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The Clays and Tools
HOW TO MAKE POTTERY
CHAPTER I
THE CLAYS AND TOOLS
Clay is what might be called the drift of the rocks of ages past. Most stone consists mainly of silica and alumina. In some bygone age, the potash and other alkalies, under the action of heat, fused these materials into rock. Potash is affected by the atmosphere, so it gradually left the rock, which decomposed, and the many particles, the fine refuse, after various changes became clay. Perfectly pure clay, or hydrated silicate of alumina, is found where some granites and other felspar-bearing rocks have decomposed. In the course of years, the clays, especially those on the surface, gathered impurities. Black clay, for example, which is found at the top of the bed, contains a large per cent. of carbon, formed by decayed leaves and twigs—like coal or peat. Strange to say, this burns whiter than any other pottery clay. It contains more potash than the other clays, and fires at a lower heat. The different proportions in which certain minerals are found in clays determine their plastic or non-plastic, fusible or refractory character. Potters have not been able to agree as to the reason for the plasticity of clay. Some believe that the silica gives it plasticity; others that it is due to the water inherent in the clay (which is called the water of combination), and give as their reason for the belief the fact that burned clay loses its plasticity, never to get it again. Yet water alone does not make every clay plastic: other ingredients are sometimes necessary. The early potter used the clay just as it came from the ground, but when he began to bake it in the fire he found that tempering materials were necessary. Sand was often added to make it easier to handle, and coarse, sharp pieces of shell or rock helped to prevent the clay from cracking, by lessening the shrinkage.
Later, as the art advanced, the value of certain materials in regulating the fusible and refractory qualities of the natural clay were recognised. There is in clays the play of melting and non-melting substances. Flint and alumina are hard, and uphold the clay in the fierce fire of the kiln; potash and soda make it soft and fusible. It is believed that the value of ground flint in pottery was not discovered until late in the seventeenth century. The story is that a certain potter travelling on horseback was delayed on account of an inflammation of his horse’s eyes. An ostler, wishing to help him out of his difficulty, took a flint from the road, and, after putting it in the fire until it was red-hot, threw it into cold water. It broke into pieces, pure white, which were easily powdered and applied to the animal’s eyes. Delighted as the potter was with the cure of his horse, the discovery of a white, infusible material for his pottery pleased him still more.
The combination of iron and lime in a clay forms a natural flux. For example: Fire-clay, which is quite refractory but which contains a small per cent. of iron, will, by the addition of a proportion of whiting (lime), become more fusible. Iron and lime in larger quantities are found in the clay which is made into red ware—flower-pots, red bricks, and other common articles. The large per cent. of iron gives it its red colour. It does not make as strong a ware as other clays. This red ware, which fires at the lowest heat, we will classify as Group I. To Group II. belongs the yellow or Rockingham ware. This fires at a light-orange heat, from 1,800 to 2,000 degrees Fahrenheit. It is often finished with a dark-brown glaze. Mixing-bowls and other kitchen ware come under this group. Group III. contains the buff or cream ware, usually made of fire-clays. This hardens at an intense heat, from 2,200 to 2,500 degrees Fahrenheit. In this group is the fine pottery. Art pottery comes under this head. Group IV. is the buff or cream ware, fired at white heat and beyond. This is the stoneware. On account of the great heat at which it is fired, it is possible to use only certain colours in the glazes. They are limited to gray, brown, green and blue. Ox-blood has been obtained in this ware, but it is uncertain. Claret-and vinegar-jugs and butter-crocks come in this group. Group V. is the white or tableware, and Group VI. the translucent ware or porcelain, made of kaolin, the purest grade of clay. Felspar makes it meltable and translucent, and, to give it plasticity, a small proportion of ball or fire-clay is added.
