125: “The oldest piece of bronze that has yet been dated was found at Medûm, in Egypt, and is supposed to have been cast about 3700 B. C. But the metal may have been worked even earlier in other lands; for a bronze statuette and a bronze vase, which were made twenty-five centuries before our era have been obtained from Mesopotamia and the craft must have passed through many stages before such objects could have been produced. Yet it would be rash to infer that either the Babylonians or the Egyptians invented bronze for neither in Egypt nor in Babylonia is there any tin. The old theory that it was a result of Phœnician commerce with Britain has long been abandoned and British bronze implements are so different from those of Norway and Sweden, Denmark and Hungary, that it cannot have been derived from any of these countries. German influence was felt at a comparatively late period, but from first to last British bronze culture was closely connected with that of Gaul and through Gaul with that of Italy.”
126 : 9. Gowland, p. 243: “It has been frequently stated that the alloy used by the men of the Bronze Age generally consists of copper and tin in the proportions of 9 to 1. I have hence compared the analyses which have been published with the following results:
| EARLY WEAPONS AND IMPLEMENTS. 57 ANALYSES | ||
|---|---|---|
| In | 25 | the tin ranges from about 8 to 11 per cent. |
| „ | 6 | „ „ „ „ „ 11 „ 13 „ „ |
| „ | 26 | „ „ „ „ „ 3 „ 8 „ „ |
| LATER PALSTAVES AND SOCKETED AXES. 15 ANALYSES | ||
| In | 13 | the tin ranges from about 4.3 to 13.1 per cent. |
| „ | 2 | „ „ was about 18.3 per cent. |
| SPEAR AND LANCE HEADS | ||
| In | 5 | the tin ranges from about 11.3 to 15.7 per cent. |
| STILL LATER. SWORDS. 33 ANALYSES | ||
| In | 14 | the tin ranges from about 8 to 11 per cent. |
| „ | 12 | „ „ „ „ „ 12 „ 18 „ „ |
| „ | 7 | „ „ is less than 9 per cent. |
“It is obvious, therefore, that these statements do not accurately represent the facts. And if we consider the different uses to which the implements or weapons were put, it is evident that no single alloy could be equally suitable for all.... It is worthy of note that these proportions (i. e., different hardnesses for different implements) appear to have been frequently attained, and for this the men of the later Bronze Age are deserving of great credit as metallurgists and workers in metal.”
On the percentages of tin with copper for bronze see also Montelius, 1, pp. 448 seq.
126 : 12. Schenck, p. 241, describes a copper axe exactly like those of polished stone, and another of bronze, of very primitive pattern, showing that these were copied from the earlier stone models.
Some authorities think that iron, in Egypt at least, came in about the same time as bronze, or even earlier. Certain peoples missed altogether one or another of these stages, as the absence of remains indicates. For instance, the central Africans had, as far as is known, no bronze age, but passed directly from the use of stone to that of iron. (See Rice Holmes, Ancient Britain, p. 123.) See the notes to p. 129 on the value of iron. Occasional implements of any material better than that ordinarily in use, which had been introduced by trade or acquired by fighting, were very highly prized. Any books on primitive peoples contain references to the value of such “foreign tools.”
126 : 24. Diodorus Siculus, V. Consult Crania Britannica, by Davis and Thurnam, the chapter on the “Historical Ethnology of Britain,” for evidence that the Phœnicians did have intercourse with Britain. For a full discussion of this disputed question see pp. 483–514 in Rice Holmes’s Ancient Britain. Herodotus and other early writers allude to the fleets of the Phœnicians, and of course the voyage of Pythias about the last half of the fourth century B. C. was undertaken to discover the source of the Phœnician tin. See Holmes’s Britain, pp. 217–226; D’Arbois de Jubainville, Les premiers habitants de l’Europe, vol. I, chap. V; Hall, Ancient History of the Near East, pp. 158, 402–403; and G. Elliot Smith, Ancient Mariners, on the Phœnicians.
On pp. 251–252 of Ancient Britain, Rice Holmes makes the suggestion that the export of tin from Britain may have died down by Roman times.
127 : 9 seq. G. Elliot Smith, 1, p. 178, and map 3. Deniker, 2, p. 315, says: “It is generally admitted that the ancient Bronze Age corresponds with the ‘Ægean Civilization’ which flourished among the peoples inhabiting, between the thirtieth and twentieth centuries B. C., Switzerland, the north of Italy, the basin of the Danube, the Balkan peninsula, a part of Anatolia, and lastly, Cyprus. It gave rise, between 1700 and 1100 B. C., to the ‘Mycenæan Civilization,’ of which the favorite ornamental design is the spiral.”
Myers, in Ancient History, pp. 134–135, states that in Crete the metal development began as early, at least, as 3000 B. C., and was at its height in the island about 1600 or 1500 B. C. Articles of Cretan handiwork found in Egypt point to intercourse with that country as early as the sixth dynasty, which he makes about 2500 B. C. See also G. Elliot Smith, 1, pp. 147, 179–180, and the authorities quoted on bronze.
127 : 26–128 : 1 seq. G. Elliot Smith, 1, pp. 178–180. Rice Holmes, 1, p. 123, gives in a footnote the sixth dynasty as about 3200 B. C. (cf. above), when Elliot Smith says the movement first began (ibid., pp. 169, 171). They do not agree on the date of this dynasty. See also Rice Holmes (ibid., p. 125), and Breasted, 3, p. 108. Montelius assigns 2100 B. C. for the small copper daggers of northern Italy.
128 : 2. The Eneolithic period. G. Elliot Smith, 1, pp. 20 seq., 37 and 163 seq. Professor Orsi is responsible for the introduction of this term. See T. E. Peet, The Stone and Bronze Ages in Italy, and G. Sergi, Italia, pp. 240 seq., on the Eneolithic period in Italy.
128 : 13. Oscar Montelius, The Civilization of Sweden in Heathen Times, and Kulturgeschichte Schwedens von den ältesten Zeiten; Sophus Müller, Nordische Alterthumskunde. The latter gives 1200 B. C. See also Rice Holmes, 1, pp. 64, 127, 424–454; Beddoe, 4, p. 15; Haddon, 3, p. 41. According to Gjerset, in his History of the Norwegian People, the Bronze Age in Norway began about 1500 B. C., the Iron Age at 500 B. C. Lord Avebury, pp. 71–72; Read, Guide to the Antiquities of the Bronze Age; and Deniker, 2, p. 315, give 1800 B. C. for Britain, and for northern Europe Avebury assigns 2500 B. C. 1800 is the generally accepted date for the beginning of the Bronze Age in Britain.
128 : 16. Alpines in Ireland. Beddoe, 4, p. 15; Fleure and James, pp. 128–129, 135, 139; Rice Holmes, 1, p. 432; Ripley, pp. 302–303; Abercromby, pp. 111 seq.; Crawford, pp. 184 seq. But Fleure and James say, p. 138, that other Alpines without brow ridges are to be found at the present time in considerable numbers on the east coast of Ireland. Ripley’s strong assertion that no Alpines have remained in the British Isles has been proved by more recent study to require modification.
128 : 17. See in this connection Fleure and James, p. 127.
128 : 26. Cf. Elliot Smith, 1, pp. 20–21, 163, 181; Peet, 2; Reisner, Early Dynastic Cemeteries of Naga-ed-Dêr; and Rice Holmes, 1, p. 65 seq.
129 : 2–8. The megaliths were not erected by Alpines, for there are practically none in central Europe, according to Keane, Ethnology, pp. 135–136, and Dr. Robert Munro, in a discussion published in the Jour. Roy. Anth. Inst., 1889–1890, p. 65. On the other hand, Peet, 1, pp. 39, 64, says they are being discovered in the interior—a few in Germany. He does not mention bronze among the finds in the megaliths of France, but there was a little gold. Bronze was, however, found in Spain. Consult Fleure and James, pp. 128 seq.; Rice Holmes, 2, pp. 8–9; and, for an exhaustive archæological study, Déchellette, Manuel d’archéologie, vol. I, chap. III, especially paragraph v, pp. 393 seq., for dolmens in Brittany. Concerning the contents of these we may quote the following:
“Polished hatchets, often enough of rare stone, beads from necklaces, and pendants of Callais or of divers materials, implements of flint, knives, arrow points which are wing-shaped, scrapers, nodules, grinding stones, pottery, vases, grains of baked earth, some rare jewels of gold, collars and bracelets, such is, in general, the composition of the contents of the neolithic dolmens of Brittany, contents different, as we shall see, from those of the sepulchres of the Bronze Age in the same region. These vast Armorican crypts belong certainly to the end of the Neolithic period, in spite of the absence of copper, the habitual forerunner of bronze objects. The smallness of the crypt, the size of the tumulus, the mixture of construction in huge blocks and in walls seem to indicate, as M. Cartailhac has observed, a more recent age than that of ordinary dolmens. In the pure Bronze Age the monolithic supports are replaced by the walls of unmortared stones.
“Moreover, we shall see that there have been found in certain covered alleys in Brittany, pottery of a very characteristic type called calciform vases, pottery belonging in the south of France and southern Europe with the first objects of copper and bronze. Jewels of gold confirm, on the other hand, these chronological determinations.” On p. 397: “The dolmen sepulchres of the Bronze Age in Brittany, and notably in Finisterre, are distinguished more often by the type of their construction from those of the Stone Age.”
“The dolmens of Normandy and Isle de France contain some stone objects, fragments of vases, and numerous debris of human skeletons.” The end of the pure Neolithic is the date of the megaliths in Armorica, as we read on p. 407. The first metals, imported from the south, penetrated into northern Gaul a little later than in the southern provinces. That is why certain typical objects of the end of the pure Neolithic in Armorica, such as Callais and the calciform vases, are associated with the first objects of copper or bronze in the funerary crypts of Provence and Portugal.
G. Elliot Smith and W. H. R. Rivers claim that there is a close connection throughout the eastern hemisphere between the distribution of megalithic monuments and either ocean or fresh-water pearls, but this appears to the author to be far-fetched. Two very recent articles dealing with megaliths are “Anthropology and Our Older Histories,” by Fleure and Winstanley, and “The Menhirs of Madagascar,” by A. L. Lewis.
129 : 8. Rice Holmes, Cæsar’s Conquest of Gaul, p. 9.
129 : 12. Earliest iron in the north. See the notes to pp. 131 : 1 and 131 : 9 on the La Tène period. Also Montelius, 2, and Sophus Müller, 2, pp. 145 and 165 seq.
129 : 13. Mound burials among the Vikings. Montelius, 2.
129 : 15. Iron in Egypt. Some authorities think that iron in Egypt came in about the same time as bronze, or even earlier. A piece of worked iron was found in the Great Pyramid, to which a date of about 3500 B. C. has been assigned. But, according to the archæological investigations of Professor Flinders Petrie, iron came into general use only about 800 B. C.
Myres, in The Dawn of History, is quoted from p. 60 for the following neat summary, although any of the authorities on Egypt, such as Petrie, Maspero, Hall, Breasted, Elliot Smith, Reisner, Meyer, etc., should be consulted as original investigators: “The presence of iron, rare though it is, as far back as the first dynasty, puts Egypt into a position which is unique among metal-using lands; for, apart from these rare, but quite indisputable finds, Egypt remains for thousands of years a bronze-using, and for long, a merely copper-using, country.... In Egypt iron was known as a rarity, worn as a charm and an ornament, and even used, when it could be gotten ready made, as an implement; and it does not seem to have been worked in the country, and probably its source was unknown to the Egyptians. In historic times they still called it the ‘metal of heaven’ as if they obtained it from meteorites; and it looks at present as though their earliest knowledge of it was from the south; for central Africa seems to have had no bronze age but direct and ancient transition from stone to iron weapons. Yet when they conquered Syria in the sixteenth century, they found it in regular use and received it in tribute. At home, however, they had no real introduction to an ‘Age of Iron’ until they met an Assyrian army in 668 B. C. and began to be exploited by Greeks from over sea.” In this connection see also Ridgeway, The Early Age of Greece, pp. 613–614. The same author, pp. 154 seq., discusses the value of iron in these early times.
Deniker, p. 315 of his Races of Man, says Italy had iron as early as 1200 B. C.
Montelius assigns 1100 for iron in Etruria.
129 : 19. Hallstatt iron culture. See Baron von Sacken, Das Grabfeld von Hallstatt; Dr. Moritz Hoernes, Die Hallstattperiode; Bertrand and Salomon Reinach, Les Celts dans les vallées du Pô et du Danube; and Ridgeway, The Early Age of Greece, pp. 407–480 and 594 seq. There is a brief summary by Ridgeway which it will serve to quote: “Everywhere else the change from iron weapons to bronze is immediate but at Hallstatt iron is seen gradually superseding bronze, first for ornament, then for edging cutting implements, then replacing fully the old bronze types and finally taking new forms of its own. There can be no doubt that the use of iron first developed in the Hallstatt area and that thence it spread southwards into Italy, Greece, the Ægean, Egypt and Asia, and northwards and westwards in Europe. At Noreia, which gave its name to Noricum, less than forty miles from Hallstatt, were the most famous iron mines of antiquity, which produced the Noric swords so prized and dreaded by the Romans. (See Pliny, Hist. Nat., XXXIV, 145; Horace, Epod., 17 : 71.) This iron needed no tempering and the Celts had found it ready smelted by nature just as the Eskimos had learned of themselves to use telluric iron embedded in basalt.... The Hallstatt culture is that of the Homeric Achæans (see Ridgeway, Early Age of Greece, pp. 407 seq.), but as the brooch (along with iron, cremation of the dead, the round shield and the geometric ornament), passed down into Greece from central Europe, and as brooches are found in the lower town at Mycenæ, 1350 B. C., they must have been invented long before that date in central Europe. But as they are found here in the late bronze and early iron age, the early iron culture of Hallstatt must have originated long before 1350 B. C., a conclusion in accordance with the absence of silver at Hallstatt itself.”
Keller, p. 160, describes an iron sword modelled after the same pattern as those of bronze; Schenck, p. 341, mentions a copper axe exactly like those of stone, and another of bronze of very primitive pattern. These and numerous other examples show the gradual growth of each age.
The generally accepted date for Hallstatt is about 900 or 1000 B. C. Even Rice Holmes approves of this. (See 2, p. 9.) But if we believe that iron spread from Hallstatt, and it was in Etruria at 1200–1100 B. C., and in Greece, in the form of swords like those of Hallstatt, at 1400 B. C. (according to Ridgeway), together with pins and various other objects which originated in the Tyrol, it is certainly very conservative to place the appearance of iron in Austria at 1500 B. C. Iron weapons were found in the remains of Troy from the war of 1184 B. C. See Ridgeway, op. cit., and Lartiaux, p. 179.
We may quote from Hoernes as follows regarding the dates: “The temporal limits of the Hallstatt period are uncertain, according to the districts which one includes and the phenomena which one considers. It is now known that the Hallstatt relics for the most part belong to the first half of the last millennium B. C. But while some assign these relics as from the time of perhaps 1200 to perhaps 500, others are satisfied with the period from 900 to 400, or bring them even farther forward. It is certain that one must differentiate in these questions between the west and the east of the Hallstatt culture areas; in the one the particular Hallstatt forms would come nearer to the close than in the other. One or perhaps more centuries lie between the first appearance of the La Tène forms in Western Germany and in the eastern Alps. Also the beginning varies according to the locality and the criteria which one takes for a guide, that is to say, according to whether the phenomena of the time about 1000 B. C. are considered as belonging still in the pure Bronze Age, to a transition period, or indeed to the first Iron Age.”
129 : 26. Ridgeway, speaking of the Achæans, says: “They brought with them iron which they used for their long swords and cutting implements.... The culture of the Homeric Achæans” (these are dated about 1000 B. C., about the time of the Dorians, according to Bury, p. 57) “corresponds to a large extent with that of the early Iron Age of the Upper Danube (Hallstatt) and to the early Iron Age of Upper Italy (Villanova).”
Myres, Dawn of History, p. 175, says that there was a gradual introduction of iron, first for tools and then for weapons. It had been known as “precious metal” in the Ægean since the late Minoan third period, or even the late Minoan second period, which is usually dated with the XVIIIth Egyptian dynasty as about 1500–1350. Most other writers, however, including Bury, p. 57, Myers, Anc. Hist., p. 136, and Deniker, Races of Man, p. 315, ascribe the general use of iron to a much later invasion, namely that of the Dorians, about 1100 B. C.
129 : 29. Iron swords of the Nordics. Ridgeway, 1, pp. 407 seq.: “Their chief weapon was a long iron sword; with trenchant strokes delivered by these long swords the Celts had dealt destruction to their foes on many a field. They used not the thrust, as did the Greeks and Romans of the classical period. This is put beyond doubt by Polybius (II, 30) who in his account of the great defeat suffered by the combined tribes of Transalpine Gæsatæ, Insubres, Boii and Taurisci, when they invaded Italy in 225 B. C., tells us that the Romans had the advantage in arms ‘for the Gallic sword can only deliver a cut but cannot thrust.’ Again in his account of the great victory gained over the Insubres by the Romans in 223 B. C., the same historian tells us that the defeat of the Celts was due to the fact that their long iron swords easily bent, and could only give one downward cut with any effect, but that after this the edges got so turned and the blades so bent, that unless they had time to straighten them out with the foot against the ground, they could not deliver a second blow.
“‘When the Celts had rendered their swords useless by the first blows delivered on the spears the Romans closed with them and rendered them quite helpless by preventing them from raising their hands to strike with their swords, which is their peculiar and only stroke, because their blade has no point. The Romans, on the contrary, having excellent points to their swords, used them not to cut but to thrust; and by thus repeatedly smiting the breasts and faces of the enemy, they eventually killed the greater number of them.’ (II, 33 and III.)”
Further evidence in support of our contention that iron was in use much earlier than is generally admitted, comes from an unexpected quarter. J. N. Svoronos, in a recent book on ancient Greek coinage, entitled L’Hellénism primitif de la Macédoine, prouvé par la numismatique, p. 171, remarks: “In the first place, indeed, it is forgotten that some of this information, that which is derived from people of ‘mythical’ times, can be referred not only to the invention of the first money struck in precious metal (gold, electrum, or silver), but even to obelisks of iron, or to cast plinths in the form of copper axes, which, of a determined weight, and legally guaranteed by the state, constituted, already before the XVth century, as we positively know at the present time, the first legal money.”
130 : 2. Keary, The Vikings in Western Christendom, chap. XIII; Steenstrup, Normannerne.
130 : 4. “Furor Normanorum.” On account of the suffering inflicted by the Vikings and other northern raiders in Europe, a special prayer, A furore Normanorum libera nos was inserted in some of the litanies of the West.
130 : 5. Rome was sacked by Alaric in 410 A. D., and during the forty years following the German tribes seized the greater part of the Roman provinces and established in them what are known as the Barbarian Kingdoms. Consult Villari, The Barbarian Invasions of Italy.
130 : 8 seq. See chap. XIII, pp. 242 seq., of this book.
130 : 13 seq. Ripley, pp. 125–126. The discovery of the Alpine type was the work of Von Baer.
130 : 24. The Iron Age in western Europe. Deniker, 2, p. 315, says: “So also, according to Montelius, the introduction of iron dates only from the fifth or third century B. C. in Sweden, while Italy was acquainted with this metal as far back as the twelfth century B. C. The civilization of the ‘iron age,’ distributed over two periods, according to the excavations made in the stations of Hallstatt (Austria) and La Tène (Switzerland), must have been imported from central Europe into Greece through Illyria. The importation corresponds perhaps with the Dorian invasion of the Peloponnesus.... The Hallstattian civilization flourished chiefly in Carinthia, southern Germany, Switzerland, Bohemia, Silesia, Bosnia, the southeast of France and southern Italy (the pre-Etruscan age of Montelius). The period which followed, called the second, or iron age or the La Tène period, was prolonged until the first century B. C. in France, Bohemia and England. In Scandinavian countries the first iron age lasted until the sixth century, and the second iron age until the tenth century A. D.” Referring to the La Tène period in a footnote, Deniker says: “This term, first used in Germany, is accepted by almost all men of science. The La Tène period corresponds pretty nearly with the ‘Âge Marmien’ of French archæologists and the ‘Late Celtic’ of English archæologists. Cf. M. Hoernes, Urgeschichte d. Mensch., chapters VIII and IX.”
Rice Holmes, 1, p. 231, remarks: “Iron in Britain is hardly older than 500 B. C. (i. e. the earliest products of the British iron age were traded in. See p. 229). In Gaul the Hallstatt period is believed to have lasted from about 800 to about 400 B. C.” On p. 126: “It is certain that in the southeastern districts iron tools began to be used not later than the fourth century B. C.”
See also Sir John Evans, Ancient Bronze Implements, pp. 470–472. Consult especially Déchellette, Manuel d’archéologie, t. II, pp. 152 seq., on iron in western Gaul during the La Tène period.
130 : 28. La Tène Period. M. Wavre and P. Vouga, Extrait du Musée neuchatelois, p. 7; V. Gross, La Tène, un oppidum helvète; E. Vouga, Les Helvètes à La Tène; and F. Keller, The Lake Dwellings of Switzerland.
131 : 3. Montelius suggests this date. Lord Avebury, in Prehistoric Times, even goes so far as to suggest 1000 B. C.
131 : 5. Rice Holmes, 2, the footnote to p. 9; Déchellette, Manuel d’archéologie, t. II, p. 552.
131 : 9. La Tène culture and the Nordic Cymry. This is also in Britain termed the “Late Celtic period.” See Rice Holmes, 2, p. 318. For the expansion of the Celtic empire and La Tène see Jean Bruhnes, p. 779. G. Dottin, in his Manuel celtique, devotes a whole chapter to the Celtic empire.
Cymry. See the note to p. 174 : 22 of this book. As to the Nordic characters of these people, see Rice Holmes, 1, P. 234.
131 : 12. Nordic Gauls and Goidels as users of bronze. Rice Holmes, 1, pp. 126, 229, and elsewhere.
131 : 15. Haddon, Wanderings of People, p. 49.
131 : 19. S. Feist, Europa im Lichte der Vorgeschichte, p. 9, etc.
131 : 23. Tacitus, Germania.
131 : 26. Tacitus, Germania, 4: “Personally I associate myself with the opinion of those who hold that in the peoples of Germany there has been given to the world a race untainted by intermarriage with other races, a peculiar people and pure, like no one but themselves; whence it comes that their physique, in spite of their vast numbers, is identical;—fierce blue eyes, red hair, tall frames,” etc.
See Beddoe, 4, pp. 81–82; Fleure and James, pp. 122, 126, 151–152; and Ripley, passim, for remarks on the increasing brunetness of Britain and other parts of Europe which were formerly more blond.
The recent article by Parsons entitled “Anthropological Observations on German Prisoners of War,” contains an interesting reference, on p. 26, to the resurgence of Alpine types in central Europe.
CHAPTER IV. THE ALPINE RACE
134 : 1. There seem to have been at least three distinct types of Alpines, one with a broad head and developed occiput typical of western Europe, a second with a flat occiput and a high crown, represented by such peoples as the Armenoids of Asia Minor, and a third, of which little notice has been taken, except by such men as Zaborowski (2) and Fleure and James, pp. 137 seq. This third type is encountered here and there in nests which “stretch at least from southern Italy to Ireland, by way of the Straits of Gibraltar and across France by the dolmen line.” Fleure and James may be quoted for the following discussion. “Questions naturally arise as to the homologies of this type, and its distribution beyond the line here mentioned. If we had the type in Britain, by itself, we should be inclined to connect it with the general population of Central Europe, the dark, broad-headed Alpine type. We should, however, retain a little hesitation about this, as our type is sometimes of extraordinary strength of build and, while often fairly short, it is occasionally outstandingly tall; moreover, the hair is frequently quite black, and this is not on the whole an Alpine character. But, when we note the coastal distribution of this type, our hesitation is much increased, for the Alpine type has spread typically along the mountain flanks and its characteristic rarity in Britain is evidence of how little it has followed the sea.
