The mothercraft manual

by Mary L. Read

Development of Language

Children vary naturally, and according to their environment, in the rate of development in use of language. Any effort to hasten the process of talking or vocabulary during the first four or five years is an artificial forcing that is more likely to retard development. The following represents all that should be expected of a normal child.

First six months: crying, gesture language

Second six months: babbling, imitation of sounds, gesture language

One year: three to ten words

One to two years: vocabulary of 100 to 500 words; two-word sentences

Two to three years: 500 to 1500 new words; begins use of pronouns

Three to four years: 500 new words; complete sentences

Four to five years: articulation nearly perfect; interest in rhyming

Five to six years: articulation perfect; inflection of nouns and verbs nearly perfect; interest in nonsense words; use of drawing

Six to nine years: grammar usually correct; interest in puns and in secret language; use of drawing as language expression; imitative interest in symbols of language (alphabet, reading, writing)

Nine to twelve years: genuine interest in language symbols; easily learns reading and writing; with limited vocabulary, slang develops

Physical and Mental Growth and Development

Physical Characteristics	Birth	First Six Months	Second Six Months
Organs rapidly growing		Muscles, bones, brain, viscera	As first 6 months, and teeth
Organs proportionately large	Head, surface, intestines, liver	Head, intestines, liver, surface	”
Organs proportionately small	Stomach, lung capacity, legs	Stomach, lungs, heart, legs	”
Organs proportionately strong in function		Anti-bodies, kidneys	”
Organs proportionately weak in function	Digestive and respiratory systems; tissues flabby	Digestive, respiratory, nervous systems; leucocytes, hemoglobin	”
Dentition	No teeth (rudiments of both sets in jaw)	2 teeth	6-8 teeth
Nerves	Total number of cells but development incomplete	Easily exhausted; peripheral nerves sensitive; sensory and motor centers developing	As first six months; spinal and brain associations connecting
Sense development	No hearing; sight only for light and darkness; touch vague; sensitiveness to temperature	Hearing begins; eyes begin to converge and work together	Color sense, sound, rhythm developing
Special organs or systems at developmental stage, needing much immediate exercise	Lungs	Muscles of arms, legs, trunk, hand; lungs	As first 6 months; muscles of creeping, hand, speech organs
Defects easily acquired	Eyestrain; blindness	Bones misshaped; eyestrain; nerves; disposition	As first six months
Defects easily overcome	Phimosis temperament;	Bones; phimosis; tongue-tie, harelip	”
Illness most susceptible	Cold, pneumonia, jaundice, inflammation of navel	Digestive, pulmonary; rickets; nervous disorders, erysipelas	”
Most common immediate causes of death[2]	Congenital debility; syphilis; prematurity, accidents	Congenital debility, digestive disturbances, pneumonia, whooping cough, bronchitis, convulsions, measles, meningitis	”
Nature and rate of mentality	Vague, indefinite, slow, groping	Slow, vague, diffused	More definite, alert, quickened
Motor activities	Chiefly reflex	Grasping, waving arms, hands; kicking; few vocal sounds	Sitting, creeping standing, prattle
Sense activity	Slight, vague	Touch, sight, hearing becoming active	Sight, touch, hearing, active
Attention	None	Begins in staring, handling	Listening, examining
Perception	”	Dimly begins	Vague
Curiosity	”	Begins, vague	Objects in reach, opening doors, pulling; exploring cupboards
Imitation	”	Of moods and vocal sounds of adults	Mechanical, of vocal sounds, moods, facial expression
Memory	Slight	Faint, vague; motor	For familiar acts and faces, responses to his crying
Imagination	None	Glimmerings	Glimmerings
Reasoning	”	Dawning, by association	By association, increasing
Social instincts	”	Egoistic, strong; trustful, responsive to care	Trust, desire for companionship of adults
Sense of law	”	Vaguely sensed, as association of cause and effect; and in rhythm of regular regimen	Developed through regular regimen and beginnings of obedience, especially to direct commands
Emotions	Slight, vague	Fear, sympathy, confidence, satisfaction, anger	Control weak but susceptible to training
Sense of humor	None	None; smiling begins	Shown in surprise, plays, laughing
Will	”	Temperamental expression	Persistent; shown in temper
Religion	”	Begins in trust, dependence	Human sympathy, confidence, obedience