Pottery clay differs from modelling clay in that it has more stiffening, so to speak. It is not so plastic, but, on the other hand, it will stand the heat of the kiln, which the other will not. The addition of whiting or felspar to modelling clay will give the needed stiffness. A pottery clay suitable for the work one can produce in one’s kiln must be so arranged as to harden at the degree of heat at which the kiln fires. Practically, we shall have little to do with any but the blue or ball clay and fire-clay. These are the best for pottery which is to be beautiful as well as useful. It is possible, of course, to use the flower-pot clay, and, perhaps, if one can easily obtain this clay, and is near enough to a pottery where the red ware is fired—so that one’s pieces can conveniently be sent there—it might be wiser to use it than to buy finer clays that come from a great distance, and then be obliged to send one’s pottery to a far-away kiln for firing.
The flower-pot ware is not strong, however, and fine glazes cannot be used upon it, so that, if possible, clay that will fire at a greater heat should be chosen. A mixture of fire-clay and ball or blue clay will give good results, and the pieces made with it may be sent to the nearest art pottery or to a kiln where stoneware is fired. Having once found a good clay, potters rarely change. In fact, this feeling is so strong with some that it amounts almost to a superstition. A potter who has obtained a clay that is satisfactory in a certain State will always send to the same State and bed for that clay, no matter how far he may be from it, nor how nearly the clay in his own State may come to the analysis of that which he has used.
The clay is, of course, brought from the clay beds in caked masses. It should be kept out of doors, for the wind and weather are good for it. In preparing it, the great lumps are pounded up fine and put through a sieve in which there are thirty to forty meshes to the inch. It is now ready for soaking. A common mistake is to pour water upon the clay in its rock state and then employ a boy or spend one’s own time kneading it into condition. The more simple and practical process is to sift it as already described, and then add the powdered clay to the water. In this way, each particle is wet at once, and in much less time the clay is ready for use. If it proves that too much water has been provided, pour off some after the clay is well mixed, and, if it is still too moist, spread it upon plaster slabs in the air; which will soon dry it sufficiently—the plaster itself absorbing much of the surplus moisture.
It is often possible, at slight expense, to obtain the clay already sieved and mixed from a pottery, and this is, of course, an advantage.
Keep your clay in a large earthern crock in which a little water has first been poured. Make deep holes with the thumb and pour water into them. Cover with a damp cloth and then with the earthen top. When the clay dries out so much that it is difficult to mould, let it dry thoroughly and pound it to a powder on a strong bench or table with an old flat-iron. It may then be re-mixed, as already described.
When ready to begin work, take a good-sized lump of clay, say about ten pounds; pound and knead it upon a table. Then draw a strong wire through it at the middle, dividing it in halves. Press the two outer surfaces together, kneading out the air-holes, which will be found on the inner surfaces. This process repeated a number of times will finally expel all the air-bubbles and leave the clay in good condition for moulding. Clay that is to be used on the wheel will need to be much more thoroughly kneaded than that for hand-moulded or built pottery.
Tools
Boxwood modelling tools are useful for the hand-moulded pottery and for decoration. One
pointed tool, like a sharpened pencil (see Fig. 1), and another double-ended one, with points that are more flattened and rounded (see Fig. 2), will be enough to start with. One should also have a double-ended steel tool with pointed knife-ends (see Fig. 3), for incising and other decorative work. A steel tool with narrow, flattened ends (see Fig. 4) is necessary for cutting away the background to leave the design in low relief.
The tools for use with the potter’s wheel are mostly of thin steel, and may easily be cut from a sheet of steel which one can buy of a dealer in hardware. There should be an oval shape, two and a quarter by four inches, and another of the same size and shape with the edges cut in saw-teeth (see Fig. 5). There should also be a tool with one straight side and the other curved (see Fig. 6), and a rectangular one about two by four inches. A hoe-shaped tool of steel (see Fig. 7) is indispensable for working on the wheel, as is a slender point of steel, an inch and a quarter long, set in a wooden handle (see Fig. 8), and a piece of stout wire. A rubber polisher, the size and shape of the oval tool of sheet steel, will also be found useful. These may be bought of dealers in potters’ tools. A sponge, a ground-glass slab about a foot square, a rolling-pin, and sandpaper are also essential.
Round and square slabs of plaster of paris should be provided upon which to put the pieces of pottery while they are being formed. These may be bought or cast in moulds, according to the directions in Chapter VII.