“We cannot but wonder also whether what Deniker calls the Atlanto-Mediterranean type is not a result of averaging these dark broad-heads with the true Mediterranean type.
“Seeking further distributional evidence, we find that the dark broad-heads are highly characteristic of Dalmatia and may be an old-established stock, but it would appear that this region is famous for the height of the heads there, and our type is not specially high-headed. Broad-head brunets do, however, occur farther east in Asia Minor, the Ægean, and Crete, for example. Many are certainly hypsicephalic, but in others it seems that the brow and head are moderate and the forehead rather rectangular, as in our type....
“It is interesting that there should be evidence of our dark broad-heads beyond the Irish end of the line now discussed, the line of intercourse which Déchellette thinks must be older than the Bronze Age. The chief evidences for the type beyond Ireland are:
“1. Ripley (p. 309) shows that a dark, broad-headed element is present in Shetland, West Caithness, and East Sutherland. This is sometimes called the Old Black Breed.
“2. Arbo finds the coast and external openings of the more southerly Norwegian fjords have a broad-headed population, whereas the inner ends of the fjords and the interior are more dolichocephalic. The broad-heads stretch from Trondhjemsfjord southward, and from their exclusively coastwise distribution he supposes them to have come across from the British Isles.
“The population is darker than the rest of Norway and its area of distribution, as Dr. Stuart Mackintosh has kindly pointed out to us, is, like that of the same type in the British Isles, characterized by a pelagic climate.”
Von Luschan has fully discussed the Armenoid type in his Early Inhabitants of Western Asia, and with E. Petersen, in Reisen in Lykien, Milyas, und Kibyratis. A special study was made by Chantre in his Recherches anthropologiques dans l’Asie occidentale.
The first type, then, the western European, has a short, thick stature, round head, and rather light pigmentation; the second, Armenoid, a rather tall stature, square, high head, flat occiput, and dark pigmentation. The third, the Old Black Breed, is rather small and dark.
In addition to these we have a fourth type, which has been called the Bronze Age race, or, better, the Beaker Maker type (Borreby). This has been discussed by Greenwell and Rolleston, Beddoe, and Keith, especially as to their possible survivors at the present day; by Abercromby, in Bronze Age Pottery; by Crawford, The Distribution of Early Bronze Age Settlements in Britain; and by Peake, in a discussion of the last work in the same number of the Geographical Journal. Fleure and James describe it also. See the note to p. 138 : 1 of this book.
Further anthropological studies may simplify the problem somewhat, but the author is now inclined to believe that the above-mentioned third brachycephalic type, the “Old Black Breed,” represents the survivors of the earliest waves of the round-head invasion—in Britain antedating the arrival of the Neolithic Mediterraneans, while the first type mentioned above represents the descendants of the last great Alpine expansion. This type in southern Germany has been so thoroughly Nordicized in pigmentation that these blond South Germans are sometimes discussed as though they were a distinct Alpine subspecies. The type is scantily represented in England, and when found may be partly attributed to ecclesiastics and other retainers brought over by the Normans.
The second of the above types, the Armenoids, are virtually absent from Europe, and seem to be characteristic of eastern Anatolia and the immediately adjacent regions.
The author regards the fourth, Borreby or Beaker Maker type of tall, round heads as distinct from the three preceding types. The distribution of their remains would indicate they entered Britain from the northeast. We have no clew as to their origin. A similar type is found in the so-called Dinaric race of Deniker (which Fleure and James mention in connection with the third type but hesitate to class with it), which extends from the Tyrol along the mountainous east coast of the Adriatic into Albania. Further study of the Tripolje culture (see note to p. 143 : 15) and the mixture of population north of the Carpathians, where the early Nordics and early Alpines came in contact, may throw light on this question, as well as upon the problem of the acquisition of Aryan languages by the Alpines.
All these four round skulled types seem to have been of West Asiatic origin, but their relationship to each other and to the true Mongols of central Asia is as yet undetermined. One thing is certain, that the Alpine Slavs north and east of the Carpathians, and, to a less degree, the inhabitants of Hungary and Bulgaria, have in their midst a very considerable Mongoloid element, which has entered Europe since the beginning of our era.
134 : 12 seq. For further characters of the Alpines see Ripley, pp. 123–128, 416 seq., and p. 139 of this book.
135 : 1. Haddon, Races of Man, pp. 15–16; Deniker, Races of Man, pp. 325–326.
135 : 14 seq. Zaborowski, Les peuples aryens, p. 110.
135 : 17. See the authorities given in Ripley; for the Würtembergers, pp. 233–234; for Bavaria and Austria, p. 228; for Switzerland, pp. 282–286; and for the Tyrolese, p. 102.
135 : 22. Beddoe, 4, chap. VI, is particularly good on the physical anthropology of the Swiss, while His and Rütimeyer, Crania Helvetica, are classic authorities.
135 : 23. The Historical Geography of Europe, by Freeman; and Beddoe, 4, pp. 75 seq.
135 : 25 seq. Beddoe, 4, p. 81, says: “As Switzerland, especially its central region, was for ages the great recruiting ground of mercenary soldiers, it is probable that the tall, blond, long-headed element would emigrate at a more rapid rate than the brown, short-headed one. In this way may also be accounted for the apparent decline in the stature of the modern Swiss, who certainly do not, as a rule, now justify the descriptions given of their huge physical development in earlier days, the days of halberds, morgensterns and two-handed swords.” These mercenaries were Teutonic, but their Celtic predecessors were addicted to the same habit as G. Dottin has shown on p. 257 of his Manuel Celtique: “When the Celts could not battle on their own account or against their neighbors, they offered their services for the price of silver to foreign kings. There is hardly a country that was not overrun with Celtic mercenaries, nor struggles in which they had not taken part. As far back as 368 B. C. an army sent by Denys, the Ancient, to Corinth to aid the Spartiates, was in part formed of Celtic foot soldiers.”
“Pas d’argent, pas de Suisses,” as the old saying has it.
See also Gibbon, Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire, chap. LV, where are described the Teutonic Varangians in Constantinople, who became the body-guard of the Greek Emperor.
136 : 5. Osborn, 1, pp. 458 and 479 seq. See p. 116 of this book.
136 : 7. G. Elliot Smith, 1, p. 179; Haddon, 3; Peake, 2, pp. 160–163; Deniker, 2, p. 313; Zaborowski, 1, pp. 172 seq.; Hervé, 1, IV, p. 393, and V, p. 18; and the authorities quoted in Osborn.
136 : 14. Russian brachycephaly. See Ripley, pp. 358 seq., and the authorities quoted.
136 : 16. See p. 143 : 13 of this book, and notes.
136 : 19–26. Brachycephalic colonies in Scandinavia. See p. 211 : 6 and notes.
136 : 29. Ripley, p. 472.
137 : 2. See the notes to p. 128 : 13.
137 : 8. See pp. 138 : 1, and 163 : 26 of this book.
137 : 21. See the notes to p. 128 : 16.
137 : 29 seq. Beddoe, 4, pp. 231–232.
138 : 1 seq. Beddoe, 4, pp. 15, 17, 231–233; Davis and Thurnam; Keane, 1, p. 150; Rice Holmes, 1, pp. 194, 441; Ripley, pp. 308–309. Holmes suggests that the Beaker Makers may have come from Denmark. Compare this theory with that expressed by Fleure and James, pp. 128 seq. and 135; and by Abercromby, Crawford and Peake as given there. The Beaker Makers are quite fully discussed on pp. 86–88, 117, 128 seq., and 135–137, in the article by Fleure and James. See also Greenwell, British Barrows, pp. 627–718, and J. P. Harrison, On the Survival of Certain Racial Features in the Population of the British Isles. Fleure and James describe the type as follows on p. 136: “With the beakers have long been associated the broad-headed, strong-browed type, long known to archæologists as the Bronze Age race, but better called the ‘Beaker Makers,’ or Borreby type, for we now think that these people reached Britain without a knowledge of bronze.... The general description of them is that they must have been taller than the Neolithic British, averaging 5 feet 7 inches, rather strongly built, with long forearms and inclined to roughness of feature. The head was broad (skull index over 80, often 82 or more) and the supraciliary arches strong, but very distinctly separated in most cases by a median depression, and thus strongly contrasted with the continuous supraciliary ridges of e. g., Neanderthal man ... Keith ... thinks it [the type] was usually brown to fair in colouring at all periods, and this seems to be a very general opinion.”
138 : 3. Beddoe, 4, p. 16: “On the whole, however, we cannot be far wrong in describing the British skulls of the bronze period as distinctly brachycephalic; and this seems to have been the case in Scotland as well as in England (see D. Wilson, Archæological and Prehistoric Annals, pp. 168–171). Whencesoever they came, the men of the British bronze race were richly endowed, physically. They were, as a rule, tall and stalwart, their brains were large and their features, if somewhat harsh and coarse, must have been manly and even commanding. The chieftain of Gristhorpe, whose remains are in the Museum of York, must have looked a true king of men with his athletic frame, his broad forehead, beetling brows, strong jaws and aquiline profile.”
138 : 14. Rice Holmes, 1, p. 425.
138 : 17. Dinaric Race. Deniker, 1, pp. 113–133; also 2, p. 333. For allusions to this and descriptions see Ripley, pp. 350, 412, 597, 601–602.
138 : 18. Remains of Alpines. Fleure and James, pp. 117, no. 3, and pp. 137–142.
138 : 22. See the notes to p. 122 : 3. Also Jean Bruhnes in Le Correspondant for September, 1917, p. 774.
139 : 3. See p. 121 : 16.
139 : 6 seq. Sergi, Africa, p. 65; Studer and Bannwarth, Crania Helvetica Antiqua, pp. 13 seq.; His and Rütimeyer, Crania Helvetica, p. 41.
139 : 16. See p. 144 of this book.
139 : 22 seq. See p. 130.
140 : 1 seq. See DeLapouge, passim; Ripley, p. 352; Johannes Ranke, Der Mensch, vol. II, pp. 296 seq.; part II of Topinard’s L’anthropologie générale, and the note to p. 131 : 26.
140 : 4 seq. Alpines in the Cantabrian Alps. See Ripley, p. 272, and Oloriz, Distribución geográfica del Indice cephalica.
140 : 9. Basques and the Basque language. See the notes to p. 234 : 24 seq.
140 : 15. Aquitanian. See p. 248 : 14. Ligurian. See the notes to p. 235 : 17.
140 : 17. Round skulls on North African coast. See pp. 127–128.
140 : 22 seq. See the authorities quoted in Ripley, chap. VII. For the Walloons see Rice Holmes, 2, pp. 323–325, 334; Deniker, 2, p. 335; D’Arbois de Jubainville, 2, pp. 87–95; G. Kurth, La frontière linguistique en Belgique; L. Funel, Les parlers populaires du département des Alpes-Maritimes, pp. 298–303.
The dialects or patois spoken to-day in France all fall under one of these two languages. They can be classified as follows:
| LANGUE D’OC | |
|---|---|
| Patois | Spoken in the Departments of |
| Languedocian | Gard, Hérault, Pyrénées-Orientales, Aude, Ariège, Haute-Garonne, Lot-et-Garonne, Tarn, Aveyron, Lot, Tarn-et-Garonne. |
| Provençal | Drôme, Vaucluse, Bouches-du-Rhône, Hautes- and Basses-Alpes, Var. |
| Dauphinois | Isère. |
| Lyonnais | Rhône, Ain, Saône-et-Loire. |
| Auvergnat | Allier, Loire, Haute-Loire, Ardèche, Lozère, Puy-de-Dôme, Cantal. |
| Limousin | Corrèze, Haute-Vienne, Creuse, Indre, Cher, Vienne, Dordogne, Charente, Charente-Inférieure, Indre-et-Loire. |
| Gascon | Gironde, Landes, Hautes-Pyrénées, Basses-Pyrénées, Gers. |
| LANGUE D’OÏL | |
| Norman | Normandie, Bretagne, Perche, Maine, Anjou, Poitou, Saintonge. |
| Picard (modern French) | Picardie, Île-de-France, Artois, Flandre, Hainault, Basse Maine, Thiérache, Rethelois. |
| Burgundian | Nivernais, Berry, Orléanais, lower Bourbonnais, part of Ile-de-France, Champagne, Lorraine, Franche-Comté. |
140 : 28 seq. For the distribution of the Alpines see Ripley, p. 157.
141 : 6. Austria and the Slavs. See Ripley’s authorities mentioned on pp. 352 seq.
141 : 9. See p. 143 of this book.
141 : 13. See the notes to chap. IX.
141 : 23–142: 4. Introduction of the Slavs into eastern Germany. See Jordanes, History of the Goths, V, 34, 35, and XXIII, 119; Freeman, Historical Geography of Europe, pp. 113 seq.
141 : 25. Wends, Antes and Sclaveni. See the notes to p. 143 : 13 seq.
142 : 4. Haddon, 3, p. 43.
142 : 9. Ripley, p. 355 and the authorities quoted. The word Slave originally signified illustrious or renowned in Slavic language, but in Europe was a word of disdain for the backward Slavs. See T. Peisker, The Expansion of the Slavs, Hist., vol. II, p. 421, n. 2.
142 : 13. See pp. 143–144 of this book.
142 : 23. Russian populations. Ripley, based on Anutschin, Taranetzki, Niederle, Zakrewski, Talko-Hyrncewicz, Olechnowicz, Matiezka, Kharuzin, Retzius, Bonsdorff, etc. Consult his chap. XIII, especially pp. 343–346 and 352. Olechnowicz and Talko-Hyrncewicz both remark on the dolichocephaly and blondness of the upper classes of Poland.
143 : 1. Keane, 2, pp. 345–346; Beddoe, 1, p. 35; Freeman, 1, pp. 107, 113–116, 155–158.
143 : 3. Avars. See the authorities just given; also Eginhard, The Life of Charlemagne; Gibbon, Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire, chaps. XLII, XLV and XLVI.
143 : 4. Hungarians. That the Hungarians as such were known earlier than this date appears from a passage in Jordanes, written about 550 A. D. See the History of the Goths, V, 37, where he says: “Farther away and above the sea of Pontus are the abodes of the Bulgares, well known from the disaster our neglect has brought upon us. From this region, the Huns, like a fruitful root of bravest races, sprouted into two hordes of people. Some of these are called Altziagiri, others, Sabiri; and they have different dwelling places. The Altziagiri are near Cherson, where the avaricious traders bring in the goods of Asia. In summer they range the plains, their broad domains, wherever the pasturage for their cattle invites them, and betake themselves in winter beyond the sea of Pontus. Now the Hunuguri are known to us from the fact that they trade in marten skins. But they have been cowed by their bolder neighbors.” Also on the Hunuguri see Zeuss, p. 712.
143 : 5 seq. The invasion of the Avars and the Magyars. See Freeman, 1, pp. 107, 113, 115–116; Beddoe, 1, p. 35; and Ripley, p. 432.
143 : 13 seq. Haddon, 3, chap. III, Europe, especially p. 40; and A. Lefèvre, Germains et Slavs, p. 156. Minns, in an article on the Slavs, says: “Pliny (N. H., IV, 97) is the first to give the Slavs a name which can leave us in no doubt. He speaks of the Venedi (cf. Tacitus, Germania, 46, Veneti); Ptolemy (Geog., III, 5, 7, 8) calls them Venedæ and puts them along the Vistula and by the Venedic Gulf, by which he seems to mean the Gulf of Danzig; he also speaks of the Venedic mountains to the south of the sources of the Vistula, that is, probably the northern Carpathians. The name Venedæ is clearly Wend, the name that the Germans have always applied to the Slavs. Its meaning is unknown. It has been the cause of much confusion because of the Armorican Veneti, the Paphlagonian Enetæ, and above all the Enetæ-Venetæ at the head of the Adriatic.... Other names in Ptolemy which almost certainly denote Slavic tribes are the Veltæ on the Baltic. The name Slav first occurs in Pseudo-Cæsarius (Dialogues, II, 110; Migne, P. G., XXXVIII, 985, early 6th century), but the earliest definite account of them under that name is given by Jordanes (Getica [History of the Goths], V, 34, 35), about 550 A. D.: ‘Within these rivers lies Dacia, encircled by the Alps as by a crown. Near their left ridge, which inclines toward the north, and beginning at the source of the Vistula, the populous race of the Venethi dwell, occupying a great expanse of land. Though their names are now dispersed amid various clans and places, yet they are chiefly called Sclaveni and Antes. The abode of the Sclaveni extends from the city of Noviodunum and the lake called Mursianus, to the Dnâster, and northward as far as the Vistula. They have swamps and forests for their cities. The Antes, who are the bravest of these peoples dwelling in the curve of the sea of Pontus, spread from the Dnâster to the Dnâper, rivers that are many days’ journey apart.’” See also Zaborowski, 1, pp. 272 seq.
The name Wends, as has been said, was used by the Germans to designate the Slavs. It is now used for the Germanized Polaks, and especially for the Lusatian Wends or Sorbs. It is first found in English used by Alfred. Canon I. Taylor, in Words and Places, p. 42, says: “The Sclavonians call themselves either Slowjane, ‘the intelligible men,’ or else Srb which means ‘kinsmen,’ while the Germans call them Wends.”
Haddon, 3, p. 47, says: “The Slavs, who belong to the Alpine race, seem to have had their area of characterization in Poland and the country between the Carpathians and the Dnieper; they may be identified with the Venedi.”
In the author’s opinion these people have, so far as is known, nothing whatever to do with the tribe of Veneti at the head of the Adriatic, nor with the Veneti in western Europe in what is now Brittany. Of the former Ripley, p. 258, says that they have been generally accepted as of Illyrian derivation and cites D’Arbois de Jubainville, Von Duhn, Pigorini, Sergi, Pullé, Moschen and Tedeschi as authorities.
The Veneti in Italy are tall, broad-headed and some are blond, having mixed with the Teutons. They possessed some eastern habits, such as their marriage customs, as set forth in Herodotus. They were flourishing, wealthy and peaceful. Later they were driven to what is now Venice.
The Veneti in Gaul were a powerful maritime people, who carried on a sea trade with Britain. Strangely, perhaps, the ancient name of northern Wales was Venedotia. The name Veneto, however, has nothing to do with that of Vandal. For some theories as to the relationships of some of these Veneti, see Zaborowski, 3.
143 : 15. Gallicia and the Tripolje Culture. Cf. pp. 113–114. Gallicia is not far from the known location of the Brünn-Prêdmost race, which was dolichocephalic with a long face. This early appearance of a dolichocephalic race at the point where the dolichocephalic Nordics later came in contact with the Alpines is very significant.
The locality is in the neighborhood of the Tripolje area in southern Russia, for which see Minns, Scythians and Greeks, pp. 130–142, and Peake, 2, p. 164.
Minns says: “The first finds of Neolithic settlements in Russia were made near the village of Tripolje, on the Dnêpr, forty miles below Kiev, and this name has since been extended to the culture of a large area in southern Russia. The remains consist of so-called ‘areas’ with buildings which had wattled, clay-covered walls which were fired when dry to give them greater hardness. Pottery is present in great abundance and variety of forms. These bear painted decorations which are very artistic. There are a few figurines. The buildings were not dwellings but probably chapels. The homes were probably pit dwellings. Bodies of the dead were incinerated and deposited in urns.
“The theory has been abandoned that this was an autochthonous development, typical of the Indo-Europeans [Nordics] before they differentiated (cf. Chvojka, the first discoverer). Although similar to Ægean art this was earlier (see Von Stern, Prehistoric Greek Culture in the South of Russia). It came suddenly to an end and had no successor in that region. The people were agriculturalists long before the Scythians, but the next people who lived there were thorough nomads. Niederle (Slav. Ant., I) dates them 2000 B. C. The Tripolje people either moved south or were overwhelmed by new comers.” As Peake says, 2, pp. 164–165, here was a very likely point of contact between the Nordic and Alpine stocks, a mixture which, in the opinion of the author, may ultimately throw some light on the origin of the Dinaric and Beaker Maker types. Through this region both Alpines and Nordics must have passed many times in their wanderings. Here perhaps the Alpines became partly Nordicized, especially as to their language.
143 : 21. Sarmatians. There has been considerable confusion over these people, owing to the various ways in which the name has been spelled by early and later writers, and to the fact that they dwelt in the region where both Alpines and Nordics must have existed side by side. The name Sarmatians has been applied at one time to Nordics, at another to Alpines or even Mongolians, depending on the dates when they were discussed and the bias of various writers. We have no generic name for the Alpine peoples who must have been in this region in early times, except that of Sarmatians or Scythians. As the Scythians are apparently strongly Nordic in character, the name Sarmatians seemed more fitting to apply to the Alpine tribes who were certainly there. Not all authorities are agreed as to their affiliations, however, as has been said.
Jordanes declares that the Sarmatians and the Sauromatæ were the same people. Stephanus Byzantius states that the Syrmatæ were identical with the Sauromatæ. They are first mentioned by Polybius as being in Europe in 179 B. C. (XXV, II; XXVI, VI, 12). But in Asia we hear of them as early as 325 B. C., according to Minns, p. 38, who says that they gradually shifted westward, until in 50 A. D. they were in the Danube valley. Jordanes later speaks of the Carpathian mountains as the Sarmatian range. Mierow, in the notes to his translation of Jordanes, makes the Sarmatians a great Slavic people dwelling from the Vistula to the Don, in what is now Poland and Russia. (See also Hodgkin, Italy, vol. I, part I, p. 71.) According to Jordanes, the Sarmatians were beyond Dacia (the ancient Gothic land) and to the north (XII, 74). It is with these statements in mind that the author has designated them as Alpines.
Minns describes the Sarmatians as nomads of the Caspian steppes who wore armor like the Hiung-nu. About 325 B. C. there was a decline of the Scyths and they appear. During the second and third centuries A. D. was the time when they spread over the vast regions from Hungary to the Caspian. Minns, however, is firm in the belief that they were Iranians [Nordics], like the Alans, Ossetes, Jasy, etc. In the second half of the fourth century B. C. they were still east of the Don or just crossing; for the next century and a half we have very scanty knowledge of what was happening in the steppes. Procopius, III, II, also makes them Goths. (See the note to p. 66 : 16.) Feist, 5, p. 391, quotes Tacitus as to their being horse-loving nomads of south Russia. See also D’Arbois de Jubainville, 4, t. I, and Gibbon, chaps. XVIII, XXV, etc., for further discussions.
144 : 11 seq. See the authorities quoted, in Ripley, pp. 361–362. The Bashkirs, however, are partly Finn, partly Tatar as well.
144 : 26–145: 1. Ripley, pp. 416 seq. and 434.
145 : 3. Ripley, p. 434.
145 : 7. Freeman, 1, pp. 113–115; Haddon, 3, p. 45.
145 : 10. Ripley, p. 421. These are the Volga Finns. Old Bulgaria, according to Pruner-Bey, 2, t. I, pp. 399–433, P. F. Kanitz and others, seems to have been between the Ural mountains and the Volga. The old Bulgarians were a Finnic tribe (just which is a matter of much dispute). They crossed the Danube toward the end of the seventh century. See Freeman, 1, pp. 17, 155.
145 : 11 seq. Ripley, p. 426, based on Bassanovič, p. 30.
145 : 16. Ripley, p. 421.
