XIV

WORD CLASSIFICATION

The Kinds of Words

In doing the work outlined thus far, the children have acquired considerable resources in vocabulary. They have seen all the articles, prepositions, pronouns, conjunctions, interjections, many of the adverbs; and they know many nouns, adjectives, and verbs, which will be increased in number as their culture is widened. They know something also of the use of the parts of speech and their functions in the expression of thought. This is the natural place for a classification in retrospect of those words which the children have in writing before them on the cards and slips of different colors. Separate tables should be used for these exercises in word grouping.

This new step is preparatory to a theoretical study of language to be developed in later courses in the second period of their education.

WORDS CLASSIFIED ACCORDING TO FORMATION

Root		words
Derived [3]
Compound [4]

CLASSIFICATION OF WORDS ACCORDING TO INFLECTION

There are two kinds of words, thus considered: variable and invariable:

INVARIABLES:

preposition
conjunction
interjection

They may be simple or compound, made up, that is, of one word or more.

VARIABLES:	in gender and number	nouns	may be of masculine, feminine, neuter or common gender. form their plurals by adding -s or by changing the root vowel (umlaut)
	in gender, number person and case	pronouns	have special words for each form: e.g. he, him, who, whom, I, me, etc.
	in degree	adjectives adverbs	-er for comparative -est for superlative
	in person, number, tense and mood	verbs	show third person singular by adding -s, and old second person singular by adding -st show moods by adding -ing, -ed or by vowel change for participles: or by special forms (I be, he be, etc.) for subjunctive. show tense by suffix -ed, -t: or by vowel change (I go, I went). show irregular forms.
	for phonetic reasons	definite article indefinite	the has two pronunciations according to the following word. a becomes an before a vowel.

CLASSIFICATION OF WORDS ACCORDING TO THEIR USE
(Parts of Speech)

Article	Verb	Pronoun
Noun	Adverb	Conjunction
Adjective	Preposition	Interjection

Note: In actual usage the parts of speech perform not only their own functions, but also the functions of other parts of speech, for instance, the adjective, verb, adverb, conjunction, etc., may be used as nouns. The participles, etc., may be used as adjectives, or as clauses, etc.

THE NOUN

Proper	Common
Concrete	Abstract
Collective	Individual

THE ARTICLE

Definite—the
Indefinite—a, an

THE ADJECTIVE

Descriptive: Properties, qualities of things and living beings.

Quantitative:

Definite (numeral)

cardinal: one, two, three, four, etc.

ordinal: first, second, third, fourth, last, etc.

multiple: single, double, triple, quadruple, etc. fractional: half, third, etc.

Indefinite

many, all, some, much, enough, no, more, most, other, little, few, whatever, each, every, certain, several, somewhat, etc.

Demonstrative (position in space): this, that, these, those, such, same.

Possessive: my, thy, his, her, its, our, your, their.

Interrogative: what? which?

VERB

The verb indicates:

existence: to be.
state or condition: nominal predicate (copular): e.g., She is beautiful.
action: verbal predicate: e.g., I run.

Transitive (action upon an object different from subject)		lay, throw, toss, hurl, roll, raise, lower, attach, touch, tie, cover, uncover, undo, invert, rub, spread, collect, scatter, sprinkle, stir, beat, mix, dissolve, flavor, arrange, clean, dust, sweep, button, lace, hook, brush, wash, wipe, embrace, etc., etc.
Intransitive (action remains in subject)		grow, die, smile, laugh, stare, walk, stagger, march, sing, whistle, speak, hum, dance, shout, dine, bark, think, burst, blossom, remain, stand, rise, go, run, breathe, sigh, hesitate, weep, sleep, etc., etc.

Note: Certain verbs may be by nature both transitive and intransitive (incomplete predication).

Impersonals (the subject is it without reference to a specific object):

rain, snow, hail, dawn, lighten, thunder, etc.

ADVERBS

of Manner:		slowly, rapidly, silently, noisily, abruptly, loudly, strongly, weakly, moderately, well, ill, better, worse, otherwise, differently, thus, so, lightly, heavily, etc., etc.
of Place:		here, there, elsewhere, up, down, forward, backward, upstairs, downstairs, etc., etc.
of Time:		always, ever, never, again, still, yesterday, tomorrow,today, now, occasionally, before, afterwards, soon, etc., etc.
of Quantity:		much, little, enough, nothing, more, less, least, most, about, only, too, very, etc.
of Comparison:		more, less, than, etc.
of Affirmation:		yes, certainly, precisely, indeed, surely, assuredly, truly, even, etc.
of Negation:		no, never, not, at all, etc.
of Doubt:		perhaps, perchance, almost, probably, etc.

PREPOSITION

Simple:

of, to, by, from, in, with, on, among, above, through, under, around, beside, behind, save, except, near, next, like, during, off, etc.

Compound (preposition phrases): in place of, out of, away from, as to, on board, with regard to, etc.

PRONOUN

Personal:	subject:	I, thou, he, she, it, we, you, they
	object:	me, thee, him, her, it, us, you, them
Demonstrative:	definite:	this, this one, that, that one, these, those
	indefinite:	one, ones, some, somebody, everyone, each, each one, no one, nobody, none, nothing, etc.
Relative:	of person:	subject: who, that possessive: whose object: whom, that
	of thing: which, that
	indefinite: whoever, which ever
	compound (antecedent understood): what (that which), whereof, wherewith, etc.
Interrogative:	of person:	who whose whom which
	of thing:	what which

Possessive: mine, yours (thine), his, hers, ours, yours, theirs.

CONJUNCTION

Disjunctive: or, or else, otherwise, rather.
Copulative: and, also, too, besides, moreover, further, furthermore, nor, etc.
Adversative: but, nevertheless, notwithstanding, yet, still, while, however, only, on the contrary, instead, etc.
Declarative: namely, in other words, that is, etc.
Relative: that.
Illative: hence, therefore, wherefore, then, accordingly, so, with the result that, etc.
Temporal: while, when, as soon as, after, before, until, till, hardly, etc.
Concessive: though, although, even if.
Purpose (Final): that, in order that, to the end that, etc.
Conditional: if, unless, provided, provided that, etc.
Causal: as, because, for, since, seeing that, etc.
Result: that, so that, etc.
Locative: where, whence, whither, whereto, wherefrom, etc.
Degree and Comparison: as, than.

INTERJECTION

See list already given on pp. [122]-[123].

FOOTNOTES:

[3] Under this heading we include all derivations by suffix: some suffixes change one part of speech into another: love (verb), lovable (adj.), etc.; others, such as diminutives, peggioratives, augmentatives, etc., change the quality of a word's meaning. In adjectives we have suffixes of degree (comparison: -er, -est).

[4] Under this heading we include all words formed by the union of two words or by prefixes.