Hand-made Pottery
CHAPTER II
HAND-MADE POTTERY
It is quite important that the potter should have a workshop—be it ever so small—which clay-dust and water will not harm. A light, dry cellar is a good place, or an outbuilding, if one lives in the country. The sense of freedom which comes from working in this way is a help in accomplishing good results. Protected by a long-sleeved apron and in such a place, one need not have a care for clothes or carpets. A stout old table, one or two chairs, and possibly a shelf, upon which to put the finished pottery—with these, and the potter’s wheel and bench (see Chapter III.), one will be well equipped. This is taking for granted that one has been able to buy one’s clay ready mixed. Otherwise there must be a tub for mixing the clay, and a sieve (see Chapter I.). In addition to the clay and the tools already mentioned in Chapter I., a pitcher of water will be needed, and a bowl for the “slip,” or clay thinned with water to the consistency of very thick cream. The potter is now ready for work.
Small pieces of pottery, such as dishes and candlesticks, may be moulded with the hands from a single piece of clay (see Chapter VI.); but, for larger pieces, the strong and simple Indian process of building up with coils of clay is more satisfactory. This may be done in a variety of ways. Either the piece is formed by coiling the strips of clay within a mould, as described in Chapters VI. and VII., or by building it up by eye, assisted by a cardboard outline (see plate), or it may be formed entirely by eye, like the rose-bowl with a moth design in Chapter VI. The first method, while it is the simplest, is not the best to begin with, for one relies too much upon the mould, and unconsciously uses it too often, instead of training one’s eye to make a true and beautiful form. The second method—testing the form with a pasteboard outline as the piece is built—will be the best to start with. Having decided upon the shape he wishes to make, the potter draws it in outline (natural size) upon a piece of cardboard. It will be wise to choose a form as nearly like a cylinder as possible; for example, a jar for flowers. The outline sketch is divided by a vertical line ruled exactly through its centre. Another straight line, parallel with the first, is drawn three inches to the right of it. The outline is then cut out (see Fig. 9) so as to make a guide for the contour of the jar. A flat, round piece of clay, about five inches in diameter and half an inch thick, is now moulded and placed in the centre of a plaster tile. In the middle of this piece, a circle, two and three-quarters inches in diameter, is drawn with a tool. A lump of clay, which has been well worked to get out all air-holes, is rolled on the table with the palms of the hands (near the base of the thumb) lightly, yet with sufficient push to make the clay revolve wholly each time. If the roll flattens from too hard pressure, pat it into circular form, and continue to roll it until it is of even thickness—about an inch in diameter. It is then flattened evenly, one end is cut into a long point, and the coil is started on edge, narrow side up, on the circle drawn upon the clay bottom, which has previously had lines criss-crossed upon it back and forth with a steel tool, to insure the first coil’s clinging to it. To make this even more certain, a touch of slip is brushed lightly here and there over the edge of the circle. While the thumb and middle finger, on either side of the coil, support it, the forefinger presses it down firmly on to the bottom all the way around (see plate). It is so much easier to flare the walls of one’s piece than to make them straight, or bring them in, that they should be kept as nearly vertical as possible, especially in starting. When the circuit has been made, cut the end of the clay strip into a long, flat point which will fit evenly in with the one at the beginning of the coil, and press the edges together with the flat of the nail of finger or thumb. This is also done where the edges of the coil come against the bottom, outside and in. Quick, firm, yet short strokes of the nail up and down join the edges. In putting on the second row, no marking with the tool is necessary—only to brush it with slip. After the second row is added, the jar is put out in the air for half an hour or so, until it has stiffened a little. This is supposing that the potter is working at a time when the clay will not freeze. When the weather is cold, the piece must be left to stiffen indoors, as pottery that has once frozen is useless. The inside of the bottom and walls are then smoothed with great care, for, as it is to be a tall jar, this must be done before the walls get too high. Two more rows of coiling are now added as before, testing the shape by pressing the cardboard outline close against it all around the circumference. After this, the jar is again put out in the air for half an hour or so. This method is continued until the jar is built up.