145 : 19. Of the numerous tribes who, since the Christian Era, have entered Europe and Anatolia from western Asia some were undoubtedly pure Mongoloids, like the Huns of Attila, or the hordes of Genghis Khan. Others were probably under Mongoloid leaders, and included a large proportion of West Asiatic Alpines (i. e., Turcomans), while still others may have been substantially Alpines. The Mongols in their sweep into Europe would naturally gather up and carry with them many of the tribes of western Asia, or perhaps more often would drive the latter ahead of them.
146 : 3 seq. Ripley, p. 139; Taylor, 1, p. 119; Peake, 2, p. 162.
146 : 8. Ripley, p. 136. These primitive nests occur also in Norway.
146 : 12. See the note to p. 131 : 26.
146 : 19–147 : 6. See pp. 122 and 138 of this book.
147 : 7 seq. Accad and Sumer. Prince, and Zaborowski (after de Sarzec) give the earliest date of Accad as about 3800 B. C., but Prince thinks this date too old by 700–1000 years. See also Zaborowski, 1, pp. 118–125. H. R. Hall, in The Ancient History of the Near East, reviews the entire work in this field in his first chapter. According to him, dates in Babylonia can be traced as far back as those of Egypt, without coming to a time when there was no writing or metal, while Egyptian records begin in a Neolithic culture. The earliest dates so far established are in the fourth millennium B. C., but already a high degree of civilization had been reached there or elsewhere by people who brought it to Babylonia. Hall, p. 176, says: “The most ancient remains that we find in the city mounds are Sumerian. The site of the ancient Shurripak, at Fârah in Southern Babylonia, has lately been excavated. The culture revealed by this excavation is Sumerian, and metal-using, even at the lowest levels. The Sumerians apparently knew the use of copper at the beginning of their occupation of Babylonia, and no doubt brought this knowledge with them.” See chap. V of Hall’s book, and the two great works of King, the Chronicles Concerning the Early Babylonian Kings, and The History of Sumer and Akkad, as well as Rogers’s History of Babylonia and Assyria. In his preface to the first mentioned of his two works King states that the new researches are resulting in a tendency to reduce the dates of these ancient empires very considerably, especially for the dynasties. Thus for Su-abu, the founder of the first dynasty, a date not earlier than 2100 B. C. is now given, and for Hammurabi one not earlier than the twentieth century B. C. Accad is by many authors, including Breasted, considered to have been Semitic from the beginning, and to have been established about 2800 B. C. But Zaborowski claims that it was not originally Semitic, but Semitized at a very early date. He makes both city-kingdoms originally Turanian [by which he means Alpine and pre-Aryan] with an agglutinative language related to the Altaic. See also Zaborowski, 2. He dates the cuneiform inscriptions between 3700 and 4000 B. C., after de Sarzec and de Morgan. Hall draws attention to the remarkable resemblance of the Sumerians to the Dravidians, and is inclined to believe that they may have come from India. Both G. Elliot Smith and Breasted claim the Babylonians derived their culture from Egypt, but the weight of evidence is gradually accumulating against them. See Hall, chap. V. The relations of the two regions and Egyptian dates are treated in Reisner’s Early Dynastic Cemeteries of Naga-ed-Dêr; and Eduard Meyer, Geschichte des Altertums, should also be consulted. Against these Egyptologists are most of the later writers, such as Hall and King and many others. The location of Babylonia is a fact distinctly in favor of its earlier beginnings. There is no denying the very remote origin of Egyptian culture, which in its isolation for so many centuries had ample time to develop its own peculiar features and to become sufficiently strong to later extend a very wide influence. There is an interesting study of the fauna of Egypt by Lortet and Gaillard, which proves that much of it was originally African, not Asiatic, as those who wish to prove the opposite theory, that Egyptian culture was derived from the east in very remote times, have endeavored to establish. There is no doubt that the Egyptians were sufficiently plastic and adaptable in the earlier centuries of their development, wherever they may have come from, to make use of what the continent of Africa contributed in the way of resources. (See also Gaillard, Les Tatonnements des Égyptiens, etc., and H. H. Johnston, On North African Animals.) To claim that the civilization of Sumer was derived directly from Elam, which in turn obtained its earliest culture from Egypt, is, in the opinion of the author, to reverse the truth. Some authorities believe that Elam was the origin from which came the civilization found by Pumpelly in Turkestan, and believed by him to have been not earlier than the end of the third millennium B. C. (For a further reference to this see the note to p. 119 : 15 of this book, on Balkh.)
See Hall as to the relationship of the Accadians and Sumerians with Elam. Zaborowski says they were all of the same Alpine stock, that is, the very early Sumerians and Accadians and Elamites. See 2, p. 411. For Susa, Elam and Media, see Les peuples Aryens, pp. 125–138, and Hall, chap. V. For the Persians, Zaborowski, 1, pp. 134 seq. Ripley, pp. 417, 449–450, discusses some of the eastern tribes, among them the Tadjiks, whom general opinion makes round skulled. These, according to Zaborowski, are the living prototypes of the Susians, Elamites and Medes. Many writers consider the Medes to have been Nordics and related to the Persians. The author, however, follows Zaborowski in classing them as the early brachycephalic population of Elam or its highlands or plateau, which was conquered by the Persians. On the Medes and Media see the notes to p. 254 : 13.
CHAPTER V. THE MEDITERRANEAN RACE
148 : 1. The Mediterranean Race. Sergi, 4; Ripley; and Elliot Smith, 1.
148 : 14. Deniker, 2, pp. 408 seq.; Ripley, pp. 450–451.
148 : 15. See the notes to pp. 257–261.
148 : 18. Dravidians. Bishop R. Caldwell, Comparative Grammar of the Dravidian or South Indian Family of Languages; G. A. Grierson, Linguistic Survey of India, vol. IV, Munda and Dravidian Languages; Friedrich Müller, Reise der österreichischen Fregatte Novara um die Erde in den Jahren 1857–1859, etc., pp. 73 seq.; Grundriss der Sprachwissenschaft, vol. III, pp. 106 seq. See also Haddon, 3, p. 18.
148 : 22 seq. Deniker, 2, p. 397; Haddon, 1, 3, but Haddon has pointed out that the Andamanese are not racially of the same stock as the Sakai, Veddahs, etc.
149 : 6. Haddon, 3, and Sergi, 4, p. 158; Ripley; Fleure and James; Peake; etc.
149 : 12. Peake, 2, p. 158.
149 : 21. On this point, Ripley, pp. 465 seq., quotes Von Dueben, Retzius, Arbo, Montelius, Barth, Zograf, Lebon, Olechnowicz, etc.
150 : 8. See the notes to p. 149.
150 : 12. See the notes to p. 257.
150 : 21. Beddoe, 4, and 3, pp. 384 seq., and Ripley, pp. 326, 328 seq.
150 : 24 seq. See the notes to p. 149.
150 : 29–151 : 3. A. Retzius, 1, 2; G. Retzius, 1, 2; Peake, 2, p. 158. Taylor, Origin of the Aryans, p. 101, says the Iberian type is not found in northern Europe east of Namur. In the British Isles, however, it extends to Caithness.
151 : 3 seq. See the notes to p. 149; Ripley, pp. 461–465; Sergi, 4, p. 252; Osborn, 1, p. 458.
151 : 18. Sir Harry Johnston, passim; G. Elliot Smith, 1, pp. 18, 30, 31, and chap. V.
151 : 22 seq. G. Elliot Smith, 1, p. 30. For a contrary opinion see Sergi, 4.
152 : 3. W. L. and P. L. Sclater, The Geography of Mammals, pp. 177 seq.; Flower and Lydekker, Mammals, Living and Extinct, pp. 96–97.
152 : 6. Elliot Smith, 1, chap. IV and elsewhere; Sergi, 4, chap. III.
152 : 12. Negroes seem to have been unknown in Egypt and Nubia in pre-dynastic days and only appear in small numbers in the third and fourth dynasties, in the South. The great ruins on the Zambezi at Zimbabwe were probably the work of the Mediterranean race and are to be dated about 1000 B. C. In other words, all northeast Africa, including Nubia, the northern Sudan, the ancient Kingdom of Meroë at the junction of the Blue and White Niles, Abyssinia and the adjoining coast were originally part of the domain of the Mediterranean race.
In the recent kingdom of the Mahdi, the predominant element was not Negro but Arab more or less mixed.
152 : 16. Sir Harry Johnston, passim; Ripley, pp. 387, 390; Hall, Ancient History of the Near East.
152 : 27. Sardinia. See Ripley and Von Luschan. A recent article by V. Giuffrida-Ruggeri, entitled “A Sketch of the Anthropology of Italy,” in the Journal of the Royal Anthropological Institute of Great Britain and Ireland, is well worth consideration. On pp. 91–92 the author gives a short sketch of the Sardinians and his authorities are to be found in a footnote on p. 91.
153 : 4. Albanians. See the notes to p. 163 : 19.
153 : 6 seq. Fleure and James, pp. 122 seq., 149; Beddoe, 4, pp. 25–26; Davis and Thurnam, especially p. 212; Boyd Dawkins, Early Man in Britain.
153 : 10. Scotland. See the notes to pp. 150 : 10 and 204 : 5.
153 : 14 seq. See the notes to p. 229 : 5–12.
153 : 24 seq. The Mediterranean Race in Rome. Montelius, La Civilisation primitive en Italie; Peet, The Stone and Bronze Ages in Italy; Munro, Palæolithic Man and the Terramara Settlements; Modestov, Introduction à l’histoire romain; Frank, Roman Imperialism. Giuffrida-Ruggeri, in A Sketch of the Anthropology of Italy, p. 101, says of the composition of the population of Rome: “The three fundamental European races, H. mediterraneus, H. alpinus, and H. nordicus, had their representatives among the ancient Romans, although the skeletal remains of the Mediterraneans and the Northerners are difficult to distinguish from each other. It is also possible that the Northerners belonged to the aristocrats who preferred to burn their dead. In the calm tenacity and quiet growth of the Roman people perhaps the descendants of H. nordicus represented the turbulent restlessness of violent and bold individuals which, even in Roman history, one is able to discern from time to time.”
In this connection it is interesting to note what Charles W. Gould has said on p. 117, in America, a Family Matter, concerning Sulla. He describes him as follows: “Even during the terror Sulla found time for enjoyment. Tawny hair, piercing blue eyes, fair complexion readily suffused with color as emotion and red blood surged within, Norseman that he was, he presided over constant and splendid entertainments, taking more pleasure in a witty actor than in the degenerate men and women of the old nobility who elbowed their way in.” Also see the notes to p. 215 : 21.
154 : 5. Quarrels between the Patricians and the Plebs. See Tenney Frank, Roman Imperialism, pp. 5 seq., for a discussion of the mixture of races, “only we cannot agree that a social state can accomplish race amalgamation. The two races are still there.” Boni, Notizie degli Scavi, vol. III p. 401, believes that the Patricians were the descendants of the immigrant Aryans, while the Plebeians were the offspring of the aboriginal Non-Aryan stock. Compare this with the statements of early writers concerning the conditions in Gaul, especially as summed up by Dottin in his Manuel Celtique.
Frank says, concerning the quarrels, in chap. II, op. cit.: “Roman tradition preserved in the first book of Livy presents a very circumstantial account of the several battles by which Rome supposedly razed the Latin cities one after another.... Needless to say, if the Latin tribe had lived in such civil discord as the legend assumes, it would quickly have succumbed to the inroads of the mountain tribes.” Thus probably the quarrels between Latin and Etruscan have been overrated. See again, p. 14, for the oriental origin of some intruding people. He says, in a note at the end of the chapter: “Ridgeway, in Who were the Romans, 1908, has ably, though not convincingly developed the view that the Patricians were Sabine conquerors. Cuno, Vorgeschichte Roms, I, 14, held that they were Etruscans. Fustel de Coulanges, in his well-known work, La cité antique, proposed the view that a religious caste system alone could explain the division. Eduard Meyer, the article on the Plebs in Handwörterbuch der Staatswissenschaften, and Botsford, Roman Assemblies, p. 16, have presented various arguments in favor of the economic theory. See Binder, Die Plebs, 1909, for a summary of many other discussions.”
Breasted, Ancient Times, pp. 495 seq., and Sir Harry Johnston, Views and Reviews, p. 97, are two who have touched upon these questions.
On Etruria see the note to p. 157 : 14.
154 : 11. An allusion to the short stature of the Roman legions of Cæsar in Gaul may be found in Rice Holmes, 2, p. 81. D’Arbois de Jubainville, Les Celts en Espagne, XIV, p. 369, says in describing a combat between P. Cornelius Scipio and a Gallic warrior: “Scipio was of very small stature, the Celtiberian warrior with the high stature which in all times in the tales of the Roman historians characterizes the Celtic race; and the beginning of the struggle gave him the advantage.” Taylor, Origin of the Aryans, p. 76, says: “The stature of the Celts struck the Romans with astonishment. Cæsar speaks of their mirifica corpora and contrasts the short stature of the Romans with the magnitudo corporum of the Gauls. Strabo, also, speaking of the Coritavi, a British tribe in Lincolnshire, after mentioning their yellow hair, says: ‘To show how tall they are, I saw myself some of their young men at Rome and they were taller by six inches than anyone else in the city.’” See also Elton, Origins, p. 240.
154 : 18 seq. Nordic Aristocracy in Rome. Tenney Frank, Race Mixture in the Roman Empire. But he also makes Gauls and Germans on the same level as other conquered people, as legionaries, etc. See also Giuffrida-Ruggeri, p. 101.
155 : 5 seq. G. Elliot Smith, 1; Peet, 2, pp. 164 seq. Fleure and James use the terms Neolithic and Mediterranean interchangeably. Recent study is giving a somewhat different interpretation to the significance of the megaliths. See the article by H. J. Fleure and L. Winstanley in the 1918 Journal of the Royal Anthropological Institute of Great Britain and Ireland. On the megaliths see also the note to p. 129 : 2 seq.
155 : 22 seq. See the notes to p. 233 seq.
155 : 27–156 : 4. See the notes to p. 192.
156 1 4. See the notes to p. 244 : 6.
156 : 8. Sergi, 4, p. 70.
156 : 10. Gauls. D’Arbois de Jubainville, 1, XIV, p. 364, says: “Hannibal left Spain for Italy in 218, but he left there a Carthaginian army in the ranks of which marched auxiliaries furnished by the Celtic peoples of Spain; Roman troops came to combat this army and four years after the departure of Hannibal, (i. e. in 214), they gave many battles to the Carthaginian generals where the Celts were vanquished. In the booty there were found abundant Gallic trappings, especially a great number of collars and bracelets of gold; among the dead of the Carthaginian army left upon the plain were two petty Gallic kings, Moencapitus and Vismarus. Livy, who tells us these things, says distinctly that the trappings were Gallic (Gallica) and that the kings were Gallic. See Livy, I, XXIV, c. 42.”
156 : 13. See the note to p. 192.
156 : 16. Feist, 5, p. 365, is one of the authors who notes the fact that classic writers spoke of light and dark types in Spain.
156 : 18. This of course means racial evidence. See Mommsen, History of the Roman Provinces, I, chap. II, and Burke, History of Spain, p. 2.
156 : 25–157 : 3. On the history of the Albigenses the most important authority is C. Schmidt, Histoire de la secte des Cathares ou Albigeois, Paris, 1849. The Albigenses were deeply indebted to the Arabic culture of Saracenic Spain, which was the medium through which much of the ancient Greek science and learning was preserved to modern times.
157 : 4. Ripley, pp. 260 seq. For an exhaustive résumé of the subject see Rice Holmes, 2, pp. 277–287. Also consult the notes to p. 235 : 17 of this book.
157 : 6. See p. 122 for the predominance of the Mediterraneans.
157 : 10. Umbrians and Oscans. It is fair to assume that some people brought the Aryan languages into Italy from the north, and this introduction is credited to the Umbrians and Oscans. (See Helbig, Die Italiker in der Poebene, pp. 29–41; Ridgeway, Early Age of Greece; Conway, Early Italic Dialects.) The Umbrians and Oscans were closely allied in regard to their language, whatever may have been their ethnic affinities. In a remoter degree they were connected with the Latins. From the time and starting-point of their migrations, as well as from their type of culture, it would appear that they were cognate with the early Nordic invaders of Greece. Whether they were wholly Nordic, or were thoroughly Nordicized Alpines, or merely Alpines with Nordic leaders is not of particular moment in this connection, but if they were the carriers of Aryan language and culture they were Nordicized in a degree comparable to the genuine Nordics who invaded Greece. Giuffrida-Ruggeri, in one of the latest papers on Italy, as well as many earlier authorities, regards the Umbrians as Alpines, but he says they were not all round skulled. “The Osci, the Sabines, the Samnites, and other Sabellic peoples were Aryans or Aryanized, although they inhumated their dead instead of burning them. It is possible that the founders of Rome consisted of both families, as we find both rites in ancient Rome” (p. 100).
157 : 14. Etruscans. The author is familiar with the persistent theory that the Etruscans came from Asia Minor by sea, but he nevertheless regards them as indigenous inhabitants of Italy, that is, the Pre-Aryan, Pre-Nordic Mediterraneans, who, as part of a large and extended group, were spread over a great part of the shores of the Mediterranean, and were at that time the Italian exponents of the prevailing Ægean culture. During the second millennium in which this culture flourished, they were much influenced by Crete, although they developed their civilization along special lines. The Etruscan language, excluding the borrowed elements from later Italic dialects, is apparently in no sense Aryan. Cf. Hall, Ancient History of the Near East, pp. 53–54.
157 : 16. The date 800 is given by Feist, 5, p. 370.
157 : 18. Livy, V, 33 seq., is the authority for the date of the sixth century. See also Polybius, 1, II, c. XVII, § 1. Myers, Ancient History, makes the settlement of the Gauls in Italy about the fifth century B. C. Most authorities follow Livy.
157 : 21. To show how approximate the authorities are on this date, Rice Holmes, 2, p. 1, and Myers, Ancient History, make it 390, while Breasted gives 382.
157 : 23. Livy, V, 35–49, treats of the taking of Rome by the Gauls. The name Brennus means raven; it is from the Celtic bran, raven, crow.
157 : 26. There is a considerable Frankish element there also, among the aristocracy.
158 : 1 seq. An interesting discussion of this event is given by Salomon Reinach, 2. The invasion was resisted first at Thermopylæ and later at Delphi. On p. 81 Reinach says: “In the detailed recital which Pausanius has left us of the invasion of the Galatic bands in Greece, dealing with the glorious part which the Athenians played in the defence of the Pass of Thermopylæ. But, when the defile had been forced, the Athenians departed and Pausanius makes no more mention of them in relating the defence of Delphi, where only the Phocians, four hundred Locrians and two hundred Ætolians figured. It is only after the defeat of the Gauls that the Athenians, according to Pausanius, came back, together with the Bœotians, to harass the barbarians in their retreat....” On p. 83 he says: “The barbarians are incontestably the Galatians.” See also by the same author, The Gauls in Antique Art. G. Dottin, pp. 461–462 gives us the following: “Hannibal, traversing southern Gaul, found on his passage only Gauls. On the other hand, Livy mentions the arrival of Gauls in Provence at the same time as their first descent into Italy, and Justinius places the wars of the Greeks of Marseilles against the Gauls and Ligurians before the taking of Rome by the Gauls. The invasion of the Belgæ is placed then in the third century. It is doubtless contemporaneous with the Celtic invasion of Greece which was perhaps caused by it.” See also the notes to p. 174 : 21 of this book. According to Myers, Ancient History, where the account of these events is briefly given on pp. 269–270, the year was 278 B. C. Breasted, 1, p. 449, gives 280 B. C.
As late as the fourth century of our era, Celtic forms of speech prevailed among the Galatians of Asia Minor. According to Jerome (Fraser’s Golden Bough, II, p. 126, footnote), the language spoken then in Anatolia was very similar to the dialect of the Treveri, a Celtic tribe on the Moselle, of whose name Treves is the perpetuator. “It was to these people that St. Paul addressed one of his epistles.”
It is interesting to note that at the present time the finest soldiers of the Turkish army are recruited in the district of Angora which includes the territory of ancient Galatia.
158 : 13. Procopius, IV, 13, says that a number of Moors and their wives took refuge in Sicily and also in Sardinia where they established colonies. The recent article by Giuffrida-Ruggeri sums up the data for Sicily, Sardinia and Corsica. See also Gibbon, passim, and Ripley, pp. 115–116.
158 : 16. G. Elliot Smith, 1, pp. 94 seq., and the notes to pp. 127 : 26 and 128.
158 : 21. Pelasgians. Sergi, 4, followed by many anthropologists, describes as Pelasgian one branch of the Mediterranean or Eurafrican race of mankind and one group of skull types within that race. Ripley, pp. 407, 448, considers them Mediterraneans in all probability, as this is the oldest layer of population in these regions. So also do Myres, Dawn of History, p. 171, and most of the other authorities. In his History of the Pelasgian Theory, Myres sums up all that was written up to that time. Homer and other early writers make them the ancient inhabitants of Greece, who were subdued by the Hellenes. It is generally agreed that a people resembling in its prevailing skull forms the Mediterranean race of north Africa was settled in the Ægean area from a remote Neolithic antiquity. D’Arbois de Jubainville, 4, t. I, devotes a chapter or more to them, and declares on p. 110: “In fact the Pelasgians and the Hellenes are of different origin; the first are one of the races which preceded the Indo-Europeans in Europe, the others are Indo-European.”
Another recent writer who deals with this puzzling problem is Sartiaux, in his Troie, pp. 140–143. Finally, Sir William Ridgeway says: “The Achæans found the land occupied by a people known by the ancients as Pelasgians who continued down to classical times the main element in the population, even in the states under Achæan, and later, under Dorian rule. In some cases the Pelasgians formed a serf class, e. g. in Penestæ, in Thessaly, the Helots in Laconia and the Gymnesii at Argos; whilst they practically composed the whole population of Arcadia and Attica which never came under either Achæan or Dorian rule. This people had dwelt in the Ægean from the Stone Age, and though still in the Bronze Age at the Achæan conquest, had made great advances in the useful and ornamental arts. They were of short stature, with dark hair and eyes, and generally dolichocephalic. Their chief centers were at Cnossus, Crete, in Argolis, Laconia and Attica, in each being ruled by ancient lines of kings. In Argolis, Prœtus built Tiryns but later under Perseus, Mycenæ took the lead until the Achæan conquest. All the ancient dynasties traced their descent from Poseidon, who at the time of the Achæan conquest was the chief male divinity of Greece and the islands.”
As to the Pelasgian being a Non-Aryan tongue, the ancient script at Crete has not yet been deciphered. Since the ancient Cretans were presumably Pelasgians, it is safe to identify them with this Non-Aryan language, although Conway, 2, pp. 141–142, is inclined to believe that it is related to the Aryan family. See also Sweet, The History of Language, p. 103.
158 : 22. Nordic Achæans. Ridgeway, 1, p. 683, says: “We found that a fair-haired race greater in stature than the melanochroous Ægean people had there [in Greece and the Ægean] been domiciled for long ages, and that fresh bodies of tall, fair-haired people from the shores of the northern ocean continually through the ages had kept pressing down into the southern peninsulas. From this it followed that the Achæans of Homer were one of these bodies of Celts [i. e., Nordics], who had made their way down into Greece and had become the masters of the indigenous race.
“This conclusion we further tested by an examination of the distribution of the round shield, the practise of cremation, the use of the brooch and buckle, and finally the diffusion of iron in Europe, North Africa and western Asia. Our inductions showed that all four had made their way into Greece and the Ægean from Central Europe. Accordingly as they all appeared in Greece along with the Homeric Achæans, we inferred that the latter had brought them with them from central Europe.” Elsewhere, in the same book, Ridgeway identifies the Homeric age with the Achæan and Post-Mycenæan, the Mycenæan with the Pre-Achæan and Pelasgian.