Physical Characteristics	Second Year	Third Year	Fourth Year
Organs rapidly growing	Brain, teeth, muscles, bones, viscera	Trunk, brain, teeth	Upper arm, thigh; brain still increasing; bones
Organs proportionately large	Intestines, liver, kidneys, arteries, head, surface	As second year	As second year
Organs proportionately small	Legs, lungs, heart	”	Lungs, legs, heart
Organs proportionately strong in function		Heart, fundamental muscles	As third year
Organs proportionately weak in function	As first year	Eyes, hands, fingers, legs, nerves, digestive, respiratory	As third year
Dentition	6 teeth cut	Completion of first set
Nerves	Motor coördinations developing, association centers developing	Sensory-motor coördinations forming	Sensory keen, motor coördinations rapidly developing (fundamental)
Sense development	Hearing discriminate; touch becoming keen, sight definite, focused	Touch, muscular, sight, sound; increasing discrimination	Increasing keenness, discrimination
Special organs or systems at developmental stage, needing much immediate exercise	Muscles of walking, forearm, hand; speech, sight, touch, hearing; teeth	Trunk, back, arms, legs, hands, speech, senses, teeth, respiratory	Arms, legs, trunk; sensory-motor coördinations; sensory nerves; teeth; lungs
Defects easily acquired	Bones; teeth, speech, nerves, disposition	Bones, teeth, speech, nerves	Eyes, bones, speech, nerves, teeth
Defects easily overcome	Bones; cleft palate, temperament	Bones, teeth, speech, eyes	Eyes, bones, speech, teeth
Illness most susceptible to	Digestive, respiratory; ears, throat, nerves; scurvy, rickets	Digestive, respiratory; ears, throat, infectious fevers	Digestive, respiratory; measles, scarlet fever, whooping cough, colds
Most common immediate causes of death	Digestive disturbances, croup, pneumonia, diptheria, bronchitis, tuberculosis, measles, meningitis	Period of low death rate; pneumonia, tuberculosis, croup, diptheria, meningitis, scarlet fever	Low death rate; Pneumonia, diptheria, croup, tuberculosis, meningitis
Nature and rate of mentality	Gaining in definiteness, slow	Impulsive, flitting, slow	Active, slow
Motor activities	Alertness, but inefficient Runs, throws	Increasing coördination of legs, arms, eye, and hand	Quiet games preferred to active; dawdling; spontaneous
Sense activity	Keen, especially touch. Acquiring discrimination	Handling, listening; sight, touch, sound discrimination	At best, most active
Attention	Increasing	Flitting, concentration increased in doing	Voluntary—weak Involuntary—strong
Perception	Gaining clearness, definiteness	Still vague, but becoming definite	Still vague, improving
Curiosity	Insatiable; objects in environment	Varied; names; animals; mechanical processes	Insatiable
Imitation	Constant, of adult actions, voice	Adult actions, speech, moods	Chiefly adult occupations, less impulsive; literal
Memory	For names of things; emotions, simple movements	Verbal and motor good; emotions	Verbal, motor and emotional strong
Imagination	Slightly increasing	Concrete, vivid	Auditory and motor images more distinct than visual; concrete
Construction	Building	Persistent, for motor activity	For activity, immediate use
Reasoning	By association of experiences	By association of experiences	By association; ludicrous inferences; guessing period
Social instincts	Increasing sense of ownership	Social dependence on an adult; slight play with other children	Self-assertive; selfish; quarrels over property
Sense of law	Discerned in regularity of régime: in commands, rewards, punishments	Dim: susceptible to training; sense of ownership developing	Disorderliness; imaginative tales taken for lying
Emotions	Trust, fear, anger	Love, fear, anger easily stirred; little control	Easily aroused, keen; pity begins; imaginary fears
Sense of humor	In surprises, in tumbles	In grotesque situations, being caught, hiding	Persistent; crude; in grotesque
Will	Vacillating, temperamental	Little control	Unreasonable; persistent
Religion	Respect for parents, trust. Obedience to parents	Obedience, trust, respect for authority	Animistic; invests inanimate things with life