BUILDING A PIECE OF POTTERY
1. Making the First Coil
2. Testing the Outline
3. Continuing the Piece
Should the walls become weak and insecure from working them too rapidly, let them dry for a longer time, several hours or over night, before finishing. Test the shape constantly with the cardboard outline. When the jar is as high as the drawing, or even a quarter to half an inch higher, let it dry over night. It should then be smoothed with an oval steel tool, which has a saw-toothed edge (see Fig. 5), to take the worst unevenness off. The tool is bent to fit the shape of the jar and held at right angles with it, smoothing it with short strokes in different directions. This is done inside and out. The hollows are also filled in. To do this, wet the spot first with slip and fill in with clay as nearly the consistency of that in the jar as possible. The sides are then made perfectly even with the oval tool with smooth edges, holding it as the saw-toothed tool was held. When there are no hollows or ridges and the walls are about a quarter of an inch thick, the surface of the jar is smoothed with a damp sponge and polished with the fingers and thumb inside and out, taking care in handling it not to hold it by the edge, but rest it in the hollowed hand. Should it have become very dry, as it will in a comparatively short time in warm weather, so that it is light-gray in colour, it will be wise to smooth it with sandpaper instead of with the sponge, as in this state even a little water may cause it to crack. One cannot learn too soon, or have too often impressed upon one’s mind, the risk of adding wet clay to a piece of pottery that is much drier. The natural shrinkage which has already taken place in the dry clay will be repeated in the wet, and, as it shrinks, it will crack the drier clay. Cracks in clay are of two kinds—those caused by shrinkage of the unbaked or green clay, and those that come from cooling too rapidly in the biscuit or baked clay. The former can usually be mended satisfactorily, but for the latter there is no remedy; the piece is spoiled.
To mend a crack in clay that is only partially dry, put a little slip into the crack and then work in, with a modelling tool, clay of the consistency of the piece. If, after drying longer, the piece cracks again—a long, deep crack, that goes through to the inside—there is no way to mend it except by cutting the clay out on either side for quite a space beyond the crack, brushing both sides with slip, and filling in with clay as nearly as possible the consistency of the piece. This is pressed in in small bits, little by little, until the gap is filled. If it should crack again in small, short places, fill them with dry, powdered clay, pressed in and moulded with a steel tool.
In case of the piece cracking when it is bone dry—that is, after it has dried for several days and is pale-gray in colour—grind some pieces of baked clay to a fine powder, add enough water to make a soft, yellow paste, and fill the cracks with it.
The edge of the jar is cut as even as possible with a tool, and then made perfectly true by the following method: A little water is poured on a ground-glass slab, and the jar, held bottom up, is moved firmly but rapidly round and round on the wet surface, and then quickly taken up (by sliding it off at the edge of the slab) before it clings to the glass. The bottom must now be finished. The jar is first placed bottom up on a slab or table, then a circle is drawn with a pencil at about half an inch from the edge of the bottom. This is outlined with the pointed steel tool, and the bottom within the circle is evenly and carefully cut out with strokes of the oval, smooth-edged tool, so that the outside ring shall form a ridge not over one-sixteenth of an inch above the depressed interior of the circle. The potter now cuts his initial or mark, which is made in as simple lines as possible, into the bottom with firm, deep strokes. If the jar is not very dry, a wooden modelling tool may be used for this. Otherwise, the pointed steel tool is chosen. Care should be taken not to cut under the edge in making these incised lines. The edges should instead be bevelled, so that, when the glaze is put on, it will flow more freely over them.
If possible, this jar, being large, should be fired in the biscuit—that is, before it is glazed, and then again after it has been glazed; unless one is obliged to send it a long distance to be fired, so that more than one firing is impracticable, in which case it must, of course, be glazed on the unbaked clay.
A pale green glaze (see directions in Chapter V.) will complete it.
In packing to send pieces to a far-off kiln by express, use a wooden box, and, after lining it with newspaper, wrap the pieces in soft paper, and pack them carefully in sawdust.