Bury, The History of Greece, p. 44, says: “The Achæans were a people of blond complexion, of Indo-European speech. Among the later Greeks, there were two marked types, distinguished by light and dark hair. The blond complexion was rarer and more prized. This is illustrated by the fact that women and fops used sometimes to dye their hair yellow or red, the κομης ξανθίσματα mentioned in the Danæ of Euripedes.”
159 : 4–5. Date of the siege of Troy. Hall, Ancient History of the Near East, p. 69, and many other authorities accept the Parian Chronicle, which makes it 1194–1184 B. C. For the whole question of the Trojan War see Félix Sartiaux, Troie, La Guerre de Troie.
159 : 6 seq. See the notes to p. 225 : 11.
159 : 10 seq. Bury, History of Greece, p. 44; DeLapouge, Les sélections sociales. Beddoe noted in his Anthropological History of Europe that almost all of Homer’s heroes were blond or chestnut-haired as well as large and tall. There are many passages in the Iliad which refer to the blondness and size of the more important personages.
159 : 19 seq. Bury, History of Greece, pp. 57, 59, describes the Greek tribes which moved down before the Dorians, conquering the Achæans—the Thessalians, Bœotians, etc. But see Peake, 2, for Thessalians. Also D’Arbois de Jubainville, 4, t. II, p. 297, and Myers, Anc. Hist., pp. 127, 136 seq.
159 : 23. Dorians. See the authorities quoted above; also Ridgeway, Von Luschan, Deniker, 2, pp. 320–321, and Hawes.
160 : 1. C. H. Hawes, p. 258 of the Annal of the British School at Athens, vol. XVI, “Some Dorian Descendants,” says the Dorians were Alpines, and this view is shared by many others, among them Von Luschan. See also Myres, The Dawn of History, pp. 173 seq. and 213. While this may be partially true even of the bulk of the population, all the tribes to the north of the Mediterranean fringe carried a large Nordic element, which practically always assumed the leadership.
160 : 17. For the character of the Dorians, see Bury, p. 62.
161 : 20. The philosopher Xenophanes, a contemporary of both Philip and his son, in discussing man’s notion of God, insists that each race represents the Great Supreme under its own shape: the Negro with a flat nose and black face, the Thracian with blue eyes and a ruddy complexion.
161 : 27. Loss of Nordic blood among the Persians. See the note to p. 254 : 11.
162 : 8. Barbarous Macedonia. Bury, The History of Greece, pp. 681–731.
162 : 14. Alexander the Great. Descriptions of Alexander are found in Plutarch, who quotes the memoirs of Aristoxenus, a contemporary of Alexander, regarding the agreeable odor exhaled from his skin; Plutarch also says, without giving his authority, who was probably the same, that Alexander was “fair and of a light color, passing to ruddiness in his face and upon his breast.” An authority for the statement of blue and black eyes is Quintus Curtius Rufus, a Roman historian of the first century A. D., in Historiarum Alexandri Magni, Libri Decem. This was written three and one-half centuries after the death of Alexander. The quotation, from North’s translation of Plutarch, reads: “But when Appeles painted Alexander holding lightning in his hand he did not shew his fresh color, but made him somewhat blacke and swarter than his face in deede was; for naturally he had a very fayre white colour, mingled also with red which chiefly appeared in his face and in his brest.”
In Gabon’s Inquiries into the Human Faculty, original English edition, frontispiece, is a composite photograph of Alexander the Great from six different medals selected by the curator in the British Museum. The curly hair and Greek profile are significant features. The sarcophagus of Alexander in the Constantinople Museum called the Sidonian, throws some light on this point, although there is some uncertainty among archæologists as to whether or not it is Alexander’s sarcophagus.
162 : 19. See Von Luschan, The Early Inhabitants of Western Asia, the section on Greece.
163 : 7. Græculus, -a, -um. According to the Latin dictionaries, the diminutive adjective, understood mostly in a depreciating, contemptuous sense—a paltry Greek.
163 : 10. Physical types in early Greece. Ripley, pp. 407–408, quotes Nicolucci, Zaborowski, Virchow, DeLapouge and Sergi. Cf. Peake, 2, pp. 158–159, also Ripley, p. 411.
163 : 14. Physical types of modern Greeks. See the authorities given on p. 409 of Ripley’s book, and Von Luschan, pp. 221 seq. Von Luschan and most other observers say that the modern Greeks, at least in Asia Minor, are a very mixed people. See his curve for head form.
163 : 16. Von Luschan, p. 239: “As in ancient Greece a great number of individuals seem to have been fair, with blue eyes, I took great care to state whether this were the case with the modern ‘Greeks’ in Asia. I have notes for 580 adults, males and females. In this number there were 8 with blue and 29 with gray or greenish eyes; all the rest had brown eyes. There was not one case of really light colored hair, but in nearly all the cases of lighter eyes the hair also was less dark than with the other Greeks.” See Ripley for European Greeks.
163 : 19. Albanians. Deniker, 2, pp. 333–334; Von Luschan, p. 224; Ripley, p. 410. Most Albanians are tall and dark. C. H. Hawes, Some Dorian Descendants, p. 258 seq., says that the percentage of light eyes over light hair is nearly ten times as great, i. e., there is 3 per cent of light hair to 30–38 per cent light eyes among Albanians and selected Greeks and Cretans. Also Glück, Zur Physischen Anthropologie der Albanesen, pp. 375–376, and the note to p. 25 : 25 of this book. Hall gives some interesting data on p. 522 of his Ancient History of the Near East.
163 : 26. See the note to p. 138 : 1 seq.
164 : 4 seq. Dinaric type identified with the Spartans. See C. H. Hawes, op. cit., pp. 250 seq., where he discusses the Spartans and the Dinaric type, and Hall, Ancient History of the Near East, pp. 74 and 572.
164 : 12. On p. 57 of his History of Greece Bury inclines to the belief that the Dorians came through Epirus, and attributes the cause of their invasion to the pressure of the Illyrians, to whom the Dorians were probably related. It is known that the Illyrians were round-headed. Finally they left the regions of the Corinthian Gulf, and sailed around the Peloponnesus to southeast Greece, where they settled, leaving only a few Dorians behind, who gave their name to the country they occupied, but ever afterward were of no consequence in Greek history. Some bands went to Crete, others on other islands and some to Asia Minor.
164 : 15. Character of the Spartans. See Bury, History of Greece, pp. 62, 120, 130–135.
164 : 22. See p. 153 of this book.
165 : 6 seq. Cf. the note to p. 119 : 1 and that to p. 223 : 1.
165 : 10. G. Elliot Smith, Ancient Mariners.
165 : 14. See the note to p. 242 : 5 on languages.
166 : 3. Gibbon, chap. XLVIII.
CHAPTER VI. THE NORDIC RACE
167 : 1 seq. Cf. Peake, 2, p. 162, and numerous other authorities. Peake’s summary is brief, clear and up to date.
167 : 13 seq. R. G. Latham was the first to propound the theory of the European origin of the Indo-Europeans. He says that there is “a tacit assumption that as the east is the probable quarter in which either the human species or the greater part of our civilization originated, everything came from it. But surely in this there is a confusion between the primary diffusion of mankind over the world at large and those secondary movements by which, according to even the ordinary hypothesis, the Lithuanians, etc., came from Asia into Europe.”
167 : 17. See The So-Called North European Race of Mankind, by G. Retzius. Linnæus and DeLapouge were the first to use this term, homo Europæus. See Ripley, pp. 103 and 121.
168 : 13. See the notes to pp. 31 : 16 and 224 : 19.
168 : 19 seq. Ripley, chap. IX, p. 205, based on Arbo, Hultkranz and others. G. Retzius, in the article mentioned above, pp. 303–306, and also Crania Suecica; L. Wilser; K. Penka; O. Schrader, 2 and 3; Feist, 5; Mathæus Much; Hirt, 1; and Peake, 2, pp. 162–163, are other authorities. There are many more.
169 : 1 seq. G. Retzius, 3, p. 303. See also 1, for the racial homogeneity of Sweden.
169 : 9. Osborn, 1, pp. 457–458, and authorities given.
169 : 14. Gerard de Geer, A Geochronology of the Last 12,000 Years.
169 : 20 seq. See the note to p. 117 : 18.
170 : 3 seq. Cuno, Forschungen im Gebiete der alten Völkerkunde; Pösche, Der Arier.
170 : 10 seq. Peake, 2; Woodruff, 1, 2; and Myres, 1, p. 15. See also the notes to pp. 168 : 19 and Chap. IX of this book.
170 : 21. See the notes to pp. 213 seq.
170 : 29–171 : 12. See Osborn’s map, 1, p. 189.
171 : 12. Cf. Ellsworth Huntington, The Pulse of Asia.
171 : 25. Peake, 2, and Montelius, Sweden in Heathen Times, and most of the authors already given on the subject of the Nordics.
172 : 1–25. Ripley, pp. 346–348, and pp. 352 seq., together with the authorities quoted. Also Feist, 5, and Zaborowski, 1, pp. 274–278. Marco Polo, about 1298, in chap. XLVI, of his travels, says that the Russian men were extremely well favored, tall and with fair complexions. The women were also fair and of a good size, with light hair which they were accustomed to wear long.
173 : 9. See Bury, History of Greece, pp. 111–112, and the notes to Chap. XIV of this hook.
173 : 11. Saka or Sacæ. See the notes to p. 259 : 21.
173 : 11. Cimmerians. For an interesting summary see Zaborowski, 1, pp. 137–138. For a lengthy discussion of them and of their migrations, and of their possible affiliations with the Cimbri, see Ridgeway, 1, pp. 387–397. According to the best Assyriologists the Cimmerians are the same people who, known as the Gimiri or Gimirrai, according to cuneiform inscriptions, were in Armenia in the eighth century B. C. See Hall, Ancient History of the Near East, p. 495. Bury, History of Greece, also touches on their raids in Asia Minor. Minns, p. 115, believes them to have been Scythians. G. Dottin, p. 23 and elsewhere, speaking of the Cimmerians and Cimbri, says: “The latter are without doubt Germans, therefore the Cimmerians who are the same people are not ancestors of the Celts.” The Cimmerians were first spoken of by Homer (Odyssey, XI, 12–19) who describes them as living in perpetual darkness in the far North. Herodotus (IV, 11–13) in his account of Scythia, regards them as the early inhabitants of south Russia, after whom the Bosphorus Cimmerius and other places were named, and who were driven by the Scyths along the Caucasus into Asia Minor, where they maintained themselves for a century. The Cimmerii are often mentioned in connection with the Thracian Treres who made their raids across the Hellespont, and possibly some of them took this route, having been cut off by the Scyths as the Alani were by the Huns. Certain it is that in the middle of the seventh century B. C., Asia Minor was ravaged by northern nomads (Herodotus, IV, 12), one body of whom is called in Assyrian sources Gimirrai and is represented as coming through the Caucasus. They were Aryan-speaking, to judge by the few proper names preserved. To the north of the Euxine their main body was merged finally with the Scyths. Later writers have often confused them with the Cimbri of Jutland. There is no relation between the Cimbri and the Cymbry or Cymry, a word derived from the Welsh Combrox and used by them to denote their own people. See note to p. 174 : 26
173 : 14. Medes. See the notes to p. 254 : 13.
173 : 14. Achæans and Phrygians. See Peake, 2, who dates them at 2000 B. C. Bury says, pp. 5 and 44 seq.: “after the middle of the second millennium B. C., but there were previous and long-forgotten invasions.” Consult also Ridgeway, 1, and the notes to pp. 158–161 and 225 : 11 of this book.
173 : 16. See the note to p. 157 : 10.
173 : 18. The Nordics cross the Rhine into Gaul. Rice Holmes, 2, pp. 11–12, gives the seventh century B. C. as the date when tall fair Celts first crossed the Rhine westward, “but it is unlikely that they were homogeneous.... Physically they resembled the tall fair Germans whom Cæsar and Tacitus describe, but they differed from them in character and customs as well as in speech.” See also p. 336, at the bottom, where he remarks: “Early in the Hallstatt period a tall dolichocephalic race appeared in the Jura and the Doubs, who may have been the advanced guard of the Celts.” 1000 B. C. for the appearance of the Celts on the Rhine is a very moderate estimate of the date at which these Nordics appear in western Europe, as that would be nearly four centuries after the appearance of the Achæans in Greece and fully two centuries after the appearance of Nordics who spoke Aryan in Italy. The Hallstatt culture (see p. 129) with which the invasion of these Nordics is generally associated had been in full development for four or five centuries before the date here given for the crossing of the Rhine. 700 B. C., given by many authorities, seems to the author too late by several centuries.
173 : 18 seq. G. Dottin, Manuel Celtique, pp. 453 seq., says: “If the Celts originated in Gaul, it is likely that their language would have left in our nomenclature more traces than we find, and above all, that the Celtic denominations would be applied as well to mountains and water courses as to inhabited places.... According to D’Arbois de Jubainville, these names were Ligurian. Thus the Celts would have named only fortresses, and the names properly geographic would be due to the populations which preceded them.... These constituted for the most part the plebs, reduced almost to the state of slavery, which the Celtic aristocracy of Druids and Equites dominated.... On the other hand, if one derives the Celts from central Europe, one explains better both the presence in central Europe of numerous place names, proving the establishment of dwellings of the Celts, and their invasions into southeastern Europe, more difficult to conceive if they had had to traverse the German forests. The migration of a people to a more fertile country is natural enough; the departure of the Celts from a fertile country like Gaul to a less fertile country like Germany would be very unlikely.” And it must be remembered that Tacitus wondered why anyone should want to live in Germany, with its disagreeable climate, trackless forests and endless swamps.
Dottin adds the interesting bit of information, on p. 197, that the Gauls, mixed with the Illyrians (Alpines) were the farmers of old Gaul. The real Gauls were warriors and hunters.
173 : 22. Teutons. Rice Holmes, 2, pp. 546 seq.
173 : 26 seq. Deniker, 2, p. 321; Oman, England Before the Norman Conquest, pp. 13 seq. For Celts and Teutons consult also G. de Mortillet, La formation de la nation française, pp. 114 seq.
174 : 1. Goidels. Rice Holmes, 1, pp. 229, 409–410, and 2, pp. 319–320, says not earlier than the sixth or seventh centuries B. C., but Montelius and others give 800. G. Dottin, pp. 457–460, and D’Arbois de Jubainville, 4, t. I, pp. 342–343, contend that there is no historical record of it. The date depends upon whether the word κασσίτερος, which designates “tin” in the Iliad, is a Celtic word. See also Oman, 2, pp. 13–14, and Rhys and Jones, The Welsh People, pp. 1, 2.
174 : 7. Rice Holmes, 2, pp. 308 seq. and 325 seq.; Dottin, pp. 1 and 2, and his Conclusion. Also numerous other writers, especially D’Arbois de Jubainville, in various volumes of the Revue Celtique.
174 : 10. Nordicized Alpines. Dottin, p. 237: “Cæsar tells us that the Plebs of Gaul was in a state bordering on slavery. It did not dare by itself to do anything and was never consulted.” Cf. note to p. 173 : 20.
174 : 11 Gauls in the Crimea. Ridgeway, Early Age of Greece, p. 387, quotes Strabo (309 and 507) and the long Protogenes inscription from Olbia (Corp. Inscr. Græc., II, no. 2058).
174 : 15. Migration of Nordics from Germany. It occurred about the eighth century B. C., according to many authors, among them G. Dottin, pp. 241, 457–458. “Cæsar, Livy, Justinius, summing up Pompeius Trogus, Appian and Plutarch, without doubt following a common source, even think that excess population is the cause of the Gallic migrations. It is one of the reasons to which Cæsar attributes the emigration of the Helvetii. Cisalpine Gaul nourished an immense population.”
174 : 21. Cymry move westward. See Rice Holmes, 2, pp. 319–321; Oman, 2, pp. 13 seq. and especially p. 16; Deniker, 2, pp. 320–322; Dottin, pp. 460 seq. Both Rhys and Jones, in the Welsh People, and G. Dottin, suggest that this movement was only part of one great migration which dispersed the Nordics from a central home. Their appearance in Greece as Galatians at about the same time may be ascribed to this migration. See the notes to p. 158 : 1 seq.
Oman and many other authorities think the movement occurred some time before 325 B. C.
174 : 21 seq. Cymry and Belgæ. The Cymry or Belgæ were “P Celtic” in speech. They first appeared in history about 300 B. C., equipped with a culture of the second iron period called La Tène. The classic authors were apparently uncertain as to whether or not they were Germans (or Teutons), but they appear to have been largely composed of this element, and to have arrived previously from Scandinavia and to have adopted the Celtic tongue. These Belgæ drove out the earlier “Q Celts” or Goidels, and the pressure they exerted caused many of the later migrations of the Goidels or Gauls.
The groups of tribes which in Cæsar’s time occupied the part of France to the north and east of the Seine were known as Belgæ, while the same people who had crossed to the north of the channel were called Brythons. To avoid designating these groups separately the author has called all these tribes Cymry, although the term can properly be applied only to the “P Celts” of Wales, who adopted this designation for themselves about the sixth century A. D., according to Rhys and Jones, p. 26, where we read: “The singular is Cymro, the plural Cymry. The word Cymro, is derived from the earlier Cumbrox or Combrox, which is parallel to the Gaulish Allobrox (plural Allobroges) a name applied by the Gauls to certain Ligurians whose country they conquered.... As the word is to be traced to Cumbra-land (Cumberland), its use must have extended to the Brythons” (see Rice Holmes, 2, p. 15, where he says the Brythons spread the La Tène culture). “But as the name Cymry seems to have been unknown, not only in Brittany, but also in Cornwall, it may be conjectured that it cannot have acquired anything like national significance for any length of time before the battle of Deorham in the year 577, when the West Saxons permanently severed the Celts west of the Severn from their kinsmen (of Gloucester, Somerset, etc., as now known).
“Thus it is probable that the national significance of the term Cymro may date from the sixth century and is to be regarded as the exponent of the amalgamation of the Goidelic and Brythonic populations under high pressure from without by the Saxons and Angles.” Therefore it is a purely Welsh term, properly speaking. Broca, in the Mémoires d’anthropologie, I, 871, p. 395, is responsible for the word as applied to the invaders of Gaul who spoke Celtic. He called them Kimris. See also his remarks in the Bulletin de la société d’Anthropologie, XI, 1861, pp. 308–309, and the article by L. Wilser in L’Anthropologie, XIV, 1903, pp. 496–497.
175 : 12 seq. See the notes to p. 32 : 8; also Rice Holmes, 2, p. 337; Fleure and James, pp. 118 seq. Taylor, 1, p. 109, says that there is a superficial resemblance between the Teutons and Celts, but a radical difference in skulls, the Teutonic being more dolichocephalic. Both are tall, large-limbed and fair. The Teuton is distinguished by a pink and white skin, the Celt is more florid and inclined to freckle. The Teuton eye is blue, that of the Celt gray, green, or grayish blue.
175 : 21 seq. Rice Holmes, 2, p. 326 seq., gives a summary of the descriptions of various classic authors. Salomon Reinach, 2, pp. 80 seq., discusses Pausanias’ detailed recital of the event. For the original see Pausanias, X, 22. Cf. also the note to p. 158 : 1.
176 : 15–177 : 27. The series of notes which were collected by the author on the wanderings of these Germanic tribes proved so lengthy, and the relationships of the peoples under discussion so intricate, that they grew beyond all reasonable proportions as notes, and carried the subject far afield. Hence it has seemed best to omit them in this connection and to embody them in another work.
Perhaps it will therefore be sufficient to say here that the results of the research have made it clear that all of these tribes were related by blood and by language, and came originally from Scandinavia and the neighborhood of the Baltic Sea. For some unknown reason, such as pressure of population, they began, one after another, a southward movement in the centuries immediately before the Christian Era, which brought them within the knowledge of the Mediterranean world. Their wanderings were very extensive and covered Europe from southern Russia and the Crimea to Spain, and even to Africa. Many of these tribes broke up into smaller groups under distinct names, or united with others to form large confederacies. Not only did some of them clash with each other almost to the point of extermination in their efforts to obtain lands, but in attempting to avoid the Huns came into contact with the Romans, and broke through the frontier of the Empire at various points. From the Romans they gained many of the ideas which were later incorporated by them in the various European nations which they founded. The result of their conquests was to establish a Nordic nobility and upper class in practically every country of Europe,—a condition which has remained to the present day.
177 : 12. Varangians. See the note on the Varangians, to p. 189 : 24.
177 : 18. See Jordanes, History of the Goths.
177 : 27. D’Arbois de Jubainville, 2, pp. 92–93; Taylor, Words and Places, p. 45; and G. Dottin, Manuel Celtique, p. 28. This word came from Volcæ, the name of a Celtic tribe of the upper Rhine. Their name, to the neighboring Teutons, came to designate a foreigner. The Volcæ were separated into two branches, the Arecomici, established between the Rhone and the Garonne, and the Tectosages, in the region of the upper Garonne. The term Volcæ has become among the Germans Walah, then Walch, from which is derived Welsch, which designates the people of Romance language, such as the Italians and French. Among the Anglo-Saxons it has become Wealh, from which the derivation Welsh, which designates the Gauls, and nowadays their former compatriots who migrated to England and settled in Wales.
CHAPTER VII. TEUTONIC EUROPE
179 : 10. Mikklegard. “The Great City.” This was the name given to Byzantium by the Goths.
180 : 2–11. Procopius, Vandalic War; Gibbon, chaps. XXXI-XXXVIII; Freeman, Historical Geography of Europe.
181 : 14. Gibbon, chaps. XXXVII and XXXVIII.
182 : 1. Eginhard, The Life of Charlemagne.
183 : 24. The Political History of England, vol. V, by H. A. L. Fisher, p. 205: “While the sovereigns of Europe were collecting tithes from their clergy for the Holy War, and papal collectors were selling indulgences to the scandal of some scrupulous minds, the empire became vacant by the death of Maximilian on January 19, 1519. For a few months diplomacy was busy with the choice of a successor. The king of France (Francis I) poured money into Germany, and was supported in his candidature by the pope; the king of England (Henry VIII) sent Pace to counteract French designs with the electors; but the issue was never really in doubt. Germany would not tolerate a French ruler; and on June 28, 1519, Charles of Spain was elected king of the Romans.”
184 : 8. Depopulation. (Thirty Years’ War.) Cambridge Modern History, vol. IV, p. 418, says that Germany was particularly afflicted. The data are unreliable, but the population of the empire was probably reduced by two-thirds, or from 16,000,000 to less than 6,000,000. Bavaria, Franconia and Swabia suffered most. W. Menzel says: “Germany is reckoned by some to have lost one-half, by others, two-thirds, of her entire population during the Thirty Years’ War. In Saxony 900,000 men had fallen within ten years; in Bohemia the number of inhabitants at the demise of Frederick II, before the last deplorable inroads made by Barier and Torstenson, had sunk to one-fourth. Augsburg, instead of 80,000 had 18,000 inhabitants. Every province, every town throughout the Empire had suffered at an equal ratio, with the exception of Tyrol.... The working class had almost totally disappeared. In Franconia the misery and depopulation had reached such an extent that the Franconian estates, with the assent of the ecclesiastical princes, abolished in 1650 the celibacy of the Catholic clergy and permitted each man to have two wives.... The nobility were compelled by necessity to enter the services of the princes, the citizens were impoverished and powerless, the peasantry had been utterly demoralized by military rule and reduced to servitude.” It has been said that the city of Berlin contained but 300 citizens; the Palatinate of the Rhine but 200 farmers. In character, intelligence and in morality, the German people were set back two hundred years. There are, in addition to the authorities quoted here, numerous others who make the same observations, in fact, this depopulation is one of the outstanding results of the Thirty Years’ War.
