Statement of the Provision for the Poor, and of the Condition of the Labouring Classes in a Considerable Portion of America and Europe / Being the preface to the foreign communications contained in the appendix to the Poor-Law Report

by Nassau William Senior

HOLLAND.

As the Canton de Berne appears to be the portion of continental Europe in which the burthen of legal relief is most oppressive, Holland appears to be that in which pauperism, unaided by a legal claim, is the most rapidly advancing. The Appendix contains an official communication from the Dutch government, and answers from His Majesty’s Consul in Amsterdam, to the Commissioners’ questions.

The clearest general view of the mode in which relief is administered, is contained in the following extract from the Consul’s report: (p. 581.)

General view of the Dutch system.

The main support of the poor is derived from religious communities and charitable institutions. Every denomination of Christians, as well as the Jews, relieve their own members; and for this purpose have, for the most part, orphan and poor-houses, and schools connected with them, which are supported by property belonging to them, and by voluntary contributions at the church-doors, and collections at the houses of the members: the Jews being permitted occasionally to make a general collection throughout the city for their own purposes. These establishments, among the Protestants (the most numerous community), are called Deaconries; and they provide not only for the support of their indigent members, but also for their relief in sickness. The deacons, who have the immediate superintendence of the poor, limit the assistance given according to the exigency of the case, which they investigate very narrowly; and by becoming particularly acquainted with the situation of the applicants, are enabled to detect any imposition. The pecuniary relief afforded is very small, and can only be considered as in aid of the exertions of the poor to earn their own support, being limited to a few pence in the week; a weekly donation of 2 florins (or 40d.) being looked upon as one of the largest. In winter, provisions, fuel, and clothing, are given in preference to money. The aged and infirm are admitted into the poor-houses, where, and at the schools, the children are educated, and afterwards put out to different trades, till they are able to provide for themselves. The deacons act gratuitously; and being of the most respectable class of citizens, elected by the churches to that office, the conscientious discharge of it is ensured, and in consequence, malversations seldom take place. The general poor (being inhabitants), including persons who are and are not members of religious communities (Jews excepted), are relieved at their own houses from the revenue of property, long since appropriated to that use, administered by commissioners appointed by the magistrates, and acting without emolument (as is the case with most similar offices in this country), and in aid of which public charitable collections at private houses are permitted, while any eventful deficiency is supplied from the funds of the city; but the relief afforded by these means is very small, and is confined chiefly to bread, with the addition of fuel in winter. Without other resources, therefore, or the assistance of private charity, the claimants could hardly subsist upon what they obtain in this way. By a decree passed in the year 1818, it was enacted, that the domicile of a male pauper is the place of his birth, superseded by the place where he has resided four years and paid taxes; and that of a child, the residence of his father, or of his mother, if a widow. That the domicile of a stranger is the place where he has resided six years; of married women and widows, the place of their husband’s residence; of legitimate minors, that of their fathers’, and of illegitimate, that of their mothers’. This decree, fixing the domicile of paupers for the purpose of obtaining relief, and a subsequent one, by which gratuitous legal advice is allowed them, if they apply for it, implies that they have a claim to support, which can be enforced at law; but as the funds from which this support must be obtained are uncertain, the amount of the relief that can be given depends upon their extent, and it is in fact left at the discretion of the overseers, who have the faculty of withholding it on the proof of bad conduct of the recipients, or when their children do not properly attend the school, or have been neglected to be vaccinated. Those not members of churches are, moreover, admonished to join some religious community, and must promise to do so the first opportunity. The decree above alluded to also regulates the proceedings of one town against another, and of religious and charitable institutions at the same place, in respect to paupers. There are at Amsterdam, besides, a variety of private establishments for the poor of different religious denominations, endowed by charitable persons, in which the poor are relieved in different ways, according to prescribed regulations. In general, the funds of all the public charitable institutions have greatly diminished, while the number of claimants has much increased, which causes frequent and urgent appeals to the public benevolence. In the country, the same system prevails, and the deacons or office-bearers of the churches are often called upon during the winter to assist in the support of indigent labourers with families, till the return of spring enables them to find work; but there are few permanent poor there, except the old and infirm, who are generally boarded in poor-houses in the adjoining town. (p. 582.)