Working on the Wheel
CHAPTER III
WORKING ON THE WHEEL
From Encyclopedia Britannica
Fig. 10
That the primitive potter did not mould his pottery on a wheel we can be reasonably sure. The Egyptians, however, as early as 4000 B. C., used the simplest potter’s wheel, as is proved by fragments of pottery still in existence. This wheel was a small, round table revolving on a pivot (see Fig. 10). The potter set it in motion with his hand, and from time to time gave it a spin to keep it revolving. The same wheel is used to this day in many parts of India. An improvement on this simple contrivance was made in Egypt under the Ptolemies. A larger circular table was fixed lower down on the same axis. This the potter set and kept in motion with his foot, leaving his hands free at all times to mould the clay, while the wheel was kept at a regular speed.
What is technically known as “throwing” or moulding pottery on the wheel is a process that is not learned in a moment, or even in a day. It takes time and patience, but it is certainly one of the most fascinating parts of the craft. One would have lost half of the charm of pottery-making who had not felt the plastic clay, on the potter’s wheel, rise and fall between his hands, almost as if endowed with life!
The rapidity with which pieces can be formed on the wheel is an advantage over other processes, while the regularity of shape, refinement and perfection of finish give wheel-made pottery a beauty all its own. Until lately, few women potters have worked on the wheel, because the ordinary form of potter’s wheel, which was turned with one foot, the potter standing on the other, made the work too difficult and laborious for a woman to attempt. Now, however, a wheel copied from an old French model is in use which enables the potter to sit while at work. This is the wheel shown in Fig. 11. It is obtainable from makers of potters’ tools. The cost of such a wheel, with an iron top and shaft, and wooden flywheel made of three thicknesses of boards, is eighteen dollars, but second-hand wheels can sometimes be bought for much less. When the wheel is set up, the shaft box (a square box below the upper wheel) is fastened to the edge of a strong table or shelf, which has been placed in a good light. A seat which slants forward, not unlike a reading-desk in form, is made of wood (see Fig. 11), and set up near enough to the wheel for a person sitting on it to reach the wheel comfortably. It is braced by a board on either side extending diagonally forward, from the leg of the seat to the floor, and by a board fastened on the right of the top of the seat and reaching to the table. Under the table a foot-rest, roughly made of boards, is needed.
At first, it will be wise to learn how to set the wheel in motion. Suppose we practice this a few times before beginning to mould. When one is seated on the inclined bench, the left foot on the rest, the right foot starting just below the body, near the outer edge of the wheel, swings the flywheel from right to left. The point of the foot is used for this. Four or five vigorous turns are given, and then the foot, swinging nearer the iron shaft, gives five or six more pushes to the flywheel, and is placed on the foot-rest. Expert potters can turn with the foot while the hands are busy moulding, but we who are beginners will do wisely to start the wheel revolving, then, keeping both feet on the rest, give all our attention to the hand-work, until the slower revolutions warn us that it is time to give the wheel another start. One caution should be given, and it may not be out of place here: Do not work too long a time at the wheel. Half or three-quarters of an hour’s steady work at a time will be enough. After that, leave it for half an hour and you will not get physically or nervously tired; besides, the work will go much better. Have your tools and a bowl of thin slip within easy reach as you sit at the wheel.
In beginning your piece, a lump of clay, say about two pounds, well worked, is made into a ball. Wet the top of the wheel, then rub it off so as to leave the wheel just moist enough for the clay to stick, but not slippery, so that it will slide. The lump of clay, held in both hands, is then thrown firmly on to the centre of the wheel. The bottom of the lump should be well down on the wheel, and it is most important to have it exactly in the centre. The hands are wet with slip, which is also rubbed over the lump of clay with both hands so that it is thoroughly moist.