See also Anton Gindely, History of the Thirty Years’ War, p. 398.
184 : 22 seq. The British Medical Journal for April 8, 1916; and Parsons, Anthropological Observations on German Prisoners of War.
185 : 6. See the note to p. 196 : 27.
CHAPTER VIII. THE EXPANSION OF THE NORDICS
188 : 5. Beddoe, 4; Ripley, chap. VI.
188 : 11. British Medical Journal for April 8, 1916.
188 : 15. Ripley, pp. 221 and 469, and the authorities quoted.
188 : 24–189 : 6. P. Kretschmer; and, on the history of High and Low German, see Herman Paul, Grundriss der Germanischen Philologie; The Encyclopædia Britannica, under German Language, gives a good summary.
189 : 7. Ripley, p. 256.
189 : 12. Villari, The Barbarian Invasions of Italy; Thos. Hodgkin, Italy and Her Invaders.
189 : 15. Brenner Pass. See Rice Holmes, Cæsar’s Conquest of Gaul, p. 37; Ripley, p. 290; and most histories of the incursions of the barbarians into Italy.
189 : 24. Varangians. Most of the early historians of Russia and Germany and the monk Nestor, who was the earliest annalist of the Russians, agree in deriving the Varangians or Varegnes from Scandinavia. They probably were more of the same people whom we find as Varini on the continental shores of the North Sea. The names of the first founders of the Russian monarchy are Scandinavian or Northman. Their language, according to Constantine Porphyrogenitus, differed essentially from the Sclavonian. The author of the annals of St. Bertin, who first names the Russians (Rhos) in the year 939 of his annals, assigns them Sweden for their country. Luitprand calls them the same as the Normans. The Finns, Laplanders and Esthonians speak of the Swedes to the present day as Roots, Rootsi, Ruorzi, Rootslane or Rudersman, meaning rowers. See Schlözer, in his Nestor, p. 60; and Malte Brun, p. 378, as well as Kluchevsky, vol. I, pp. 56–76 and 92. The Varangians, according to Gibbon, formed the body-guard of the Greek Emperor at Byzantium. These were the Russian Varangians, who made their way to that city by the eastern routes. Canon Isaac Taylor, in Words and Places, p. 110, remarks that “for centuries the Varangian Guard upheld the tottering throne of the Byzantine emperors.” This Varangian Guard was very largely reinforced by Saxons fleeing from the Norman Conquest of England. The name Varangi is undoubtedly identical with Frank, and is the term used in the Levant to designate Christians of the western rite, from the days of the Crusades down to the present time. Cf. Ferangistan—land of the Franks, or, as it is now interpreted, “Europe,” especially western Europe. E. B. Soane, To Mesopotamia and Kurdistan in Disguise, uses the phrase á la ferangi as describing anything imported from western Europe.
190 : 1. Deniker, 2, pp. 333–334; Ripley.
190 : 9. Deniker, the same.
190 : 13. Ripley, pp. 281–283.
190 : 15. Ripley, pp. 343 seq.
190 : 19. See the notes to pp. 131 : 26, 140 : 1 seq. and 196 : 18.
190 : 26. See p. 140 of this book.
192 : 1 seq. D’Arbois de Jubainville, 1, t. XIV, pp. 357–395; Feist, 5, p. 365. Col. W. R. Livermore, in correspondence, says that practically all students on the Celtiberian question agree upon the point where the Celts entered Spain, namely, that designated by de Jubainville. They passed along the Atlantic coast, across the Pyrenees, where the railroad from Paris to Madrid now crosses, about 500 B. C., between the time of Avienus, ± 525 and Herodotus, ± 443. In the time of Avienus the Ligurians had both ends of the Pyrenees from Ampurias to Bayonne, and controlled the sources of the Batis. In the time of Herodotus, the Gauls had the country up to the Curretes. See also Müllenhoff, Deutsche Altertumskunde, II, p. 238, and Deniker, 2, p. 321. D’Arbois de Jubainville, op. cit., especially pp. 363–364, says: “The name Celtiberian was adopted at the time of Hannibal, who entered Spain, married a Celt, and thus won the assistance of the Celts in his march on Rome.... The name Celtiberian is the generic term for designating the Celts established in the center of Spain, but the word is sometimes taken in a less extended sense to designate only one part of this important group.”
192 : 8. Sergi, 4, p. 70. See also p. 156 of this book.
192 : 14. See the note to p. 156, or Ridgeway, The Early Age of Greece, p. 375.
192 : 18. Ridgeway, op. cit., p. 375. This may refer to the veins showing blue through the fair Nordic skin.
192 : 18. Ridgeway, op. cit., p. 375. Here he says: “The Visigoths became the master race, and from them the Spanish Grandees, among whom fair hair is a common feature, derive their sangre azul. After a glorious struggle against the Saracens, which served to keep alive their martial ardor and thus brace up the ancient vigor of the race, from the 16th century onward the Visigothic wave seems to have exhausted its initial energy, and the aboriginal stratum has more and more come to the surface and has thus left Spain sapless and supine.”
102 : 22. Taylor, 2, pp. 308–309, says: “From the name of the same nation,—the Goths of Spain,—are derived curiously enough, two names, one implying extreme honor, the other extreme contempt. The Spanish noble, who boasts that the sangre azul of the Goths runs in his veins with no admixture, calls himself an hidalgo, that is, a son of the Goth, as his proudest title.” A footnote to this reads: “The old etymology Hijo d’algo, son of someone, has been universally given up in favor of hi’ d’al Go, son of the Goth. (More correctly hi’ del Go’.) See a paper ‘On Oc and Oyl’ translated by Bishop Thirlwall, for the Philological Museum, vol. II, p. 337.” Taylor goes on to say, however, that the version hi’ d’ algo, son of someone, is still given as the origin of this word in R. Barcia’s Primer Diccionaria Géneral Étimologico de la Lengua Español.
Concerning some other derivations Taylor continues: “Of Gothic blood scarcely less pure than that of the Spanish Hidalgos, are the Cagots of Southern France, a race of outcast pariahs, who in every village live apart, executing every vile or disgraceful kind of toil, and with whom the poorest peasant refuses to associate. These Cagots are the descendants of those Spanish Goths, who, on the invasion of the Moors, fled to Aquitaine, where they were protected by Charles Martel. But the reproach of Arianism clung to them, and religious bigotry branded them with the name câ gots or ‘Gothic Dogs.’ a name which still clings to them, and keeps them apart from their fellow-men.”
Elsewhere we find the following: “The fierce and intolerant Arianism of the Visigothic conquerors of Spain has given us another word. The word Visigoth has become Bigot, and thus on the imperishable tablets of language the Catholics have handed down to perpetual infamy the name and nation of their persecutors.”
193 : 14 seq. Cf. DeLapouge, L’Aryen, p. 343, where he says that the exodus of the Conquistadores was fatal to Spain.
193 : 17. Rice Holmes, 2; and the note to p. 69 of this book.
194 : 1. See the note to p. 173.
194 : 8. Ridgeway, 1, p. 372, says: “We know from Strabo and other writers that the Aquitani were distinctly Iberian.” Consult also Rice Holmes, 2, p. 12, where he quotes Cæsar.
194 : 14 seq. Ridgeway, op. cit., pp. 372 and 395; Ripley, chap. VII, pp. 137 seq.
194 : 19 seq. Rice Holmes, 2, under Belgæ, pp. 5, 12, 257, 259, 304–305, 308–309, 311, 315, 318–325; and Ancient Britain, p. 445. The modern composition of the French population has been investigated by Edmond Bayle and Dr. Leon MacAuliffe, who find that there is decided race mixture, with chestnut pigmentation of hair and eyes predominating. Blond traits were found to be almost confined to the north and east, while brunet characters prevail in the south. Pure black hair is exceedingly rare.
195 : 14. Vanderkindere, Recherches sur l’Ethnologie de la Belgique, pp. 569–574; Rice Holmes, 2, p. 323; Beddoe, 4, pp. 21 seq. and 72.
195 : 18. Ridgeway, 1, p. 373; Ripley, p. 127; Rice Holmes, 2; and Feist, 5, p. 14.
195 : 25 seq. Franks of the lower Rhine. Eginhard, in his Life of Charlemagne, p. 7, states the following: “There were two great divisions or tribes of the Franks, the Salians, deriving their name probably from the river Isala, the Yssel, who dwelt on the lower Rhine, and the Ripuarians, probably from Ripa, a bank, who dwelt about the banks of the middle Rhine. The latter were by far the most numerous, and spread over a greater extent of country; but to the Salians belongs the glory of founding the great Frankish kingdom under the royal line of the Merwings” (Merovingians).
196 : 2 seq. Ripley, p. 157; DeLapouge, passim.
196 : 7 seq. Oman, 2, pp. 499 seq.; Beddoe, 4, p. 94 and chap. VII; Fleure and James, pp. 121, 129; Taylor, 2, p. 129; Ripley, pp. 151–153, 316–317.
196 : 18 seq. DeLapouge, passim; Ripley, pp. 150–155.
197 : 3. See David Starr Jordan, War and the Breed, pp. 61 seq. This stature has somewhat recovered in recent years. It is now, in Corrèze, only 2 cm. below the average for the whole of France. See Grillière, pp. 392 seq. W. R. Inge, Outspoken Essays, pp. 41–42: “The notion that frequent war is a healthy tonic for a nation is scarcely tenable. Its dysgenic effect, by eliminating the strongest and healthiest of the population while leaving the weaklings at home to be the fathers of the next generation, is no new discovery. It has been supported by a succession of men, such as Tenon, Dufau, Foissac, DeLapouge and Richet in France; Tiedemann and Seeck in Germany; Guerrini in Italy; Kellogg and Starr Jordan in America. The case is indeed overwhelming. The lives destroyed in war are nearly all males, thus disturbing the sex equilibrium of the population. They are in the prime of life, at the age of greatest fecundity; and they are picked from a list out of which from 20 to 30 per cent have been rejected for physical unfitness. It seems to be proved that the children born in France during the Napoleonic wars were poor and undersized, 30 millimeters below the normal height.”
197 : 11. DeLapouge, passim; Rice Holmes, 2, pp. 306 seq.
197 : 29–198: 10. R. Collignon, Anthropologie de la France, pp. 3 seq.; DeLapouge, Les Sélections sociales; Ripley, pp. 87–89; Inge, p. 41; Jordan, passim.
198 : 22. Conscript Armies. Two interesting letters bearing on the racial differences composing conscript and volunteer armies in the recent World War may here be quoted.
The first, from Mr. T. Rice Holmes, relates to the English army of Kitchener in 1915. “Perhaps it may interest you to know that in 1915 when recruits belonging to Kitchener’s army were training near Rochampton, I noticed that almost every man was fair,—not, of course, with the pronounced fairness of the men of the north of Scotland, who are descended from Scandinavians, but with such fairness as is to be seen in England. These men, as you know, were volunteers.”
The second, from DeLapouge, concerns our American army in France. “I have been able to verify for myself your observations on the American army. The first to arrive were all volunteers, all dolicho-blonds; but the draft afterwards brought in inferior elements. At St. Nazaire, at Tours, and at Poictiers, I have been able to examine American soldiers by the tens of thousands and I have been able to formulate for myself a very definite conception of the types.”
199 : 9. H. Belloc, The Old Road; Peake, Memorials of Old Leicestershire, pp. 34–41; Fleure and James, p. 127.
199 : 23. See the notes to pp. 174 : 21 and 247 : 3 of this book.
199 : 29–200 : 11. See p. 131 of this book; also Rice Holmes, 1, pp. 231–236, 434, 455–456; and 2, p. 15.
200 : 10. Cf. Rice Holmes, 1, pp. 446, 449 and the note on 451; also Oman, 2, p. 16.
200 : 12. Inferred from Rice Holmes, 1, p. 232; also Beddoe, 4, p. 31.
200 : 18. Oman, 2, pp. 174–175 and chap. III seq., treats specially of these times. See also Beddoe, 4, pp. 36, 37 and chap. V.
200 : 24. Oman, 2, pp. 215–219.
201 : 1. Villari, vol I, or Hodgkin.
201 : 6 seq. Oman, 2; Ripley, pp. 154, 156; Beddoe, 4, p. 94; Fleure and James, pp. 121, 129; Taylor, 2.
201 : 11 seq. Beddoe, 4, chap. VII and the notes to p. 196 : 7 of this book.
201 : 18 seq. See pp. 63, 64.
201 : 23 seq. See the notes to p. 247. Decline of the Nordic type in England. Beddoe, H.; Fleure and James; Peake and Horton, A Saxon Graveyard at East Shefford, Berks, p. 103.
202 : 4. Beddoe, 4, p. 148.
202 : 13. Beddoe, 4, p. 92 and also chap. XII.
202 : 17. Ripley, under Ireland.
202 : 23 seq. See the notes to p. 108 : 1.
203 : 5 seq. The intellectual inferiority of the Irish. If there is any indication of the intellectual rating of various foreign countries to be derived from the draft examinations of our foreign-born, grouped according to place of nativity, a paper by Major Bingham of Washington, in regard to “The Relation of Intelligence Ratings to Nativity” may be quoted. The total number of foreign-born examined, which formed the basis of this report, was 12,407, while the total number of native-born whites was 93,973. Only countries were considered which were represented by more than 100 men in the examinations. The tests were divided into those for literates and those for illiterates, so that even men not speaking English could be graded. In these examinations the Irish made a surprisingly poor showing, falling far below the English and Scotch, who stood very high, as well as below the Germans, Austrians, French Canadians, Danes, Dutch, Belgians, Swedes and Norwegians, being about on a par with the Russians, Poles and Italians. Therefore, if these tests are any criterion of intellectual ability, the Irish are noticeably inferior.
203 : 18. See p. 123 of this book.
203 : 24. Beddoe, 4, p. 139 and chap. XIV.
204 : 1. See the note to p. 150 : 21.
204 : 5. There is an amusing discussion in Rice Holmes, 1, on the Pictish question. See pp. 409–424. Rice Holmes contends that the Picts were not pure remnants of the Pre-Celtic inhabitants, but a mixture of these with Celts. The term Picts has been very widely accepted as a designation for those Pre-Celtic inhabitants, who were certainly there. No other name has been given for them and it is in this sense that it is used here, and that Rice Holmes himself is obliged to use it on p. 456. It will be useful to the reader to peruse pp. 13–16 of Rhys and Jones, The Welsh People. Appendix B, of that volume (pp. 617 seq.), written by Sir J. Morris Jones, entitled “Pre-Aryan Syntax in Insular Celtic,” shows the Anaryan survivals in Welsh and Irish to be remarkably similar to ancient Egyptian, which, with the Berber of intermediate situation, belongs to the great Hamitic family of languages and was the tongue of the primitive Mediterraneans. For Beddoe’s opinion see 4, p. 36. On p. 247 he says, speaking of the Highland people: “Every here and there a decidedly Iberian physiognomy appears, which makes one think Professor Rhys right in supposing that the Picts were in part, at least, of that stock.” See Hector McLean, 1, p. 170, where he suggests that the Picts were originally the Pictones from the south bank of the Loire in Gaul.
The name Pixie, met with so frequently in Irish legends, and relating to little people similar to dwarfs, may have some connection with these shy little Mediterraneans whom the Nordics found on their arrival and who were forced back by them into inaccessible districts.
204 : 19. See the article on “Pre-Aryan Syntax in Insular Celtic,” just mentioned, and Beddoe, 4, p. 46, quoting Elton, p. 167. For other Non-Aryan remnants, especially in names, see Hector McLean, 1, passim.
205 : 3. See Fleure and James, pp. 62, 73, 119–128, and especially pp. 125 and 151.
205 : 10. The same, pp. 38–39, 75 and elsewhere.
205 : 16. This is intimated by Rhys and Jones, in The Welsh People, p. 33.
205 : 20 seq. The same, chap. I, especially p. 35 and pp. 502 seq.; Fleure and James, p. 143.
206 : 3. Fleure and James, pp. 38, 75, 119, 152. These gentlemen say, on p. 38, that they believe that certain types, without any intervening social or linguistic barrier for centuries, have apparently persisted side by side in very marked fashion in certain parts of Wales.
A letter from Mr. Baring Gould confirms this: “In Wales there are two types, the dark Siluric and the light Norman. Here in the west of England we have the same two types. In this neighborhood one village is fair, the next dark and sallow. It is the same in Cornwall; in certain villages the type is dark and sallow, in others fair. There is no comparison between the capabilities moral and physical between the two types. The dark is tricky, unreliable and goes under, and the fair type predominates in trade, in business, in farming and in every department.”
Beddoe, Fleure and James, and also Hector McLean remark on the various moral and mental capabilities of the different physical types.
206 : 13. Beddoe, 4, chap. VIII.
206 : 16 seq. Taylor, 2, p. 129; Keary, pp. 486 seq. On the Normans see Beddoe, chaps. VIII, IX and X.
207 : 2. Beddoe, the same.
207 : 11. Gibbon, chap. LVI; Taylor, 2, p. 133.
207 : 15. Beddoe, chap. VIII.
208 : 8. Beddoe, 4, p. 95. The breadth of skull “of the Norman aristocracy may probably have been smaller, but the ecclesiastics of Norman or French nationality, who abounded in England for centuries after the conquest and who, in many cases, rose from the subjugated Celtic [Alpine] layer of population, have left us a good many broad and round skulls. Thus the crania of three bishops of Durham ... yield an index of 85.6, while those of eight Anglican canons dating from before the conquest yield one of 74.9. So far, however, as the actual conquest and armed occupation of England was concerned, the aristocracy and military caste, who were largely of Scandinavian type, came over in much larger proportion than the more Belgic or Celtic lower ranks, insomuch that it has been said that more of the Norman noblesse came over to England than were left behind.”
During the Middle Ages the church was a very democratic institution, and it was only through its offices that the lower ranks succeeded in working their way up. This was partly because the older peoples possessed the Roman learning, and because the northern invaders were more addicted to martial than to priestly pursuits. The conquered people had no chance to rise in political, aristocratic or military circles, and contented themselves with the church. At the present time, in many Catholic countries, notably Ireland, the priests are derived from the lowest stratum of the population, as may be clearly recognized in their portraits.
208 : 14. Beddoe, passim.
208 : 20. Beddoe, 4, p. 270; G. Retzius, 3; Ripley; Fleure and James, p. 152; Alphonse de Candolle, Histoire des sciences et des savants depuis deux siècles, p. 576; Peake and Horton, p. 103; and the note to p. 201 : 23 of this book.
208 : 26. Beddoe, 4, p. 148.
210 : 5. Cf. Beddoe, p. 94.
210 : 20. Ripley, pp. 228, 283, 345.
210 : 24. Holland and Flanders. Ripley, pp. 157 and 293 seq.
210 : 25. Flemings and Franks. See Sir Harry Johnston, Views and Reviews, p. 101.
211 : 6. The authorities quoted in Ripley, p. 207. See also Fleure and James, p. 140; Zaborowski, 2; and C. O. Arbo, Yner, p. 25.
211 : 26. Ripley, pp. 363–365; Feist, 5; and Dr. Westerlund as quoted in “The Finns,” by Van Cleef.
212 : 1. Ripley, p. 341.
212 : 4. See the note to p. 242 : 16.
CHAPTER IX. THE NORDIC FATHERLAND
213 : 1–23. Cf. O. Schrader, 2 and 3; Mathæus Much; Hirt, 1, 2; Zaborowski, 1, pp. 109–110; Peake, 2, pp. 163–167; Feist, 1, p. 14; Taylor, 1; Ripley, p. 127; Ridgeway, 1, p. 373 and the notes to pp. 239 : 16 seq., and 253 : 19 of this book. D’Arbois de Jubainville, 4, t. I, pp. ix and 214, gives the date when the Indo-Europeans were united as 2500 B. C. Feist, 5, believes the Nordics were still in their homeland between 2500 and 2000 B. C. This was the transition period from Stone to Bronze in north-middle and eastern Europe. Breasted, Ancient Times, says: “It has recently been scientifically demonstrated on the basis, chiefly, of the Amarna tablets and other cuneiform evidence, that the Aryans had by 2000 or 1800 B. C. begun to leave a home on the east or southeast of the Caspian, where they divided into two branches, one going southeast into India, the other southwest into Babylon.” “The first occurrence of Indo-European names is in the Tell-el-Amarna (Egyptian) correspondence,” says Myres, Dawn of History, p. 153, “which gives so vivid a picture of Syrian affairs in the years immediately after 1400. They represent chieftains scattered up and down Syria and Palestine, and they include the name of Tushratta, king of the large district of Mitanni beyond Euphrates.... But this is a minor matter; nothing is commoner in the history of migratory peoples than to find a very small leaven of energetic intruders ruling and organizing large native populations without either learning their subjects’ language or improving their own until considerably later, if at all. The Norman princes, for example, bear Teutonic names, Robert, William, Henry; but it is Norman French in which they govern Normandy and correspond with the king of France. All these Indo-European names (mentioned in the tablets), belong to the Iranian group of languages, which is later found widely spread over the whole plateau of Persia.”
214 : 1 seq. See pp. 158–159 of this book.
214 : 7 seq. Herodotus, IV, 17, 18, 33, 53, 65, 74, etc., for notes on the Scythians. Wheat was cultivated in the southern part of Scythia. Corn was an article of trade, and the loom was used. See also Zaborowski, 1; Ripley; Feist, 5.
214 : 10. Scythians. According to Zaborowski, 1, the Scythians were the earliest known Nordic nomads of Scythia, or southern Russia, from whom no doubt came the Achæans, Cimmerians, etc., and later the Persian conquerors, the leaders of the Kassites and Mitanni, etc. The Sacæ were an eastern branch of the Scythians (and likewise the Massagetæ), who threw off branches into India. Possibly the Wu-Suns and the Epthalites, or White Huns, were eastern offshoots. Owing to the fact that Scythia has been swept time and again by various hordes moving east and west, and has served no doubt as a meeting-ground for Alpines, Nordics and Mongols, these may all, at some period or another, have been called Scythians because they inhabited this little-known territory. But the indications are strongly in favor of the original Scythians being Nordics. It is in this sense that the name is here applied. Minns, Scythians and Greeks, and D’Arbois de Jubainville, 4, t. I, are two other authorities who have discussed the Scythians at length.
214 : 11. Cimmerians. See the note to p. 173. On the Persians, see the notes to p. 254. For the Sacæ, the note to p. 259 : 21; for the Massagetæ, the same; for the Kassites, that to p. 239 : 13. These last are Non-Aryan, according to some authors, including Prince, but Hall, The Ancient History of the Near East, says they are undeniably Aryans. For the Mitanni see the note to p. 239 : 16.
214 : 26–215 : 3. See p. 161 of this book.
215 : 15. See p. 160 of this book.
215 : 25. Dante Alighieri. It is interesting to know that the name Aligheri is Gothic, a corruption of Aldiger. It belongs to such German names as those which include the word “ger,” spear, as in Gerhard, Gertrude, etc. This name came into the family through Dante’s grandmother on the father’s side, a Goth from Ferrara, whose name was Aldigero. With regard to the origin of his grandfather and mother, the attempt to connect him with Roman families is known to be a pure fiction on the part of the Italian biographers, who thought it more glorious to be a Roman than anything else; but his descent from pure Germanic parentage is practically proved, since the grandfather was a warrior, knighted by the emperor Conrad, and Dante himself declares that he belonged to the petty nobility. Even to the beginning of the fifteenth century many Italians are described in old documents as Alemanni, Langobardi, etc., ex alamanorum genere, legibus vivens Langobardorum, etc. Though the majority of them had adopted Roman law, whereby the documentary evidence of their descent usually disappeared, they were thoroughly Germanic in blood, especially those to whom Rome owes much. See Franz Xaver Kraus, Dante, pp. 21–25, and Savigny, Geschichte des römischen Rechte im Mittelalter, I, chap. III.