It will be observed that the Consul considers the law which fixes the domicile of a pauper, and entitles him to legal advice, as implying in him a legal right to relief. We understand, however, that no such right is in practice acknowledged. And as a large proportion of the fund for the relief of the poor arises from endowments, the law may fix the legal settlement of every person, that is, his right to participate in the endowments of a particular parish, and allow him legal assistance in establishing it, without giving to him that indefinite claim which exists in those countries in which every person has a right to receive from the public subsistence for himself and his family.

The official report contains the following details respecting the funds from which public relief is afforded: (pp. 573, 574, 575.)

The principle which invariably has been acted on is, that the charge of relieving the poor should in the first place rest on the overseers of the poor of the religious sects in each parish; but when the means of the administration of the poor are not sufficient, they can indiscriminately (without reference to the sect to which such poor belong) apply to the local administration for relief, which, after due investigation, generally grants it, according to the means of the municipal administration, which is regulated by its direction.

Paupers, however, who are not members of any congregation, or any religious sect, in the place where they live and receive relief, or where no ecclesiastical charity for the poor exists, are supported by the municipal administration of the place where they live and obtain their support; for which purpose, in several cities and parishes, a separate administration for the poor is established responsible to the municipal administration; whereas in the remaining cities and parishes such relief is granted either by the burgomaster, or by an overseer of the poor nominated by him.

The hospitals, which in many cities exist, are for the greater part government establishments, which are administered on account of the local magistracy, by a number of directors appointed thereto, in which hospitals all inmates, without any distinction as to religion, are taken in; some of these hospitals are however separate foundations, which exist wholly, or in part, on their own revenues.

Amongst the orphan houses and charities for children and old people, there are several establishments which exist wholly or in part on their own revenues; whereas the remainder are generally the property of particular church administrations of the poor, which in great cities is almost generally the case in orphan houses, or charities for children.

Foundlings and abandoned children, at the charge of the place in which they are abandoned, are provided for in the establishment for children of the society for charitable purposes; by which institution the beggars are also provided for in the establishments appropriated for that purpose, and acknowledged by the government, at the charge of the place where they have a claim for relief.

There exist three local workhouses, one at Amsterdam, one at Middleburgh, and one in the commonalty Nieuwe Pekel A., in the province of Groningen, in which paupers, generally those who apply of their own accord, are taken in, upon condition that they contribute to their support as much as possible by labour: further, there are in several places twenty-one charitable houses of industry, which procure work for paupers who are in immediate want of work, either in the houses of industry, or at their own dwellings.

Besides the before-mentioned institutions, there are also various places, unions, and societies, the intentions of which are to grant relief in some way or other; namely, some for the relief of very indigent poor; others for granting relief to poor lying-in-women; and the commissions or societies which during the winter distribute provisions and fuel.

For the twelve years from 1820 to 1831, the receipts of the administration for the established charity houses, and those of the hospitals, taken on an average for each year, amount together;

			Guilders.
1. The revenues of properties and acknowledged rights			2,461,883	26
2. Proceeds of collections			1,320,551	48
3. Subsidies granted by
a. The parishes	1,779,719	67
b. The provinces of the State	38,642	78
			1,818,362	45
Making	Guilders		5,600,797	19
By which all the disbursements of these institutions are covered.
And if to the above-mentioned sum are added, for the same period of twelve years, the following, viz.:
1. For the local workhouses and charitable houses of industry:
a. Revenues of properties			7,458	50
b. Collections			7,971	63
c. Subsidies of the parishes			99,083	87
2. For the new erected beggars’ workhouses:
a. Daily wages paid by the parish for the beggars placed therein			41,090	40
b. Provincial subsidies			871	49
3. For the society for charitable purposes:
a. Contributions and voluntary donations by individuals			48,893	55
b. Monies for stipulated contracts			208,651	69
Consequently, the whole sum is		Guilders	6,014,818	32

It appears from this statement that rather more than 6,000,000 guilders (equal, at 20d. the guilder, to 500,000l. sterling) has, on an average of the last 12 years, been annually expended on the relief of the poor, being an expense per head, on an average population of 2,292,350, of about 4s. 4¼d.—an expenditure small compared with our own, but very large when compared with the average expenditure of Europe.

The official report does not state the progressive increase of the annual expenditure; but it contains a table of the progressive increase of the number of persons receiving relief, from which we extract the particulars of the 10 years ending with 1831. (p. 580.)

HOLLAND.—Statement of the Number of Persons who have received Relief, or to whom Work has been given, by the Civil or Ecclesiastical Charitable Institutions in North Netherland, during 10 years, from 1822 to 1831 inclusive.