The wheel is now set in motion as already described, and when it is well started, and both feet are up on the rest, the hands held one on either side of the clay starting close to the wheel, move slowly up the sides of the lump, drawing it up into a cone shape. The elbows should be well braced against the sides of the body, so as to hold the hands absolutely steady, for they should never waver or swing with the wheel, but hold true and firm. If the mass is not exactly in the centre of the wheel, or the cone shape is not even, the hands are again wet with slip, a few drops of which are shaken on to the clay. The thumbs are laid together, and the hands at the bases of the thumbs are pressed firmly down on the clay (as the wheel turns), pressing it again into mound shape. The hands and clay are wet once more, and the wheel started. The clay is now pressed up again into the cone form, taking great care to have the pressure even and slow. The hands should move, after each revolution, not more than a quarter of an inch. When a good cone shape is made exactly in the middle of the wheel, the piece is “centred.” In order to prove that the cone is absolutely in the centre, set the wheel going, brace the arms against the body, and, steadying the right hand with the left, move the forefinger of the right closer and closer to the cone, until it all but touches it. If the figure hits in any one place, that will prove that the cone is not centred, and it must be pressed again into mound shape as already described, but if it just clears it all the way round, the potter proceeds to the next step.
The thumbs, held close together above the clay, are aimed at the exact centre of it, and their ends pressed firmly but lightly in, while the wheel revolves once or twice. This is to mark the centre. The next step is to hollow out the piece. This is also done with the thumbs. The hands and clay being wet with slip, and the wheel started well, the fingers inclose the outer walls of the piece, while the thumbs are pressed into the centre of the clay firmly and decidedly down to within less than half an inch from the bottom. This is something that the potter learns to know almost by instinct—how close he can come to the top of the wheel and yet leave a bottom thick enough to trim and finish.
A form as nearly cylindrical as possible will be the simplest to begin with. Suppose one wishes to make a jar of the shape shown in Fig. 12. The next step is to make the walls of equal thickness, hollowing the bottom more. To do this, the elbows are braced against the sides, and the fingers placed in the position shown in Fig. 13. This is one of the ways in which the hands are made to support each other and work in unison. The different placings of the hands, to accomplish various results, are known as potter’s grips. In this one, the right hand, which remains outside the piece (lying close against it), supports the left by the thumb which rests against it, the forefinger of the right hand having previously been coiled around its thumb (see Fig. 13). The middle finger of the left hand lies against the wall of the piece inside. The piece is thus supported outside and in by a hand.
Starting at the bottom, as the wheel turns, the hands, held steady and firm, rise slowly with each revolution of the wheel. The right presses more than the left, hollowing the bottom and walls of the piece. Slowly, slowly, the hands rise, until the top is reached. If the shape is not quite true, the hands start in the same position at the bottom and again go up, pressing hardest when pressure is needed, and going lightly where it is not necessary to alter the shape. Another position of the hands (see [Fig. 14]) may be used to press the clay into a narrower form. This must be done with great deliberation and care, however, as too much pressure may make a crease in the clay wall which will spoil the piece. When the walls are of even thickness (not more than a quarter of an inch) and the shape about what one wishes, the top must be finished.
First the edge is cut even. We will use for this the tool shown in Fig. 8.
Holding the tool, which has been wet with slip, firmly in the right hand, brace the left by resting the thumb near where the steel is inserted in the wood (see [Fig. 15]). As the wheel turns, lay the left forefinger, wet with slip, just inside the top of the piece, and directly opposite (at the point where one wishes to cut the top) run the point of the tool through, till it touches the finger, and hold it steady and firm till one revolution of the wheel has been made. The wheel is then stopped, and the edge that was cut lifted off deftly and quickly.
To soften the edge, hold the forefinger and middle finger of the right hand apart (see [Fig. 16]). Wet their inner surfaces thoroughly with slip, then, as the wheel revolves, hold them straight and firm (while the left hand steadies the wrist of the right) and press the rounded joining of the two fingers gently but firmly down on the top of the piece, holding it there steadily till one or two whole revolutions of the wheel have been made. If one wishes to have a more flaring top, lay the forefinger of the right hand inside the edge with ever so slight an outward pressure, while the wheel turns once. Before perfecting the bottom, it may be as well to let the piece stiffen for half an hour.
The hoe-shaped tool is used for cutting away the extra clay under the bottom. Set the wheel in motion, then take the tool, well moistened with slip, in the left hand. Hold it firmly with its long edge on the top of the wheel (if it is to be a long and gradual slope into the bottom of the jar), while the right hand steadies the top outer angle of the tool. It is then run in under the bottom and there held till one or more revolutions have cut away the surplus clay.