216 : 1. See the notes to p. 254 : 13–15.
216 : 4. Nordic Sacæ. See the notes to p. 259 : 21.
216 : 9. See the notes to pp. 70 and 242 : 5.
216 : 12. Gibbon, especially vols. III and IV, which contain numerous references, and the note to p. 135 : 25.
216 : 17. Tenney Frank, Race Mixture in the Roman Empire, pp. 704 seq.
217 : 3. Plutarch’s Life of Pompey the Great, and his Life of Cæsar; also Ferrero, The Greatness and Decline of Rome, vol. II, “Cæsar,” chap. VII.
217 : 12. Decline of the Romans and the Punic Wars. Livy, I, XXI seq., and Appian, De rebus hispaniensibus, and De bello Annibalico. Also Pliny, I, and Polybius, I. D’Arbois de Jubainville, 1, section entitled “Les Celtibères pendant la seconde guerre punique,” pp. 44 seq., says that Hannibal’s success in Rome was due to the aid of the Celts and the Celtiberians. Hannibal gained much of his army from the Celts of Spain, Gaul, and Cis-Alpine Gaul, as he marched toward Rome.
217 : 16. Social and Servile Wars. Plutarch’s Lives of Fabius Maximus and of Sylla.
217 : 26. See the note to p. 51 : 18.
218 : 16. Tenney Frank, 1 and 2; Dill, 2, book II, chaps. II and III; and 1, book II, chap. I; Myers, Ancient History, pp. 498–499, 523–525. Bury, in A History of the Later Roman Empire, vol. I, chap. III, makes slavery, oppressive taxation, the importation of barbarians and Christianity the four chief causes of the weakness and failure of the Empire.
Gibbon, vol I, at the end of chap. X, says, in speaking of the extinction of the old Roman families, that only the Calpurnian gens long survived the tyranny of the Cæsars. See the last three or four pages of the chapter. Also Frederick Adams Woods, The Influence of Monarchs, p. 295.
219 : 11–220 : 19. Frank, 1, p. 705.
220 : 21. See p. 216 of this book.
221 : 25. Gibbon; Lecky, The History of European Morals; and the note to p. 218 : 16.
CHAPTER X. THE NORDIC RACE OUTSIDE OF EUROPE
223 : 2. Hall, Ancient History of the Near East, pp. 380 seq.; Myers, Ancient History, p. 33, footnote. Also consult Von Luschan, The Early Inhabitants of Western Asia, p. 230.
223 : 5. DeLapouge, L’Aryen, pp. 200 seq.
223 : 5. Tamahu. Authorities above; Sergi, 4, pp. 59 seq.; Beddoe, 4, p. 14, for the question of their race.
223 : 12. Broca, 1; Collignon, 5 and 7; Sergi, 1; and Ripley, p. 279. There are numerous articles on the blond Berbers and references to their relation to the Vandals. Ripley, based on Broca, gives the essential information. Gibbon, chap. XXXIII, is an important reference.
Blond Moors. Procopius says, IV, 13, describing the fighting with the Moors in Mauretania beyond Mt. Aurasium, which is thirteen days’ journey west of Carthage: “I have heard Ortaias say that beyond these nations of Moors, beyond Aurasium, which he ruled” [apparently south] “there was no habitation of men, but desert land to a great distance, and that beyond this desert there are men, not black-skinned like the Moors, but very white in body and fair-haired.”
Mr. J. B. Thornhill relates that about fifteen years ago he was in Morocco (presumably near Tangier) and while there he saw several purely blond Berbers from the Riff mountains. A young girl, especially, was an almost pure Swedish blond. The coloring, however, was pale and whitish rather than pink; the eyes were blue and the hair wavy and very blond.
223 : 21. For the Philistines, Anakim and Achæans see Ridgeway, 1, pp. 618 seq. Sir William Ridgeway places the appearance of the Philistines as nearly synchronous with that of the Achæans, and states that their weapons and armor were similar to those of the Achæans, but different from those of the other nations of the early world. Cf. also Hall, Ancient History of the Near East, p. 72, especially footnote 1, where he says: “The Philistines were specially receptive of Hellenic culture and eager to claim relationship with the Greeks, and disassociate themselves from the Semites. Their coin types shew this, see p. 399, n.” He regards them as Cretans.
223 : 22–23. Sons of Anak. Numbers, XIII, 33: “And there we saw the giants, the sons of Anak, which came of the giants; and we were in our own sight as grasshoppers and so we were in their sight.” Deuteronomy, I, 28: “Whither shall we go up? Our brethren have discouraged our heart, saying, ‘The people is greater and taller than we; the cities are great and walled up to heaven; and moreover we have seen the sons of the Anakim there.’”
Fairness of David. I Samuel, XVI, 11, 12: “And Samuel said unto Jesse, Are here all thy children? And he said, There remaineth the youngest, and behold, he keepeth the sheep. And Samuel said unto Jesse, Send and fetch him; for we shall not sit down till he come hither. And he sent, and brought him in. Now he was ruddy, and withal of a beautiful countenance, and goodly to look to....” Chap. XVII, 41,42: “And the Philistine came on and drew near unto David, and when the Philistine looked about, and saw David, he disdained him; for he was but a youth, and ruddy and of a fair countenance.” In the Hebrew, the phrase Of a Beautiful Countenance means fair of eyes.
The presence of Nordics in Syria among the Amorites is indicated by the tall stature, long-headedness and fair skin with which they are depicted on the Egyptian monuments. In some instances their eyes are blue. See p. 59 of Albert T. Clay’s The Empire of the Amorites, also Sayce, and Hall.
224 : 3. Wu-Suns and Hiung-Nu. Minns, Scythians and Greeks, p. 121. DeLapouge, L’Aryen, mentions the existence of a number of central Asiatic tribes in addition to the Wu-Suns, who were Nordic. See also J. Klaproth, Tableaux historiques de l’Asie. Zaborowski, Les peuples aryens, p. 286, says: “The Hiung-Nu hurled themselves upon the Illi, and upon another blond people the Wu-Suns, whose importance was such that the Chinese, who have made them known to us, sought their alliance against the Huns. The Chinese knew then, in Turkestan, only the Wu-Suns, the Sse, or Sacæ, and the Ta-hia (our Tadjiks).”
“The Yuë-Tchi, repulsed by the Wu-Suns in 130 B. C., hurled themselves upon Bactria” (see the notes to p. 119 : 13). “The Sacæ were then masters of it and their dispossession resulted in pressing them in part into India where they founded a kingdom and also in part into the Pro-Pamirian valleys, especially that of the Oxus. The Yuë-Tchi ruled over central Asia until 425 A. D. They were dispossessed in their turn by the Hoas, or Ephtalite Huns” (White Huns).
The remainder of the chapter, pp. 287–291 is concerned with Turkestan, the Wu-Suns, Huns, Kirghizes, etc.
224 : 13. Deniker, 2, pp. 59 and 371, says the Ainus are dolichocephalic and have in addition other Nordic traits. See also Haddon, 1, pp. 8, 15–16, 49–50, Ratzel and others. The Ainus are, according to Darwin, Descent of Man, p. 852, the hairiest people in the world.
224 : 19. See the notes to pp. 31: 16–32 : 4.
224 : 28. Deniker, 2, pp. 59 and 371; Haddon, 1, pp. 8, 15.
225 : 11. Phrygians. Bury, History of Greece, pp. 46–48, says: “But about this very time (1287 B. C.) the Hittite power was declining and northwestern Asia Minor as far as the valley of the Sangarius, was wrested from their rule by swarms of new invaders from Europe. These were the Phrygians to whose race the Dardanians belonged and who were so closely akin to the Thracians that we may speak of the Phrygo-Thracian division of the Indo-European family.” On p. 44 we read: “The dynasty from which the Homeric kings, Agamemnon and Menelaus sprang, was founded according to Greek tradition, early in the 13th century (B. C.) by Pelops, a Phrygian. Agamemnon and Menelaus represent the Achæan stock.... The meaning of this Phrygian relationship is not clear.” But if we follow the extent of the Achæan invasions and the relation of the art and language of archaic Phrygia to archaic Greece, the difficulty seems solved. See Hall, Ancient History of the Near East, p. 475. The Encyclopædia Britannica (Phrygia) says: “According to unvarying Greek tradition the Phrygians were most closely akin to certain tribes of Macedonia and Thrace; and their near relationship to the Hellenic stock is proved by all that is known of their language and art, and is accepted by almost every modern authority.... The inference has been generally drawn that the Phrygians belonged to a stock widespread in the countries which lie around the Ægean Sea. There is, however, no conclusive evidence whether this stock came from the east, over Armenia, or was European in origin and crossed the Hellespont into Asia Minor; but modern opinion inclines decidedly to the latter view”; and we may add that the recently demonstrated linguistic affiliations strengthen this assumption. See also Ridgeway, 1, pp. 396 and elsewhere; Peake, 2, p. 172; Feist, 5, p. 407; Félix Sartiaux, Troie, la guerre de Troie; and O. Schrader, Jevons translation, p. 430.
225 : 15. Cimmerians. See the note to p. 173 : 11.
225 : 17. Gauls and Galatians. See the note to p. 158 : 1.
225 : 19. Von Luschan, p. 243, says: “All western Asia was originally inhabited by a homogeneous, melanochroic race, with extreme hypsi-brachycephaly and with a ‘Hittite’ nose. About 4000 B. C. began a Semitic invasion from the southeast, probably from Arabia, by people looking like modern Bedawy. 2000 years later commenced a second invasion, this time from the northwest by xanthochrous and long-headed tribes like the modern Kurds, and perhaps connected with the historic Harri, Amorites, Tamahu and Galatians.
“The modern ‘Turks,’ Greeks and Jews are all three equally composed of these three elements, the Hititte, the Semitic, and the xanthochrous Nordic. Not so the Armenians and Persians. They, and still more, the Druses, Maronites, and the smaller sectarian groups of Syria and Asia Minor, represent the old Hittite element, and are little, or not at all, influenced by the somatic characters of alien invaders.”
Von Luschan means by Persians, the round-headed Medic element, which has always been in the majority and which has, at the present day, practically submerged the once powerful, dominant Nordic class, which he says is still seen not rarely in some old noble families.
225 : 20. Until rather recently nothing much was known about the wild Kurdish tribes living in southeast Anatolia, and what reports there were, were frequently conflicting. There are two kinds of Kurds, dark and light. More data has gradually accumulated, however, and it seems that the true Kurds are tall, blond people, who resemble very much the inhabitants of northern Europe.
Ratzel, History of Mankind, says, quoting Polak: “The Kurds are, in color of skin, hair and eyes, so little different to the northern, especially the Teutonic breed, that they might easily be taken for Germans. There is nothing to contradict this racial affinity in the reputation for honor and courage, which in spite of their rapacious tendencies, the Kurds enjoy wherever it has been found possible to compel them to labor or to the trade of arms. In Persia the Shah entrusts the security of his person to Kurdish officers rather than to any others. Their loyalty to their hereditary Wali, which neither Turks nor Persians have been able to shake, is also noted with praise. The Kurd prefers to wander with his herds and in the winter lives in caves like Xenophon’s Carduchi.... The Kurds are a highly mixed race of a type chiefly Iranian, which has been compared with the Afghan but is not homogeneous. The eastern Kurds must have received a larger infusion of Turkish blood than the western. ‘Husbandmen by necessity, fighters by inclination.’ says Moltke, ‘the Arab is more of a thief, the Kurd more of a warrior.’ They are a vigorous, violent race, running wild in tribal feuds and vendettas.... Their women hold a freer position than those of the Turks and Persians.” The quotation is from vol. III, p. 537.
Von Luschan, op. cit., p. 229, describes them thus: “[They] have long heads and generally blue eyes and fair hair. They are probably descended from the Kardouchoi and Gordyæans of old historians. They live southeast of the Armenian mountains. The western Kurds are dolichocephalic and more than half of them are fair. The eastern Kurds are little known but are apparently darker and more round-headed.”
Soane, in To Mesopotamia and Kurdistan in Disguise, gives a very full description of them, confirming the above. There are so many tribes differing from one another, that only the briefest summary may be given. It is found on pp. 398 seq. “Judged as specimens of the human form, there is probably no higher standard extant that that of the Kurds. The northerner is a tall, thin man (obesity is absolutely unknown among the Kurds). The nose is long, thin and often a little hooked, the mouth small, the face oval and long. The men usually grow a long moustache, and invariably shave the beard. The eyes are piercing and fierce. Among them are many of yellow hair and bright blue eyes; and the Kurdish infant of this type, were he placed among a crowd of English children, would be indistinguishable from them, for he has a white skin. In the south the face is a little broader sometimes, and the frame heavier. Of forty men of the southern tribes taken at random, there were nine under six feet, though among some tribes the average height is five feet nine. The stride is long and slow, and the endurance of hardship great. They hold themselves as only mountain men can do, proudly and erect.... Many and many a man have I seen among them who might have stood for the picture of a Norseman. Yellow, flowing hair, a long drooping moustache, blue eyes, and a fair skin—one of the most convincing proofs, if physiognomy be a criterion (were their language not a further proof), that the Anglo-Saxon and Kurd are one and the same stock.” For a list of Kurdish tribes and their numbers and affiliations see Mark Sykes, vol. XXXVIII of the Jour. of the Roy. Anth. Soc. of Great Britain and Ireland, and Von Luschan, op. cit.
From all this evidence by men who have travelled among them it would appear that the Kurds are descendants of some ancient Nordic invaders who have found refuge in the mountain regions north of Mesopotamia. Cf. the note to p. 239 : 16.
CHAPTER XI. RACIAL APTITUDES
226 : 7. Conklin, in Heredity and Environment, p. 207, says: “Psychological characters appear to be inherited in the same way that anatomical and physiological traits are; indeed, all that has been said regarding the correlation of morphological and physiological characters applies also to psychological ones. No one doubts that particular instincts, aptitudes and capacities are inherited among both animals and men, nor that different races and species differ hereditarily in psychological characteristics. The general tendency of recent work on heredity is unmistakable, whether it concerns man or lower animals. The entire organism, consisting of structures and functions, body and mind, develops out of the germ, and the organization of the germ determines all the possibilities of development of the mind no less than of the body, though the actual realization of any possibility is dependent also upon environmental stimuli.”
Cf. Haeckel, The Riddle of the Universe, passim.
226 : 17. Deniker, 2, pp. 76, 97–104.
227 : 1. Cf. their busts with other Greek statues.
227 : 15. This does not refer to the peculiar nests of round heads alluded to by Fleure and James, and Zaborowski, but to the Alpines proper.
227 : 20. DeLapouge, Les Sélections sociales.
228 : 18. See Tacitus, Germania.
229 : 6. It may be interesting in this connection to quote Fleure and James, pp. 118–119, who, after giving illustrations of Mediterranean types, say of them: “Types 1(a) to 1(c) contribute considerable numbers to the ministries of the various churches, possibly in part from inherent and racial leanings, but partly also because these are the people of the Moorlands. The idealism of such people usually expresses itself in music, poetry, literature and religion, rather than in architecture, painting and plastic arts generally. They rarely have a sufficiency of material resources for the latter activities. These types also contribute a number of men to the medical profession, for somewhat similar reasons, no doubt.
“The successful commercial men, who have given the Welsh their extraordinarily prominent place in British trade (shipping firms, for example), usually belong to types 2 or 4” [Nordic and Nordic-Alpine, Beaker Maker], “rather than to 1, as also do the great majority of Welsh members of Parliament, though there are exceptions of the first importance.
“The Nordic type is marked by ingenuity and enterprise in striking out new lines. Type 2(c)” [Beaker Maker] “in Wales is remarkable for governmental ability of the administrative kind as well as for independence of thought and critical power.”
The following remarks are taken from Beddoe, 4, p. 142: “In opposition to the current opinion it would seem that the Welsh rise most in commerce, the Scotch coming after them and the Irish nowhere. The people of Welsh descent and name hold their own fairly in science; the Scotch do more, the Irish less. But when one looks to the attainment of military or political distinction, the case is altered. Here the Scotchmen, and especially the Highlanders bear away the palm; the Irish retrieve their position and the Welsh are little heard of.”
See also p. 10 of Beddoe’s Races of Britain, and Hector McLean in vol. IV, pp. 218 seq. of the Anthropological Review and elsewhere. The following quotation from Hall’s Ancient History of the Near East is interesting:
“Knowing what we do of the psychological peculiarities of the different races of mankind, it is perhaps not an illegitimate speculation to wonder whence the Greeks inherited this sense of proportion in their whole mental outlook. The feeling of Hellenes for art in general was surely inherited from their forebears on the Ægean, not the Indo-European side.[[7]] The feeling for naturalistic art, for truth of representation, may have come from the Ægeans, but the equally characteristic love of the crude and bizarre was not inherited: the sense of proportion inhibited it. In fact, we may ascribe this sense to the Aryan element in the Hellenic brain, to which must also be attributed the Greek political sense, the idea of the rights of the folk and of the individual in it.[[8]] The Mediterranean possessed the artistic sense without the sense of proportion: the Aryan had little artistic sense but had the sense of proportion and justice, and with it the political sense. The result of the fusion of the two races we see in the true canon of taste and beauty in all things that had become the ideal of the Greeks,[[9]] and was through them to become the ideal of mankind.”
[7]. “We have only to look around and seek, vainly, for any self-developed artistic feeling among the pure Indo-Europeans. The Kassites had none and blighted that of Babylonia for centuries: the Persians had none and merely adopted that of Assyria: the Goths and Vandals had none: the Celts and Teutons have throughout the centuries derived theirs from the Mediterranean region.”
[8]. The predominance of the Aryan element in Greek political ideas is obvious. It is not probable that the old Ægean had any more definite political ideas than had his relative the Egyptian.
[9]. “In matters of political and ordinary justice between man and man they fell short of their ideal often enough, but they had the reasonable ideal: the barbarians had none. The Egyptians were an imaginative race, but their imagination was untrammelled by the sense of proportion: their only thinker with reasonable and logical ideas, Akhenaten, soon became as mad a fanatic as any unreasonable Nitrian monk or Arab Mahdi. Ordinarily speaking, Egyptian and Semitic ideals were purely religious, and so, to the Greek mind, beyond the domain of reason. The Babylonians, Assyrians, and Phœnicians cannot be said ever to have possessed any ideals of any kind.”
229 : 22. Fleure and James, p. 146, say: “In the folk tales, it is true, the people are called fairies but colouring is mentioned only in one case—that is of a trader from the sea who is said to be fair; i. e., fair hair is treated as something worthy of special mention. The fairy children (changelings) are always described in such a way as to suggest that they were dark, and that they were the children of the Upland-folk of our hypothesis—i. e., mostly of Mediterranean race. In the romances the princes and princesses are said to be fair, as though that were exceptional. Our friend, Mr. J. H. Shaxby, draws our attention to the probability that the word fair in ‘fair’ or ‘fair-folk’ does not refer to physical traits, but is an adulatory term such as men so generally use in describing beings about whom their superstitions gather.”
230 : 5. Pope Gregory, about 578 A. D.
230 : 9. For evidence as to the blond characters of Christ and the indications of His descent, see Haeckel, The Riddle of the Universe, chap. XVII.
Every now and then some reference to this question is noted in the daily papers. Not long ago, in one of the large New York dailies, there appeared a short paragraph concerning the letter of Lentulus. All mention of the extremely doubtful authenticity of this letter was omitted. The Catholic Cyclopædia, vol. IX, discusses the matter as follows:
Publius Lentulus, A fictitious person said to have been the governor of Judea before Pontius Pilate and to have written the following letter to the Roman Senate: “Lentulus, the Governor of the Jerusalemites, to the Roman Senate and People, greetings. There has appeared in our times and there still lives, a man of great power (virtue), called Jesus Christ. The people call him prophet of truth; his disciples son of God. He raises the dead, and heals infirmities. He is a man of medium size (statura procerus, mediocris et spectabilis); he has a venerable aspect, and his beholders can both fear and love him. His hair is of the color of the ripe hazel nut, straight down to the ears, but below the ears wavy and curled, with a bluish and bright reflection flowing over his shoulders. It is parted in two on the top of the head, after the pattern of the Nazarenes. His brow is smooth and very cheerful, with a face without a wrinkle or spot, embellished by a slightly ruddy complexion. His nose and mouth are faultless. His beard is abundant, of the color of his hair, not long, but divided at the chin. His aspect is simple and mature, his eyes are changeable and bright. He is terrible in his reprimands, sweet and amiable in his admonitions, cheerful without loss of gravity. He was never known to laugh, but often to weep. His stature is straight, his hands and arms beautiful to behold. His conversation is grave, infrequent and modest. He is the most beautiful among the children of men.” The letter was first printed in The Life of Christ, by Ludolph the Carthusian, at Cologne, 1474. According to the manuscript of Jena, a certain Giacomo Colonna found the letter in an ancient Roman document sent to Rome from Constantinople. It must be of Greek origin and have been translated into Latin during the thirteenth or fourteenth century, though it received its present form at the hands of a humanist of the fifteenth or sixteenth century.
The description agrees with the so-called Abgar picture of Our Lord. It also agrees with the portrait of Jesus Christ drawn by Nicephorus, St. John Damascene, and the Book of Painters (of Mt. Athos). Munter, (Die Sinnbilder und Kunstvorstellungen der alten Christen, Altona, 1825, p. 9), believes he can trace the letter down to the time of Diocletian, but this is not generally admitted. The Letter of Lentulus is certainly apocryphal; there never was a governor of Jerusalem; no procurator of Judea is known to have been called Lentulus; a Roman governor would not have addressed the Senate, but the Emperor; a Roman writer would not have employed the expressions, “prophet of truth,” “sons of men,” “Jesus Christ.” The former two are Hebrew idioms, the third is taken from the New Testament. The letter, therefore, shows us a description of Our Lord such as Christian piety conceived him.
There is considerable literature touching on this letter, for which see the Catholic Cyclopædia. Although we cannot credit the letter as genuine, it is interesting, as the article indicated, in showing the popular attitude to the traits in question, and in attributing these Nordic characters to Christ, as are the occasional efforts to bring the matter up again in the journals of to-day.
CHAPTER XII. ARYA
233 : 4. Synthetic. See the note on languages, p. 242 : 5.
233 : 13. Tenney Frank, 2, pp. 1, 2, and the authorities quoted at the end of the chapter. Also Peake, 2, pp. 154–173; Freeman, Historical Geography of Europe, pp. 44–45.
233 : 20. See the note to p. 99 : 27.
233 : 24. Ridgeway, 1; Conway, 1; Peake, 2; and numerous other authorities.
234 : 2. The Messapians, according to Ridgeway, 1, p. 347, were the remnants of the primitive Ligurians, who once occupied central Italy but who migrated, under the pressure of the Umbrians, toward the south. There some of them survived under the name Iapyges or Messapians, in the heel of the peninsula. “The name Iapyges seems identical with that of the Iapodes, that Illyrian tribe which dwelt on the other side of the Adriatic, largely contaminated with the Celts (Nordics) who had flowed down over them. That the Umbrians had a deadly hatred of a people of the same name, who had survived in their coast area, is proved by the Iguvine Tables, where the Iapuzkum numen is heartily cursed along with the Etruscans and the men of Nar.”
See also Giuffrida-Ruggeri.