Physical Characteristics	Fifth Year	Sixth Year	Later Childhood 6-9 years
Organs rapidly growing	See 4th year	Legs, arms, chest girth	Motor cells in brain. Period of slower physical growth; cessation of rapid brain growth
Organs proportionately large	Surface, intestines, kidneys, arteries	As 5th year	Digestive system, liver, kidneys, surface, legs
Organs proportionally small	As 4th year	As 4th year	Trunk, heart, lungs
Organs proportionately strong in function	Digestive and respiratory ability increasing	Digestive and respiratory ability increasing	Leg muscles
Organs proportionally weak in function	Accessory muscles and nerves; eyes, fingers, throat	As 5th year	Heart; low blood pressure; teeth
Dentition		Sheds some first teeth	2nd dentition
Nerves	Association fibres rapidly developing; see 4th year	As 5th year	Rapid growth of association fibres in brain; easily fatigued in 8th year
Sense Development	Keen development	Senses correlated; finer discrimination	Eyes developed for finer work
Special organs or systems at developmental stage, needing much immediate exercise	As 4th year	As 4th year	Muscles of arms, legs, trunk Muscles of forearm, 8 years. Muscles of fingers, 9-10 years
Defects easily acquired	”	”	Spinal curvature, defective teeth speech disorders, eyestrain
Defects easily overcome	”	”	Speech disorders
Illness most susceptible	Digestive, respiratory, ears, diphtheria, rheumatism, measles, scarlet fever	As fifth year	Infectious diseases, rheumatism, nervousness, anemia, digestive disturbances; illness increases 8th year
Most common immediate causes of death	Period of low death rate As 4th year	Period of low death rate As 4th year	Low mortality; pneumonia, tuberculosis, diphtheria, croup, measles, kidney and heart disease
Nature and rate of mentality	Steadier, quicker, more alert	More definite, alert, quicker	Hesitating, impulsive, restless
Motor activities	Increasing coördinations, rhythmic movements, skipping	Increasing correlation. Steadier action, marching, dancing	Finger movements stronger, more precise; actions not well coördinated
Sense activity	Finer discriminations; notices sound, color	Improvising on piano; eagerness to color; tasting	Senses become practically perfected; sensory interest weaker
Attention	Voluntary—weak; involuntary-strong	Purposive inattention; keener concentration in play	Flitting; lack of endurance, application
Perception	Clearer, many groups	Clearer	Truer to realities, more distinct; differentiates between real and imagined
Curiosity	Intense (see 4th year)	Physical properties; processes; causes; birth	Asks “What is it for?” Wider range of interests
Imitation	Dramatic, of adult activities, animals; literal	Dramatic; adults’ activities, animals; less literal	Decreasing, imitates idea rather than action
Memory	Verbal, strong; learns nonsense, poetry	Verbal, strong; poetry, stories; motor, emotional, strong	Literal, increasing in ability
Imagination	Strong visual, lives in imagination; invents stories	As 5th year; fanciful tales of personal experience	Less fanciful; related more to facts and needs of life
Construction	Follows idea; for activity, use, æsthetic interest	Things for use; æsthetic interest	Begins to be creative; interest begins in finish, workmanship
Reasoning	See 4th year, reasons by analogy; attempts arguing	As 5th year	Little use for explanations or logic
Social instincts	Prefers child to adult; love of emulation; selfish; ownership	Self-sufficiency; homesickness; begins group play	Group play, circle games; slight respect for property rights
Sense of law	No sense of property rights; disobedience increases	As 5th year. Increasing; rigid, literal	Expects to be held to law and consequences; respects power that requires obedience
Emotions	See 4th year; jealousy; fears animals; imaginary fears	Degree of control	Increasing control, reserve
Sense of humor	See 4th year. Drawings, practical jokes	As 5th year. Silliness	Incongruities of action; play on words; disasters
Will	Increasing force	As 5th year	Vacillating
Religion	Wonder in nature; reverence; prayer; obedience	As 5th year; imitative interest in formal worship	Period of ceremony, forms, rites Animistic tendency weakening