Should one wish to make a more abrupt line up from the bottom, the process is reversed, the right hand holds the tool, the short side of which is laid on the wheel, while the left hand holds the outside top angle, to steady it.
After an hour or two, when the piece has stiffened somewhat, it may be smoothed, and the form refined or improved, if necessary, with the smooth-edged oval tool of sheet steel. When the wheel is in motion, this tool, moistened with water and bent to fit the curves of the piece, is held in the right hand at right angles with the piece, while the left hand supports the wrist of the right. Too abrupt angles may be softened and roughness removed with this tool. Start at the bottom with it, and move it up gradually, with each revolution of the wheel, lightly, except where the form needs much trimming. The rubber polisher, wet with water, is now passed over the surface in the same way, taking care that it is held at right angles with the piece and the hand that holds it is braced by the other. A stout wire held close to the piece on either side is then drawn under it once or twice to prevent its clinging to the wheel.
The next day, or as soon as the piece is stiff, it is removed to a plaster tile. In finishing the bottom, the wheel is first scraped and wiped clean of all clay; the piece is then placed on it bottom up and centred. This is done by putting it as near the middle as possible by eye; then when the wheel is going well, hold the right forefinger or a wooden tool, well braced, close to the piece. See if it touches at any point, and if so, move that side nearer the centre. Roll four short pieces of rather stiff clay. With two of these make supports on the wheel about an inch high, close to the piece on either side to hold it steady—not close enough to cling to it. Two more supports are placed half-way between the first two.
Get the wheel going well, and holding the hoe-shaped tool so that its middle angle will strike the bottom of the piece about half an inch from the edge, aim it truly and hold it steadily till the wheel has made one or more revolutions, which will mark a circle. Within this line depress the bottom slightly by cutting out a thin layer of clay. This is done with the rectangular sheet steel tool held first near the line, then with each revolution nearer the centre till it reaches it. The potter next cuts his mark on the bottom with a wooden tool, if the piece is not very dry, otherwise it should be made with a pointed steel tool, taking care to bevel the edges of the incised lines.
On the left is a pale-green bowl for flowers; beside it, a cream-jug with a gray-green mat-glaze. The flower-jar with two handles is also gray-green, and the nasturtium bowl on the right has a dull blue mat-glaze.
The large fruit-bowl on the left has an incised design of orange leaves near the rim. Beside it is a low dish for candy, with a built-up decoration of rings. A design of maple leaves is incised on the other small dish, and the lamp bowl at the right of the plate has a pierced decoration.
The jar is finished with a handle on each side. Roll out two strips of clay five and a half inches long; flatten them, and trim the edges. Now mark a place on each side of the top of the jar, so that a line drawn from one to the other would exactly divide the top. Make two other marks in the same way at the bottom, directly under those at the top. These are for guides in attaching the handles. Starting at the top, below one of the marks, criss-cross lines with the steel tool for an inch down the side of the jar. Do this on the other side of the jar, and then, starting an inch above the mark on either side of the bottom, cut criss-cross lines for an inch up the side of the jar. Now take one of the clay strips, brush the upper criss-crossed lines on one side of the jar with slip, and press the end of the strip upon it, working the edges close against the side of the jar with the flat of the nail. The other end of the strip is cut in a long point to fit the form of the jar, and bent into the shape shown in the plate. Wet the criss-crossed lines below it with slip, and attach this end in the same way as the first. The other handle is put on in the same manner.
A mat-glaze of gray green (see Chapter V.) will complete the piece.
Such forms as are shown in Figs. 17 and 18 can be made without any difficulty, and they will be most attractive for short-stemmed flowers—violets, sweet peas, or nasturtiums. A cream-jug (see plate) is comparatively simple. The lip is formed with a deft touch of the finger after the piece is moulded, and the handle added afterward. A dull-green mat-glaze will make a charming finish for this piece. The jar shown in Fig. 19 is more difficult to shape, but it is an excellent one for flowers.