234 : 3 seq. See the notes to pp. 157 : 10 and 157 : 14.
234 : 7. See the note to p. 192 : 1–4.
234 : 12. See pp. 174, 199 and 247 of this book.
234 : 13 seq. Non-Aryan traces in central Europe. Deniker, 2, pp. 317, 334; D’Arbois de Jubainville, 3, pp. 153 seq., gives Ligurian place names. See also 4, t. II. It all depends on whether one considers the Ligurians as Non-Aryan. D’Arbois de Jubainville is inclined to class them as Aryans. Burke, History of Spain, says, in his footnote to p. 2, that Basque place names are found all over Spain. For survivals in the British Isles see the notes to pp. 204 : 5 and 204 : 19, and for the general question, Taylor, Words and Places.
234 : 18. Finnic dialects. Zaborowski, 3, pp. 174–175, says there are very ancient traces of Germanic elements in the Finnic languages of the Baltic. Prior to the fourth century they had a Gothic character.
234 : 24 seq. Agglutinative language. See the note to p. 242 : 5. For the physical characters of the Basques, Collignon, 3, p. 13; and Ripley, pp. 190 seq., who bases himself upon Collignon. On the language see Pruner-Bey, 1; Feist, 5, pp. 362–363, and Ripley, pp. 20, 183–185. There are of course other writers on the Basque language. As a result of the epoch-making study of Keltic by Professor J. Morris Jones, of the University College, Bangor, Wales, which appears as Appendix B, in Rhys and Jones, The Welsh People, pp. 616–641, the assertion is made that Basque is apparently allied to Berber, and that other problems hitherto unsolved may be unravelled. It has not been possible to learn if any very recent progress has been the result of this new method.
235 : 1 seq. Pseudo-brachycephaly of the Basques. A. C. Haddon, correspondence, says: “The Basque skull is long, but with a broadening in the temporal region, in the French Basques, which forms a spurious kind of brachycephaly.”
235 : 11. See the notes above, to p. 234 : 24.
235 : 17. Liguria and the Ligurian language. Sergi, 4; Ripley, chap. X. The modern Liguria comprises virtually the coast lands of Italy around the Gulf of Genoa as far south as Pisa. For ancient Liguria, which once extended into Gaul, see Déchellette, Manuel d’archéologie, t. II, pp. 6–25. D’Arbois de Jubainville treats of the Ligurians at length in several of his works mentioned, but Déchellette shows his wrong reasoning, rather convincingly it seems to the author. The opinions of Jullian, as given in his Histoire de la Gaule, are also discussed by Déchellette. A full discussion in English, of all the authorities on ancient Liguria, the Ligurians and their language is given in Rice Holmes, Cæsar’s Conquest of Gaul, pp. 277–287. The language is treated on pp. 281–284, and 318, and by Peet, The Stone and Bronze Ages in Italy, pp. 164 seq.; see also D’Arbois de Jubainville, 3, pp. 152 seq. Feist, 5, p. 369, says that the Ligurians were Mediterraneans. A number of others agree with him. The evidence points rather to their having been an early Alpine people, somewhat less brachycephalic than those who came later, and this is the opinion held by Ratzel, vol. III, p. 561. The name Ligurian in this book designates a Pre-Nordic race of Alpine affinities, with a Pre-Aryan language.
The peculiar and discontinuous distribution of Alpine peoples with names which are variations of the term Veneti, a condition rather analogous to the scattered groups of Pelasgians as noted by various authors of antiquity, may indicate the last traces of a once widely distributed race. It is possible that the Ligurians displaced these “Veneti” in southern Europe, and later became confined to a part of Gaul and northern Italy.
235 : 23. Deniker, 2, p. 317, and the note to p. 234 : 13 of this book.
235 : 27–236 : 6. See the note to p. 234 : 17.
236 : 9. Feist, 1 and 5; G. Retzius, 2, 3; Ripley, p. 351; Nordenskiöld.
236 : 14. Livs and Livonians. Ripley, pp. 358 seq.; Abercromby, The Pre- and Proto-Finns; Peake, 2, p. 150.
236 : 17 seq. Ripley, pp. 365–367. Feist, 5, p. 55, says the Finnish language was once agglutinative but is now inflectional. See also another reference to it on p. 231, and our note to languages, p. 242 : 5 of this book.
236 : 26. Magyar language. The most authoritative books on Finnish, Ugrian, and Hungarian speech are those of Szinnyei. See also Feist, pp. 394 seq., and Deniker, 2, pp. 349–351.
237 : 1. Ripley, p. 415, says: “Turkish is the westernmost representative of a great group of languages, best known, perhaps, as the Ural-Altaic family. This comprises all those of northern Asia, even to the Pacific Ocean, together with that of the Finns in Russian Europe.... According to Chantre the word Turk seems quite aptly to be derived from a native root meaning Brigand.” Also see pp. 404–405 and 419 in Ripley.
237 : 13. Ripley, p. 418, and Von Luschan, op. cit.
237 : 21. Gibbon, chap. LVII, on the “Seljukian Turks.” On the Osmanli Turks see Ripley, pp. 415 seq. On Turks in general see Von Luschan.
237 : 25. See the notes to p. 173 : 11 and to pp. 253–261.
238 : 12. G. Elliot Smith, Ancient Egyptians, pp. 134 seq.; Zaborowski, 1, and the table of languages in the note to p. 242 : 5. Practically any book dealing with Aryans gives this information.
238 : 24. Ripley, p. 415; Von Luschan.
239 : 1. See the notes to pp. 158 and 253.
239 : 2. Hittites and the Hittite Empire. See S. J. Garstang, The Land of the Hittites; L. Messerschmidt, Die Hetiter (Der Alte Orient, IV, 1); Feist, 5, pp. 406 seq., and the Hittite Inscriptions, Cornell Expedition of 1911. The history of the Hittite Empire has been brought to light by the research and investigations of Professor Sayce. See his Hittites. There are a number of short general descriptions in practically all of the histories of ancient peoples, and in those of the Near East. See for instance, Bury, History of Greece, pp. 45, 64; Hall, Ancient History of the Near East, pp. 200, 334 seq.; Myres, Dawn of History, pp. 118 seq., 152 seq. and 199 seq.; Myers, Ancient History, pp. 91–93; Feist, Kultur, pp. 406 seq.; Von Luschan, pp. 242–243; and Zaborowski, 1, pp. 121, 134, 138 and 160, deal more with the physical characters of the Hittites.
According to some of the most recent authorities, the Hittites were an extraordinarily powerful nation and held Syria from about 3700 B. C. to 700 B. C., when the Assyrians overcame them. They had some contact with Babylon and probably their development was influenced thereby. They seem to have been the Kheta or Khatti of the Ancient Egyptians. “About 1280 B. C.,” according to Von Luschan, “when Khattusil made his peace with Rameses II, there existed a large empire, not much smaller than Germany, reaching from the Ægean Sea to Mesopotamia and from Kadesh on the Orontes to the Black Sea. We do not know at present if this Hittite Empire ever had a really homogeneous population, but we have a good many Hittite reliefs and all these, without one single exception, show us the high and short heads, or the characteristic noses of our modern brachycephalic groups, (Armenoids).”
As to their language, J. D. Prince, correspondence, says that it was not Aryan, in spite of all conjectures to the contrary. “Friedrich Delitzsch analyzed some of the only syllabized material we have of this language, and I analyzed it still further in the Journal of the American Oriental Society, vol. XXII, ‘Hittite Material in the Cuneiform Inscriptions,’ reaching the conclusion as to the Non-Aryan character of this idiom. The so-called ‘Hittite Inscriptions’ are in hieroglyphs and give us no clue as to the pronunciation and hence none to the character of the language.” Von Luschan, p. 242, says: “Orientalists are unanimous in assuming that the Hittite language was not Semitic.” A very recent communication from Fr. Cumont, in L’Académie des inscriptions et belles lettres for April 20, 1917, says that the tongue is proved to have been Aryan.
As to their physical characters, all are agreed that the Hittites had short, brachycephalic heads, and thick, prominent noses. Myres, p. 44, remarks that the earliest portraits, which he dates about 1285 B. C., have been thought by some to be Mongoloid, but the evidence is still scanty and inconclusive. Surely if the older likenesses were Mongoloid, they bear no resemblance to the later types. On the monuments bearded figures are frequent and the type is Armenoid. See Hall, The Ancient History of the Near East, p. 334, for a criticism of the Mongol theory.
239 : 10. Sumer. J. D. Prince, in his article on the Sumerians in the Encyclopædia Britannica, classes the Sumerian language as agglutinative. The language of Susiana is also known as Anzanite, Susian or Elamite. The Anzanite may have been a dialect of Susian. Schiel’s work with de Morgan’s mission shows that Elamite was agglutinative and that inflections found in derived words are due to the influence of another language. The locality of Anzan is not known exactly, but is believed to have been in the plain south or southeast of Susa. See also Zaborowski, 1, pp. 149–150, and Hall, The Ancient History of the Near East. Hall agrees with Prince that Sumerian is agglutinative (p. 171). He also states that Elamite was agglutinative, but not otherwise like Sumerian. See his chap. V for the relationships of Sumerians and Elamites.
For Media see the notes to p. 254 : 13.
239 : 12. Assyria and Palestine. Breasted, Ancient Times, p. 173 and Fig. 112; Hall, History of the Near East; Myres, Dawn of History, pp. 114–116, 140; and other histories of the Near East.
239 : 13. Kassites. See Hall, pp. 198–200. Very little is known about the Kassites. Hall declares that there is very little doubt but that they were Indo-European; Prince, from the same information, says this could not possibly be the case. They are supposed to have been an Elamite tribe who were living in the northwestern mountains of Elam, immediately south of Holwan, when Sennacherib attacked them in 702 B. C. They attacked Babylonia in the ninth year of Samsu-iluma, the son of Khammurabi, overran it and founded a dynasty there in 1780 B. C., which lasted 576 years. They became absorbed into the Babylonian population; the kings adopted Semitic names and married into the royal family of Assyria. Like the other languages of the Non-Semitic tribes of Elam, according to Prince, that of the Kassites was agglutinative. That the Kassites had been in contact with the horse-using nomads of the northern steppes, is indicated by the fact that they first introduced the horse into Mesopotamian lands, whence its use for riding and drawing chariots spread into Egypt in 1700 B. C. See Breasted, Ancient Times, p. 138.
239 : 16. Mitanni. Very little is known of the Mitanni. Von Luschan, p. 230, dates them around the fourteenth century B. C. In 1380 they called themselves Harri, from Harri-ya, an old form of the word Aryan. Myres, Dawn of History, says: “The conquest of Syria in 1500 B. C. brought Egypt face to face with a homogeneous state called Mitanni, occupying the whole foothill country east of the Euphrates.... The Egyptian conquest came just in time to relieve the kingdom of Mitanni from severe pressure exerted simultaneously and probably in collusion, by its neighbors in the foothills,—Assyria on the east, and the Hittites west of the Euphrates. Egypt made friends with Mitanni and more than one marriage was arranged between the royal houses. Soon after the treaty between Egypt and Mitanni, Subiluliuma, king of the Hittites of Cappadocia, whom Egyptian scribes conveniently abbreviate as Saplel, was overlord apparently of a number of outpost baronies in north Syria. Assured of their help, and watching his opportunity, he flung his whole force, about 1400 upon Mitanni.... This closed the career of Mitanni.”
The racial affinities of Mitanni are doubtful. Prince, correspondence, says the language of Mitanni was certainly not Aryan. It has been thoroughly analyzed by Ferdinand Bork, in his Die Mitanni Sprache, who compares it with the Georgian or Imeretian branch of the Caucasic linguistic groups. The Mitanni are not to be confused with the Ossetes, who speak a highly archaic, real Aryan language. Mitanni, in structure, is like the polysynthetic North American groups. Feist, 1, p. 14, says the Mitanni were Nordics and inhabited the western mountains of Iran, in Zagros. In 5, p. 406, he places them on the north of the Euphrates during the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries B. C. See also Hall, p. 200, the following note and that to p. 213 : 1–23 of this book. Hall also considers them Nordics.
239 : 16 seq. Von Luschan, p. 230, asks: “Can it be mere accident that a few miles north of the actual frontier of modern Kurdish languages there is Boghaz-Köi, the old metropolis of the Hittite Empire, where Hugo Winckler in 1908 found tablets with two political treaties of King Subiluliuma with Mattiuaza, son of Tušrata, king of Mitanni, and in both of these treaties Aryan divinities, Mithra, Varuna, Indra and Nasatya are invoked, together with Hittite divinities, as witnesses and protectors? And in the same inscriptions, which date from about 1380 B. C., the king of Mitanni and his people are called Harri, just as nine centuries later in the Achæmenidian inscriptions Xerxes and Darius call themselves Har-ri-ya, ‘Aryans of Aryan stock.’ So the Kurds,” concludes Von Luschan, “are the descendants of Aryan invaders and have maintained their type and their language for more than 3300 years.”
See also the notes to p. 173 : 11.
239 : 29. See pp. 128 and 137 of this book.
240 : 4 seq. See the notes to p. 173.
240 : 15 seq. See the notes to p. 242 : 5.
CHAPTER XIII. ORIGIN OF THE ARYAN LANGUAGES
242 : 5. The following notes on languages were taken mostly from the History of Language, by Henry Sweet, and were supplemented by the writings of W. D. Whitney, and an article on “Indo-European Languages,” by Peter Giles.
All languages may be roughly divided into two great groups, isolating and agglutinative.
The isolating languages are constructed on the principle of single, distinct words for each idea, and do not employ forms which add or drop syllables, or letters, in order to obtain variety of expression, tense, mode, person, number, etc. However, the element of intonation frequently plays a large part in multiplying the number of possible forms, and therefore of ideas, in isolating languages, by imparting to otherwise identical words different meanings through pitch, rising or falling inflection or accent.
To the isolating languages belong most of those of southeastern Asia,—Chinese, Burmese, Siamese, Thibetan, Annamite, Cochin-Chinese, Malayan, etc. The term isolating does not necessarily imply words of one syllable, although there is a tendency in this direction since the roots are stripped of all incumbrances of a modifying nature so common in agglutinative or synthetic languages. The Chinese, Burmese, Siamese and Annamite are classed as monosyllabic, the Thibetan as half-monosyllabic, while the Malay is polysyllabic.
Because languages are isolating in structure does not mean that they necessarily all belong to one family. They merely have this structural principle in common. To establish family relationships it is necessary to investigate the sets of phonetics used, the root forms, the types of ideas expressed, the composition of the sentence and various other important points included under the psychology of habit and growth forms of speech. No one of these alone is ordinarily sufficient to prove that two languages are of one common stock, since extensive borrowing of all kinds has occurred since time immemorial.
Nevertheless, in point of fact, taking languages as they now exist, only those have been shown related which possess a common structure, or have together grown out of the more primitive radical stage, since structure proves itself a more constant and reliable evidence than vocabulary. But, on the other hand, since all structure is the result of growth, and any degree of difference of structure, as well as of difference of material, may be explained as the result of discordant growth from identical beginnings, it is equally inadmissible to claim that the diversities of languages prove them to have had different beginnings.
In isolating languages, word order is very important, but here again the peculiar character of any tongue of this type depends upon the order selected, or the relative importance of ideas (general, specific, etc.). The employment of particles makes possible a freer word order.
The agglutinative languages are those which combine roots or parts of words or elements into new wholes to express other related ideas than those imparted by the single forms, or else entirely new concepts. Frequently these combinations are still separable on occasion into their original elements, or, if inseparable in their secondary meanings, their original parts with their derivations are still recognizable as such. Again, the component parts are no longer independent, but form a firmly knit whole.
In some languages certain classes of elements have arisen which may be added in a perfectly formal manner to other fixed roots or elements, with or without slight phonetic modifications of either or both parts. Since this occurs in conformity with fairly fixed rules, the meanings of the resultant combinations are, according to the class of the attached elements used, fairly analogous. Thus in English many verb roots obtain the present participle by the addition of the formal element ing, in itself now meaningless, but once, no doubt, a separate root.
The process of agglutination may be accomplished in many different ways, any of which may be characteristic of whole groups of unrelated languages. These may be roughly divided first into mono- or oligo-synthetic and polysynthetic. The former very nearly approach the isolating languages, since usually only one element may be added at a time, but the process of addition may be accomplished in any of the ways possible to agglutination.
Agglutination includes prefixing, suffixing and infixing in all degrees of complexity and fixity. Thus languages may be spoken of as agglutinative only in a relative sense. Some are much more so than others, both in point of the number of elements which it is possible to add, and their dependence upon one another and the root, denoting a higher or lower degree of inextricability in blending.
Many languages are only loosely agglutinative and the component parts of the compounds readily resolve. In others, as in the inflecting languages, the combination is inextricable.
Thus under the head of agglutinative we have the merely agglutinative or synthetic, readily resolvable combinations, which are often hardly distinguishable from isolating languages, and the less easily divisible inflectional and incorporating types. Any or all of the three processes of infixing, prefixing and suffixing may be employed in simple agglutinative combinations.
In inflectional languages the root is attended by prefixes or suffixes which form inseparable modifiers. At times phonetic changes occur which render the complex unlike the simple joining of its component parts.
As Mr. Sweet says: “If we define inflection as ‘agglutination run mad’ we may regard incorporation as inflection run madder still, for it is the result of attempting to develop a verb into a complete sentence.” In some languages, such as the incorporating, a verb is sufficiently distinct in its meaning not to require an independent pronoun. French and Spanish, though not belonging to this category, contain words with the incorporating idea, as in Spanish hablo, I speak, and French, pluit, it rains. Where polysynthesism is the prevailing character, the verb may be sufficiently comprehensive to include the objective pronoun as well as the subjective, so that it is possible to find in one word a transitive, as well as in others an intransitive, sentence. But this is only rudimentary incorporation, and borders on inflection. Some American Indian languages carry it to a very high degree, appending to or inserting into this simple complex not only nouns which may stand in apposition to the implied or actual pronouns, but particles and modifiers of every description. (See the Handbook of American Indian Languages, published by the Bureau of American Ethnology at Washington.) Frequently during this process various parts undergo phonetic changes in accordance with fixed laws, so that the final complex may not at all resemble a string of the original elements, but becomes a new, inseparable and fixed word containing a whole sentence of ideas. This sentence, in some languages, may carry throughout certain modifiers for all noun elements—for instance, as to whether the objects under discussion are visible or invisible. These modifiers bear definite relationships to the nouns, and the “sentence word” in each of its parts must then be conjugated as a verb in an even more complicated manner. This is agglutination par excellence, and is frequently so complex as to be utterly bewildering to the Indo-European mind, even though the Indo-European languages themselves employ agglutination to a limited degree and of certain varieties, particularly of the inflectional order.
Compared to the most complicated Indian tongues, English is in the position of Chinese to Indo-European languages in its structural simplicity, though of course in Chinese we have an added complexity in the use of pitch, etc.
There are certain types of speech which secure changes (plurals, etc.) by internal vowel modification. English itself makes use of this device, but it is the outstanding feature of Semitic tongues.
Sweet says: “There are many other minor criteria of morphological classification. The most important of these is perhaps that of the agglutinative or inflectional elements before or after the word or stem [modified]. In Turkish and in other Altaic languages, as also in Finnish, these are always post-positions, so that every word begins with the root which always has chief stress. The Bantu languages of South Africa, on the other hand, favor prefixes.... The Semitic languages favor prefixes and post-positions about equally. The Aryan languages are mainly post-positional, with occasional use of prefixes, most of which, however, are of later origin.”
It must not be supposed that languages fall into absolutely distinct categories because of their structure. No language to-day is purely of one type or another. There have been too many centuries of borrowing and change for that condition to now be possible for any language, nor are there any longer what might be called primitive tongues. They have all long since outgrown that state, whatever it may have been, even the Botocudo of Brazil, which is generally ranked as the most primitive.
Languages may now be classified only according to their prevailing tendencies. Thus, modern English is in part isolating, in part inflectional and in part agglutinative, as that term is generally applied. Basque is an incorporating language, far removed geographically and linguistically from any other of that character. The Indo-European family may be considered as inflectional, because that process is a prominent feature, but it is by no means the only one present, nor is it exclusively typical of that family.
There is no doubt that all languages pass through certain stages in their development, but it is not at all true that they all have eventually the same or even similar histories. There are endless possibilities of growth and decay, and this fact alone excludes any set evolutionary scheme. Nor are the isolating languages the most primitive. On the contrary, they are as complex in their way as the most agglutinative North American tongues, and as expressive, for some psychological categories.
There is little doubt that all languages have begun on an isolating principle of simple roots for single ideas, from which they have diverged in endless variety. Probably all inflectional languages had an isolating and agglutinative stage, although this is by no means proved. The Chinese seems to have undergone an agglutinative past of some sort, but to have resolved again into simple roots, with only traces of fuller forms, but with the added complexity of tone, accent, and order, to give, as Sweet puts it, “that extreme of elliptical conciseness and concentrated force of expression, which excites our admiration.”
English has become analytical, for many older inflected words have now been worked over into combinations of independent words, but this is far from a complete or consistent process. Probably it will never become like the Chinese, for to do away now with its inflectional system entirely would necessitate a complete upheaval of structure which is not likely to happen in the course of normal inner development, particularly with a vast literature to assist in stabilizing present forms.
As regards polysynthesism, or amount of agglutination, the Aryan tongues are intermediate; they allow affixes, but only within certain limits.
Languages undoubtedly differ from one another in their richness and power of expression, but may not be used as a test of the intellectual capacity of those who now speak them. In fact, men of any race can learn any language, unless abnormal. To account for the great and striking difference of structure among human languages is beyond the power of the linguistic student, and will doubtless always continue so. We are not likely to be able even to demonstrate a correlation of capacities, saying that a race which has done this and that in other departments might have been expected to form such and such a language. Every tongue represents the general outcome of the capacity of a race as exerted in this particular direction, under the influence of historical circumstances which we can have no hope of tracing, but there are striking anomalies to be noted.
“The Chinese and the Egyptians have shown themselves to be among the most gifted races the earth has known; but the Chinese tongue is of unsurpassed jejuneness, and the Egyptian, in point of structure, little better, while among the wild tribes of Africa and America we find tongues of every grade up to a high one or the highest. This shows clearly enough that mental power is not measured by language structure. On the whole the value and rank of a language are determined by what its users have made it do—a poor tool in skilful hands can do vastly better work than the best tool in unskilful hands, even as the ancient Egyptians, without steel or steam, turned out products which, both for colossal grandeur and for exquisite finish, are the despair of modern engineers and artists.” In other words, we must not underestimate the important part played by habit or inertia. “The formation of habit is slow, and once formed it exercises a constraining as well as a guiding influence.”
The Indo-European language is one of the most highly organized families of tongues that exist, and its greatest power lies (in modern English, etc.) in its mixed structural and material character. So to the Indo-European family belongs incontestably the first place, and for many reasons,—the historical position of the peoples speaking its dialects, who have now long been the leaders in world history, the abundance, variety and merit of its literatures ancient and modern and, most of all, the great variety and richness of its development. These have made it an illustration of the history of human speech, which is extremely valuable and the training ground of comparative philology.
W. D. Whitney gives the following linguistic groups in order of their importance from a literary standpoint:
1. Indo-European (Indo-Germanic). 2. Semitic. 3. Hamitic. 4. Monosyllabic or Southeastern Asiatic. 5. Ural-Altaic (Scythian, Turanian). 6. Dravidian or South Indian. 7. Malay-Polynesian. 8. Oceanic— a. Australian and Tasmanian. b. Papuan and Negrito, etc. 9. Caucasian— a. Circassian. b. Mitsjeghian. c. Lesghian, Georgian. 10. European Remnants— Basque. Etruscan? Lydian? 11. South African, Bantu. 12. Central African. 13. American.