	Population of North Netherland on the 31st Dec.	Institutions for Relief.			INSTITUTIONS FOR GIVING OR PROCURING WORK.												General Total Persons who have received Relief, or to whom Work has been given.	Statement for the Population of North Netherland of 100 Persons.
		Number of Persons relieved by the direction of the Poor-House.	Population of the Hospitals.	Number of Persons.	Number of Persons who have worked in and for the local Workhouses and Charitable Workplaces.			Population of Paupers’ Workhouses.			Population of the Colonies, and Establishments of the Society for Charitable Purposes.					Number of Persons.		Of the Total Number of Persons relieved or maintained by the Institution for granting Support.	Of the Total of Persons by the Institution for providing Work.	Of the general Total of Persons who have participated in the Relief, or to whom Work has been given.
					Fed and lodged in the Institutions.	Those only who have worked in the same, or at their own Houses.	Together.	At Hoorn.	At Veere.	Together, or in the whole.	Poor Families making the number of Persons.	Orphans, Foundlings, or abandoned Children.	Beggars.	Persons, Veterans’ families, making together.	Together, or in the whole.
1822	2,190,171	174,802	20,501	195,303	id.	id.	3,227	750	..	750	1,979	456	300	..	2,735	6,712	202,015	8,914	0,306	9,220
1823	2,219,982	193,633	17,430	211,063	id.	id.	4,358	750	273[10]	1,023	2,295	475	1,053	..	3,823	9,202	220,265	9,507	0,415	9,922
1824	2,253,794	196,786	19,955	216,741	id.	id.	4,271	700	200	900	2,614	1,214	1,061	..	4,889	10,060	226,801	9,617	0,446	10,063
1825	2,281,789	240,400	17,943	222,343	862	2,982	3,844	323	136	459[11]	3,227	2,174	1,377	..	6,778	11,081	233,424	9,744	0,486	10,230
1826	2,296,169	227,501	18,731	246,232	920	3,199	4,119	380	82[12]	462	2,724	2,233	1,581	231	6,769	11,350	257,582	10,724	0,494	11,218
1827	2,307,661	232,426	19,775	252,201	670	4,001	4,671	378[13]	..	378	2,560	2,059	1,763	401	6,783	11,832	264,033	10,929	0,513	11,442
1828	2,329,934	217,343	17,928	235,271	607	4,017	4,624	..	..	..	2,510	2,358	1,826	562	7,256	11,880	247,151	10,098	0,510	10,608
1829	2,427,206	235,771	17,884	253,655	672	4,077	4,749	..	..	..	2,626	2,340	1,942	543	7,451	12,200	265,855	10,450	0,503	10,953
1830	2,444,550	244,503	17,870	262,373	733	4,263	4,996	..	..	..	2,619	2,288	2,111	473	7,491	12,487	274,860	10,733	0,511	11,244
1831	2,454,176	248,380	17,887	266,267	973	4,637	5,610	..	..	..	2,694	2,297	2,406	456	7,853	13,463	279,730	10,849	0,549	11,398

OBSERVATIONS.

General Observations.—Although the persons who have only worked in or for the charitable work-places, and are not lodged or fed in them, are probably already included amongst the number of those who have been relieved by the direction of the Poor-house; it was, however, thought proper not to exclude them from this Table, because the expenses of procuring work belong likewise to these persons.

[10] This being the first year in which the establishment at Veere was opened.

[11] This decrease is occasioned by the removal of able paupers to the Ommerschans.

[12] This establishment was done away with on the 20th June, and the able paupers were removed to the Ommerschans, and the invalid paupers to Hoorn.

[13] This establishment was done away with on the 15th October, all the paupers in it were removed to the Ommerschans.

It appears from this table that the number of persons relieved has steadily increased from 202,015, the number in 1822, to 279,730, the number in 1831; and that the proportion of paupers to independent members of society has also increased from 9²³⁰⁄₁₀₀₀ per cent., the proportion in 1822, or rather more than one-eleventh, to 11⁸⁹⁸⁄₁₀₀₀ per cent., or rather more than one-ninth, the proportion in 1831: a proportion exceeding even that of England.

And it is to be observed that the greater part of this great positive and relative increase of pauperism has taken place during a period of profound peace, internal and external; only one of these years being subsequent to the Belgian revolution. It is probable that if the years 1832 and 1833 had been given, the comparison with the earlier period would have been still more unfavourable.