Physical Characteristics	Youth Girls, 9-12 years Boys, 9-13 years	Early Adolescence Girls 12-16 years Boys 13-18 years
Height	Slow growth; girls more rapid than boys	Rapid increase (Girls, 11-14) (Boys, 13-17)
Weight	Slow growth	Rapid increase ” ”
Organs rapidly growing	Legs, arms	Trunk, legs, arms, lungs, reproductive organs, heart, liver, kidneys; proportions changing
Organs proportionately large	Arteries	Hands, feet, arms, legs
Organs proportionately small	Heart, trunk arteries	Trunk, internal organs,
Organs proportionately strong in function	Muscles, legs, eyes	Heart, lungs; blood pressure high; muscles, fundamental and accessory
Organs proportionately weak in function	Heart, lungs; blood pressure; elimination	Nerves; internal organs, elimination; motor coördinations because of change in bodily proportions
Dentition	Complete (except wisdom teeth)
Nerves	Reactions vigorous	Under strain; easily unbalanced
Sense development	Complete, including eyes	Senses keen
Special organs or systems at developmental stage, needing much immediate exercise	Muscles of trunk, forearm, fingers; motor adjustments; lungs	Muscles of trunk, arms, legs, fingers; lungs
Defects easily acquired	Spinal curvature, eyestrain; precocious sex development	Of reproductive system; shallow breathing
Defects easily overcome	Bones, teeth	Bones, lung capacity
Illness most susceptible	Anemia, rheumatism, heart weakness, nervousness; period of low morbidity	Anemia, nervousness, malnutrition; tuberculosis (girls); increased morbidity
Most common immediate causes of death	Period of low mortality. Pneumonia, tuberculosis, diphtheria and croup, heart and kidney diseases, accidental drownings	Pneumonia, tuberculosis, kidney and heart disease, accidental drownings
Nature and rate of mentality	Direct, alert; more orderly, controlled	Well coördinated, more abstract, logical, comprehensive; routine irksome
Motor activities	Well coördinated; need much exercise; new adjustments readily made	Muscular awkwardness during growth
Sense activity	Sure, acute, subordinate to thought	Acute; all senses
Attention	Voluntary increasing	Potential voluntary attention strong
Perception	Clearer	Clear
Curiosity	Less keen	Wide range; persistent; craving for larger experience
Imitation	Less marked; of idea rather than action	Of ideals, strong; originality marked; individuality
Memory	Quick, sure, lasting; period of rote learning	At best; logical
Imagination	Clear, creative	Vivid, comprehensive, creative; works for remote ends
Construction	Constructs for purpose; interest in workmanship, skill	Interest in technique, use, æsthetic qualities
Reasoning	Immature; by analogy or suggestion; logic premature	Logical, abstract; mental speculation
Social instincts	Less sympathy with adults, more with companions; competition increases	Strong sympathies; group loyalty; altruism; sex instincts developing
Sense of law	Increasing through games; contempt for artificial laws, customs; less submissive to authority	Conscience keen; marked lawlessness or law abiding; restive of restraint
Emotions	Weaker; fears increase; sex consciousness developing	Keen, subjective, whimsical; shyness and bashfulness; romantic love develops
Sense of humor	Keen, expressed in teasing, practical jokes, puns	Strong; riddles, puns
Will	Self-will increasing; tendency to vacillation, inertia	Self-will strong; potential will power
Religion	Conscience weak; reverence weak; religious indifference; formal interest in religious ceremonies, forms	Deep religious feeling or irreverence Idealism; mysticism; altruism. Conversion period

The tables of physical characteristics are based upon the work of Vierordt, Uffelmann, Schmid-Monnard, Pfaundler and Schlossmann. Holt, Kerley; the tables of mental characteristics upon the studies of G. Stanley Hall, John Dewey, Earl Barnes, and their disciples, and the summaries of Kirkpatrick, Tanner, Taylor, Tracy. The author’s personal experience with children, as a medium for developing these data into a composite grouping, has been supplemented by the criticisms and suggestions of individual physicians, biologists, and psychologists. The subject deserves much additional research in the comparative study of children.