The first ten groups are families. So little is or was known about the last three groups that the author of the article classed together what are now known to be vast agglomerations of families. For instance, the American languages include several hundred distinct stocks, of which fifty are found in California alone. These are all, according to our present knowledge, utterly unrelated. It is known that the central African tongues belong to a different group than the southern, and it would be advisable to consult Sir Harry Johnston’s recent large work on the Bantu languages.
The subdivision of the Indo-European family into cognate languages is given here to show the great diversity of tongues that may spring from one ancestor. Not all the dialects, nor even languages, have been included, but only those best known:
I. Centum (European).
1. Greek.
Ancient Modern
{ Latin. Portuguese
{ Oscan. Spanish.
2. Italic. { Umbrian Catalan.
{ Minor dialects of Provençal.
{ ancient Italy.
French. { Tuscan.
Italian. { Calabrian.
Friulian.
Ladin.
Romansch.
Rumanian.
{ { Irish.
{ Q. Celtic { Manx.
{ { Scotch Gaelic.
3. Celtic {
{ { Ancient Gaulish.
{ P. Celtic { Welsh.
{ { Cornish.
{ { Breton or Armorican.
{ Gothic.
{ { Swedish.
{ { Danish.
{ Scandinavian { Norwegian.
{ { Icelandic.
{ { Old Norse.
{
Germanic or {
Teutonic {
{
{ { English.
{ { Frisian.
{ West { Low Frankish { Dutch.
{ Germanic { { Flemish.
{ { Low German.
{ { High German.
5. Armenian.
[6. Tokharian?]
II. Satem. (Eastern Europe and Asia.)
{ { Zend.
{ Sanskrit { Old Persian.
1. Aryan or { { Modern Persian.
Indo-Iranian {
{ Hindu, and nearly all the modern languages
{ of India [and of the Pamirs].
{ { Lithuanian.
{ { Lettish.
{ a { Old Prussian or Borussian, extinct
{ { since the 17th century.
{
{ { { Old Bulgarian.
{ { { { Great Russian
{ { 1. S.E. { { and White Russian.
2. Balto-Slavonic { { Slavic { Russian. { Little Russian or
{ { { Ruthenian.
{ b { { Servian.
{ { { Slovene.
{ {
{ { 2. West { Polish.
{ { Slavic. { Czech or Bohemian.
{ { { Sorb.
3. Albanian.
242 : 16. Cf. S. Feist, 2, p. 250. On the archaic character of Lithuanian, see Taylor, 1, p. 15, and the authorities he quotes. Also Schrader, Jevons translation.
242 : 20–243 : 4. Deniker, 2, p. 320, sums up Hirt’s position on this question in the footnote: “According to Hirt the home of dispersion of the primitive Aryan language would be found to the north of the Carpathians, in the Letto-Lithuanian region. From this point two linguistic streams would start flowing around the mountains to the west and east; the western stream, after spreading over Germany (Teutonic languages), left behind the Celtic languages in the upper valley of the Danube, and filtered through on the one side into Italy (Latin languages), on the other side into Illyria, Albania, and Greece (Helleno-Illyrian languages). The eastern stream formed the Slav languages in the plains traversed by the Dnieper, then spread by way of the Caucasus into Asia (Iranian languages and Sanscrit). In this way we can account, on the one hand, for the less and less marked relationship between the Aryan languages of the present day and the common primitive dialect, and on the other hand, for the diversity between the two groups of Aryan languages, western and eastern.”
If this were so, Sanskrit should more closely resemble the Slavic than the western languages. As it is, the old Vedic speech, the earliest form of Sanskrit, is said to show more affiliations with Greek than with any other of the Aryan tongues (see Taylor, 1, p. 21, and authorities quoted), a fact which merely adds another proof to our hypothesis that sometime between 2000 and 1500 B. C. the Nordics filtered down the Balkan peninsula in their earliest wave and about the same time other branches found their way into northwestern India. The Sanskrit alphabet is more closely related to the Phœnician than to any other. At the time of the first Nordic expansion their language was not reduced to writing. The alphabet used for early Sanskrit, was, according to Professor Bühler, probably introduced into India by traders from Mesopotamia about 800 B. C. Another authority on the relations of Greek and Sanskrit is Johannes Schmidt, Die Verwandtschaftsverhältnisse der Indo-germanischen Sprachen, Weimar, 1872.
243 : 4. Prof. J. D. Prince, correspondence, in discussing the kinship of prehistoric Ugrian to Aryan says that, although it is a temptation to believe in it, there is insufficient data for proving it. As careful a scholar as Szinnyei, in his Vergleichende Grammatik der Ugrischen Sprache, is careful not to commit himself. But see Zaborowski, 3; also the notes to p. 236 : 26; and Deniker, 2, pp. 349–351.
243 : 12. Deniker, 2, p. 320 and the authorities he quotes.
243 : 20. See the notes to pp. 158 : 21 and 159.
243 : 25. See p. 158 and also the notes on languages to p. 242 : 5.
244 : 1. See p. 157 and the notes.
244 : 6. Latin derivatives. Zaborowski, 1, p. 2. See table of languages, in the note to p. 242 : 5 of this book.
244 : 12–28. Ripley, pp. 423–424; Freeman, 2, p. 217; Obédénare, p. 350; Ratzel, vol. III, p. 564; and the articles on the Balkans and Hungary in the Geographical Review, by Cvijič and Wallis. Cf. G. Poisson, The Latin Origin of the Rumanians.
244 : 29–245 : 3. Freeman, 1, p. 439.
245 : 3. Jordanes, History of the Goths; Procopius, The History of the Wars; Gibbon, Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire, chaps. I and XI; Freeman, The Historical Geography of Europe, pp. 70–71; also the notes to pp. 143 and 156 : 10.
245 : 12. Sarmatians. See the note to p. 143 : 21. The same for the Venethi. Under the Roman dominion Latin speech appears to have spread from the Adriatic coast eastward over the Balkans replacing the native dialects except along the shores of the Ægean and in the large cities.
246 : 9. Freeman, 1, pp. 440–441.
246 : 15. Ripley, p. 425.
246 : 24. See the note to p. 173 of this book.
246 : 27. Rhys and Jones, The Welsh People, pp. 12, 13.
247 : 3. See the note to p. 174; Oman, 2, pp. 13, 14; Rice Holmes, 1, pp. 409–410; 2, pp. 319–320; Rhys and Jones, pp. 1, 2.
247 : 9. Goidels. Rice Holmes, 1, pp. 227, 291 and 455–456.
247 : 16. Rice Holmes, 1, pp. 229, 456; Oman, 2, p. 16. See also p. 174 of this book.
247 : 23. Ripley, p. 127; Feist, 4, p. 14; Ridgeway, 1, p. 373; and pp. 195 and 212 of this book.
247 : 27. See the note to p. 247 : 3.
248 : 3. Fleure and James, pp. 146, 148; D’Arbois de Jubainville, 2, p. 88.
248 : 6. Rice Holmes, 2, pp. 319–321; Taylor, 2, pp. 138, 167–168; Beddoe, 4, p. 20.
248 : 12. Neo-Celtic. D’Arbois de Jubainville, 2, p. 88; Fleure and James, p. 143.
248 : 14. Rice Holmes, 2, p. 12.
248 : 29–249 : 4. See the notes to pp. 177–178 of this book.
249 : 16. Beddoe, 4, p. 223.
249 : 20. The same, pp. 241–242; Ripley’s maps, pp. 23 and 313; but consult Beddoe, 4, p. 66, for criticisms of evidence derived from place names; Taylor, 2, p. 119.
249 : 27–250 : 1. Beddoe, 4, pp. 139, 241–242.
250 : 1 seq. Taylor, 2, p. 173; Palgrave, vol. I of The English Commonwealth; Oman, 2, pp. 158 seq.
250 : 6. Taylor, 2, pp. 170–171.
250 : 14. Ripley, p. 22; Taylor, 2, pp. 137–138.
250 : 20. Jordanes, XXXVI; Gibbon and others.
250 : 24. Ripley, pp. 531–533.
250 : 28 seq. Cf. Ripley, pp. 101, 151 seq.
251 : 7 seq. Cf. Rice Holmes, 2, pp. 309–314.
251 : 18. See the note to p. 182 of this book.
251 : 26. Since the Belgæ were the last wave of the Celts, and Cymric was the later Celtic, this deduction is inevitable, even if there were no facts, such as place names, history, etc., to prove it. See the note to p. 248 : 6.
251 : 28–252 : 2. Beddoe, 4, p. 35; Ripley, pp. 101, 152; Taylor, 2, pp. 95, 98.
252 : 5. See the note to p. 196 : 7.
CHAPTER XIV. THE ARYAN LANGUAGE IN ASIA
253 : 1. See p. 158 and note. Also Peake, 2, p. 165; Breasted, 1, p. 176; Von Luschan, pp. 241–243; Zaborowski, 1, p. 112; DeLapouge, 1, p. 252, says: “Aryans were in India about 1500 B. C.”
253 : 10. See Peake, 2; also pp. 170–171 and 213 of this book.
253 : 13. See the note to p. 225 : 11.
253 : 13–15. Eduard Meyer, Zur ältesten Geschichte der Iranier.
253 : 16 seq. See the note to p. 239 : 16 seq.
253 : 19. Zaborowski, 1, pp. 137 and 214.
254 : 1. See pp. 173 and 225 of this book.
254 : 3 seq. For Sacæ see the note to p. 259 : 21. Cahun, Histoire de l’Asie, says on p. 35: “The Sacæ and the Ephtalites and Massagetæ were from the Kiptchak.” See also Zaborowski, 1, pp. 94, 100–101, 215 seq.
254 : 6. Massagetæ. See the note to p. 259 : 21.
254 : 8. Ephtalites, or White Huns. Cahun, Histoire de l’Asie, pp. 43–55: “The Turks destroyed in the first half of the seventh century a powerful nation, the Ephtalites of Soghdiana, north of Persia. They were called Ephtalites, or White Huns or Tie-le-urn Turks.” See also the notes to pp. 119 : 15 and 224 : 3 of this book, and chap. XXVI in Gibbon on the Huns in general.
Procopius, vol. I, says in speaking of the Ephtalite Huns and describing their war with the Persians about 450 A. D.: “The White Huns are of the stock of the Huns in fact as well as in name, living in the territory north of Persia, and are settlers on the land in contrast to the Nomadic Huns who live at a distance.... They are the only ones among the Huns who have white bodies and countenances that are not ugly and they are far more civilized than are the other Huns.” The general impression gained from Procopius is that they were not true Huns. “Massagetæ” is used as another name for Huns by Procopius. He describes them as mounted bowmen. It is clear that in using this name he refers to Huns only.
254 : 13. Medes. The name Medes is variously applied by different authorities; by many the Medes are regarded as a branch of the Persians, one of two kindred tribes of Nordics. The author follows Zaborowski in applying the name to the round skulled population which was conquered by the Persians. See Zaborowski, 1, chaps. V and VI, especially part II and p. 125. Also Herodotus in the references given for Persia. Hall, Ancient History of the Near East, p. 459, gives an interesting bit of their story.
254 : 15. Persians. The Persians were a branch of Nordics who invaded the territory of the round skulled Medes, and gradually imposed their language and much of their culture on the subjugated populations. See Herodotus, book I, especially 55, 71, 72, 74, 91, 95, 101, 107, 125, 129, 135, 136; and book VI, 19, where he discusses both Medes and Persians. For modern commentary the author follows Zaborowski, 1, pp. 138–139, 153 seq., chap. VI, and also pp. 212–214.
Von Luschan, pp. 233–234, describes the present day Persians, showing that there has been a resurgence of types and that the Nordic elements have been largely absorbed by the original inhabitants. He adds, however, on p. 234, that while he never saw Persians with light hair and blue eyes, he was told that in some noble families fair types were not very rare.
254 : 19. See the note on the Medes, and Zaborowski, p. 156, on the Magi.
254 : 26. Darius. Zaborowski, 1, p. 12. Herodotus, I, 209, says: “Now Hystaspes the son of Arsames was of the race of the Achæmenidæ and his eldest son Darius was at that time twenty years old.” Another name for Hystaspes was Vashtaspa, whose father was Arsames (Arsháma). He traced his descent through four ancestors to Achæmenes (Hakhámamish).
Von Luschan, p. 241, says: “Nothing is known of the Achæmenides who called themselves ‘Aryans of Aryan stock’ and who brought the Aryan language to Persia. About 1500 B. C. or earlier, there seems to have begun a migration of northern men to Asia Minor, Syria, Persia, Egypt and India. Indeed we can now connect even Further India with the Mitanni of central Asia Minor.”
See Zaborowski in regard to the Behistun tablet, etc., although practically any writers on Persia and Mesopotamia discuss this great monument.
255 : 2. Zaborowski, 1, pp. 116–117.
255 : 6. See the note on the Medic language, 255 : 13. Also Zaborowski, 1, pp. 34, 182–184.
255 : 7 seq. Zaborowski, 1, pp. 180–184; Feist, 5, p. 423.
255 : 13. Bactria and Zendic. See the notes to pp. 119 : 15 and 257 : 12.
255 : 13. Zendic or the Medic language. See Zaborowski, 1, chap. VI. According to the Census of India, vol. I, pp. 291 seq., both Persian and Medic tongues belong to the Aryan stock. They are divided in the following table:
Zaborowski, 1, p. 146, positively identifies Medic as agglutinative, in which he agrees with Oppert. See chaps. V and VI, especially part II and p. 125. For early data on the Medes see the Herodotus references given under Persia. Zaborowski says, p. 121, that Medic was spoken until 600 B. C.
255 : 15. Kurdish. Von Luschan, p. 229: “The Kurds speak an Aryan language.... The eastern Kurds are little known.... They speak a different dialect from the western tribes, but both divisions are Aryan.” On the Kurds as a people, see the notes to p. 225 : 20.
255 : 20. Zaborowski, 1, p. 216–217.
255 : 23. Von Luschan, p. 234, and the note to p. 225 : 19 of this book.
255 : 26–256 : 10. See Plutarch’s Life of Alexander; Historia Alexandri Magni de præliis; Zaborowski, 1, p. 171.
256 : 3. Alexander the Great and the Persians. Plutarch, Life of Alexander: “After this he accommodated himself more than ever to the manners of the Asiatics, and at the same time persuaded them to adopt some of the Macedonian fashions, for by a mixture of both he thought a union might be promoted much better than by force, and his authority maintained when he was at a distance. For the same reason he selected 30,000 boys and gave them masters to instruct them in the Grecian literature as well as to train them to arms in the Macedonian manner. As for his marriage with Roxana, it was entirely the effect of love.... Nor was the match unsuitable to the situation of his affairs. The barbarians placed greater confidence in him on account of that alliance.... Hephæstion and Craternus were his two favorites. The former praised the Persian fashions and dressed as he did; the latter adhered to the fashions of his own country. He therefore employed Hephæstion in his transactions with the barbarians and Craternus to signify his pleasure to the Greeks and Macedonians.”
256 : 11 seq. Armenians. Ridgeway, 1, p. 396, speaking of language, says: “That the Armenians were an offshoot of the Phrygians as mentioned in Herodotus VII, 73, is proved by the most modern linguistic results, which show that Armenian comes closer to Greek than to the Iranian tongues.” Cf. also Hall, Ancient History of the Near East, p. 475. This need not imply racial affinity, however. The following notes on Armenian were contributed by Mr. Leon Dominian: “The proof of Aryan affinities in the Hittite language has not yet been established. The great difficulty in establishing the pre-Aryan relation of Armenian is due to the fact that the earliest text dates only from the fifth century A. D.
“The Cimmerians and Scythians, coming from southern Europe by way of the Caucasus (Herodotus, IV, 11, 12), reached Armenia about 720 B. C. (see Garstang, The Land of the Hittites, p. 62). The old Vannic language antedating this invasion resembles the Georgian of the Caucasus, according to Sayce (Jour. Roy. As. Soc., XIV, p. 410), who has studied the local inscriptions. On p. 409 he infers that the Aryan occupation of Armenia was coeval with the victory of Aryanism in Persia at the end of the sixth century, B. C.
“The fact that Armenia is linguistically related to the western groups of the Indo-European languages and that the Persian element consists of loan words is corroborated by geographical evidence. The Armenian highland culminating in the 17000 foot altitude of Mt. Ararat has acted as a barrier dividing the plateau of Anatolia from that of Iran. Herodotus called the Armenians the ‘beyond’ Phrygians.” See also O. Schrader, Jevons translation, p. 430.
256 : 14 seq. Phrygians. See the note to p. 225.
256 : 15. Félix Sartiaux, Troie, la guerre de Troie, pp. 5–9.
256 : 16–17. See the note to p. 239 : 2 seq.
256 : 21 seq. See the table of languages to p. 242 : 5.
256 : 27–257 : 7. See pp. 20, 134, 238–239, of this book.
257 : 12. Bactria. See the note to p. 119 : 15.
257 : 16 seq. See the notes to pp. 158 and 253. Also Von Luschan, p. 243; Zaborowski, 1, p. 112; and the Indian Census, 1901, vol. I, p. 294.
257 : 19. Punjab. Panch—five, ab—river, in Hindustani. Cf. the Greek penta—five.
257 : 22. Dravidians. See pp. 148–149 of this book.
257 : 23. See the note to. p. 259 : 21 and Zaborowski, 1, pp. 113 seq.
257 : 28–258 : 2. See the note to p. 242 : 5. George Turnour’s edition in 1836, of the Mahavamsa, first made it possible to trace Sinhalese history and to prove that about the middle of the sixth century B. C. a band of Aryan-speaking people from India, under Vijaya conquered and settled Ceylon permanently. There are a number of later works on Ceylon, dealing with its archæology, flora, fauna, history, etc.
According to the British Indian Census of 1901 nearly two-thirds of the inhabitants of Assam were Hindus, and the language of Hinduism has become that of the province. The vernacular Assamese is closely related to Bengali. E. A. Gait has written a History of Assam (1906).
258 : 3. See the notes to pp. 158 and 253 of this book.
258 : 8. Zaborowski, 1, pp. 184–185. Compare de Morgan’s dates with those of Zaborowski, the Indian Census and Meillet.
258 : 19. See Meillet, Introduction á l’étude des langues européens. On p. 37 he claims that the relation between the two is comparable to that prevailing between High and Low German. Zaborowski, 1, p. 184, says: “The language of the Avesta, the Zend, is a contemporary dialect of the Persian of Darius (i. e., of Old Persian), from whence has come the Pehlevi and its very close relative. It even presents the closest affinities with the Sanskrit of the Vedas, from which was derived, in the time of Alexander, classical Sanskrit. This Sanskrit of the Vedas is itself so close to Old Persian that it can be said that one and the other are only two pronunciations of the same tongue.” See also the Indian Census for 1901, vol. I, p. 294.
258 : 25 seq. Zaborowski, 1, pp. 213–216; Peake, 2, pp. 165 seq. and especially pp. 169 and 172.
259 : 4. Ellsworth Huntington, The Pulse of Asia; Peake, 2, p. 170; and Breasted, passim.
259 : 9. See pp. 173, 237, 253–254 and 257 of this book.
259 : 16. See the notes to pp. 119 : 13 and 255 : 7.
259 : 21. Sacæ or Saka. The Sacæ or Saka were the blond peoples who carried the Aryan language to India. Strabo, 511, allies them with the Scythians as one of their tribes. Many tribes were called Sacæ, especially by the Hindus, who used the term indiscriminately to designate any northern invaders of India.
One tribe gained the most fertile tract in Armenia which was called Sacasene, after them.
Zaborowski, 1, p. 94, relates the Sacæ with the Scythians, and says: “The Tadjiks are a people composed of suppressed elements where blonds are found in an important minority. These blonds, saving an atavistic survival of more ancient or sporadic characters I can identify. They are the Sacæ.” He continues, in a note, that a great error has been committed on the subject of the Sacæ. “Repeating an assertion of Alfred Maury, whose very sound erudition enjoyed a merited reputation, I myself once repeated that the Sacæ who figures on the rock of Behistun was of the Kirghiz type. This assertion is completely erroneous. I have proved it and can say that the Sacæ and the Scythians were identical.”
Zaborowski, p. 216, also identifies the Sacæ with the Persians. On this whole subject see Herodotus, VII, 64; also Feist, 5.
259 : 21. Massagetæ. Zaborowski, 1, p. 285, says: “The first information of history concerning the peoples of Turkestan refers to the Massagetæ, whose life was exactly the same as that of the Scythians (Herodotus, I, 205–216). They enjoyed a developed industrial civilization while they remained nomads. They were doubtless composed of ethnic elements different from the Scythians, but probably already spoke the Iranian tongue, like them. And since the time of Darius, at least, there were in Turkestan with them and beside them, Sacæ, whom the Greeks have always regarded as Scythians come from Europe.”
Minns, Scythians and Greeks, p. 11, says: “The Scyths and the Massagetæ were contemporaneous and different. The Massagetæ are evidently a mixed collection of tribes without an ethnic unity; the variety of their customs and states of culture shows this and Herodotus does not seem to suggest that they are all one people. They are generally reckoned to be Iranian.... The picture drawn of the nomad Massagetæ seems very like that of the Scythians in a rather ruder stage of development.”
Herodotus, I, 215, describes them as follows: “In their dress and mode of living the Massagetæ resemble the Scythians. They fight both on horseback and on foot, neither method is strange to them.... The following are some of their customs,—each man has but one wife, yet all wives are held in common; for this is a custom of the Massagetæ and not of the Scythians, as the Greeks wrongly say. Human life does not come to its natural close with this people; but when a man grows very old, all his kinsfolk collect together and offer him up in sacrifice; offering at the same time some cattle also. After the sacrifice they boil the flesh and feast on it; and those who thus end their days are reckoned the happiest. If a man dies of disease they do not eat him, but bury him in the ground, bewailing his ill fortune that he did not come to be sacrificed. They sow no grain, but live on their herds and on fish, of which there is great plenty in the Araxes. Milk is what they chiefly drink. [Cf. the eastern Siberian tribes of the present day.] The only god they worship is the sun, and to him they offer the horse in sacrifice, under the notion of giving to the swiftest of the gods, the swiftest of all mortal creatures.”
D’Arbois de Jubainville, 4, t. I, p. 231 declares they were the same as the Scyths.
Horse sacrifices are said to prevail among the modern Parses. On the whole, the Massagetæ appear to have been largely Nordic.
259 : 24. Kirghizes. See Zaborowski, 1, pp. 216, 290–291.
259 : 25 seq. See the note to p. 119 : 15.
260 : 3. Gibbon, chap. LXIV. Also called the battle of Lignitz. Lignitz is the duchy, and Wahlstatt a small village on the battlefield.
260 : 8. See the notes to pp. 224 : 3 and 259 : 21.
260 : 17. Feist, 5, pp. 1, 427–431, says the Tokharian is related to the western rather than to the Iranian-Indian group of languages, and places the Tokhari in northeast Turkestan. (See the note to p. 119 : 13.) On p. 471 he identifies the Yuë-Tchi and Khang with Aryans from Chinese Turkestan, basing himself on Chinese annals, the date being given as 800 B. C. Cf. also the notes to p. 224 : 3 of this book.
260 : 21. See DeLapouge, 1, p. 248; Feist, 5, p. 520.
260 : 29–261 : 5. See Feist, above, in the note to 260 : 17.
261 : 6. Traces. See the note to p. 70 : 12.
261 : 17. Deniker, 2, pp. 407 seq.; G. Elliot Smith, Ancient Egyptians, p. 61; Ripley, p. 450.