We have omitted in the statement of the expenditure for the relief of the poor a sum of 200,000 guilders, or about 16,666l. sterling, annually employed on the gratuitous instruction of poor children: the number thus instructed in 1831 was 73,609. It does not appear, however, that any persons are compelled to attend to the education of their children, except by its being made (as is the general rule on the Continent of Europe) one of the conditions on which relief is granted: and the Consul states that the labourers in general think it beneath them to let their children go to school for nothing; and that some, when unable to pay, prefer keeping them at home.

It is remarkable that neither the official nor the consular report dwells on that portion of the Dutch poor institutions which has excited the greatest attention in Europe, namely, the Poor Colonies.

Poor Colonies.

The following statements are extracted from the narrative of Count Arrivabene, who visited them in 1829: (pp. 610, 611, 612, 613, 614.)

The dearths of 1816 and 1817, and the consequent distress, occasioned the establishment, in the northern provinces of the Low Countries, of a Philanthropic Society (Société de bienfaisance), to whose funds each subscriber was to pay one halfpenny a week. The subscribers soon amounted to 20,000. One of its projects was the foundation of poor colonies among the heaths, with which this country abounds. The Colonies were to be divided into Colonies for the Repression of Mendicity, Colonies for Indigent Persons and Veterans, Free Colonies, Colonies for Inspectors of Agricultural Works, Colonies for Orphans and Foundlings, and Colonies for Agricultural Instruction.

In the first year of its formation the Society established the Free Colony, called Frederiks-Oord, on the heaths between the provinces of Drenthe, Friesland, and Over-Yssel. It consisted of 52 small farms, part of which had been previously cultivated by the Society, of a store-house, of several workshops, a school, &c. It was peopled with families, indigent, but not dependent altogether on alms. The expense of its foundation amounted to 68,000 flor. (5666l. 13s. 4d.), and was defrayed out of the annual subscriptions and donations of the members of the Société de bienfaisance; and in order to give employment to the colonists during the dead season of the year, the Society engaged to purchase from them 26,000 ells of linen.

In 1819, the Society proposed to the directors of the Orphan Institutions throughout the kingdom, to take charge, at a fixed annual payment, of any number of orphans of the age of six years, leaving to those institutions the right of superintending their treatment. To meet this expense, the society borrowed 280,000 flor. (23,333l. 6s. 10d.). The orphans were for a time placed in separate dwellings, six orphans with two elderly persons, to act as their parents, in each. But afterwards almost all were collected into large buildings. In the same year the members of the society had increased to 22,500, and their subscriptions to 82,500 flor. or 6875l., and the society was enabled to establish two other free colonies, and to place in them 150 families.

In 1820, the society borrowed 100,000 flor. more, or 8333l. 6s. 8d., which, with donations to the amount of 78,000 flor. or 6500l., enabled it during that year to settle 150 more families.

In 1821, the society by means of loans and subscriptions had collected a sum of 421,000 flor. or 35,083l. 6s. 8d., of which 300,000 flor., or 25,000l. was borrowed, and 121,000 flor., or 10,983l. 6s. 8d. subscribed, and was possessed of seven free colonies, consisting of 500 small farms, with the public buildings to which we have alluded.

In 1822 the society founded the first colony for the repression of mendicity; and engaged with the Government to receive and settle on its colonies 4000 orphans, 2500 indigent persons, and 1500 mendicants, the Government engaging to pay for each orphan 45 florins, or 3l. 15s. a year, for 16 years, but nothing for the others. As yet the society has fulfilled only a part of its engagements. It has, however, established every kind of colony which we have enumerated.

Frederiks-Oord.

In August, 1829, we visited all the colonies of the society. Those of Frederiks-Oord are spread over a space of two leagues. The small farms, containing each about 9 English acres, extend along the sides of roads, bordered with trees, and of canals, which intersect the colonies in different directions. Each house is composed of one great room, round the walls of which are placed the large drawer-like beds, in which, according to the custom of the Dutch peasantry, the family sleep. A cow-house, a barn, and every building necessary for an agricultural family, is annexed to the farm. Near the house is the garden; beyond it the land to be cultivated.

Upon his admission into the colony, each colonist makes a declaration, by which he binds himself to obey its rules, as respects subordination to its officers, moral and religious conduct on the part of himself and his family, modes of working, wearing the colonial uniform, &c.

When a family of 8 persons (the number usually adopted by the society) has been settled in a farm, the society opens an account with them, in which they are debited in the sum of 1700 florins, or 141l. 13s. 4d., which is considered as having been advanced for their use under the following heads:—

	flor.		£	s.	d.
Purchase-money of 9 acres of land	100	or	8	6	8
Labour previously expended on it	400	”	83	6	8
Two cows and some sheep	150	”	12	10	0
The house	500	”	41	13	4
Incidental expenses	50	”	4	3	4
Furniture and clothing	250	”	20	6	8
Reserved fund for extraordinary occasions	250	”	20	16	8
	1700		141	13	4

The sum advanced for furniture and clothing is stopped out of the wages of the colonist; and as soon as the farm has been completely brought under cultivation, the head of the family is annually debited 60 florins, or 5l., as the interest of the remainder of the capital, and the rent of the farm.

During three years at the least, the colonists cultivate the land in common, and receive wages, but are allowed to make use of no part of the produce of the farm; though that of the garden and the cows is their own. The farm produce (and it appeared to us to be very trifling), consisting principally of rye, potatoes, and buck-wheat, is taken to the storehouses of the society to be preserved for subsequent distribution, either as prepared food or otherwise, among the colonists, in payment or on account of their wages.

As long as a family cannot provide its own subsistence, it receives food daily from the society; but when it can provide for itself (as it can when it earns 4 flor., or 6s. 8d. a week), it is allowed to prepare its food at home.

The society distributes medals of copper, of silver, and of gold. The first are the rewards of those who distinguish themselves by regular labour and good conduct, and confer the right to leave the colony on Sundays and holydays without asking permission. The second are bestowed on those whose industry supplies their whole subsistence; they confer the right to leave the colony without permission, not only on Sundays and holydays, but on every day of the week, at the hours not devoted to labour. The golden medals are distributed to those who have already obtained silver ones, when their farms produce the annual value of 250 flor. (20l. 16s. 8d.), and upon obtaining them the colonist is no longer subjected to the strict colonial regimen, though some restrictions still distinguish him from an ordinary farmer. The medals which have been obtained by good conduct may be lost or suspended, with their privileges, by misbehaviour. They are solemnly distributed, and withdrawn every fifteen days.

After a residence of three years in the colony, the colonists are distributed into three classes:—1st, That of industrious men who have received the silver medal: they may continue to cultivate their farms in common, as before, or, after having discharged their original debt to the society, may manage them on their own account, at a rent payable to the society. 2nd. That of colonists who have received the copper medal: they may manage their own farms, and dispose of a part of the produce; the other part must be sent to the magazines of the society, to be applied in payment of the rent of the farm, in discharge of the original advances, and in creating a common fund. A portion of it, however, is returned to them in bread. But if in any year a colonist does not raise a given quantity of potatoes, or if he requires from the society extraordinary assistance, he is forced to restore his medal, and to return to the third class. 3. This last class, which is composed of those who have obtained no medal, must, in addition to what is required from the others, render to the magazines of the society a greater amount of produce, and have therefore less for their own use.

A certain extent of ground is cultivated in common by the colonists, each head of a family being required to work on it three days in the year, at wages paid in a colonial paper money. The produce of this common land is employed in supplying the deficiencies of the harvests of the separate farms, and meeting the expenses of the school, the hospital, and the general Administration. The colonists are also allowed in summer to pasture their cattle in the common pastures of the colony. There are several shops for the sale, at prices fixed by the Administration, of whatever the colonists are likely to want, except spirituous liquors, the use of which is prohibited.

Whatever may have been the length of time during which the colonist has resided in the colony he can never become the proprietor of his farm. He may, however, acquire the ownership of his furniture, and sell it or remove it when he quits the colony.

No colonist is allowed to marry unless he be a widower, or the son of a widower, and in possession of a farm. When his children have attained 16 or 18 years of age, they choose a trade (etat) with the consent of their parents and the colonial authorities, and may follow it either in the colony or elsewhere.

To every 25 farms there is a superintendent, who visits them daily, and directs and distributes among the colonists the labours of the day; and to every 100 farms a sub-director, who gives instructions to the superintendent, keeps the registers, and manages the manufactures.

In selecting the occupiers of each subdivision of 25 farms, care is taken that persons of different trades shall be included. The superintendence to which a family is subjected diminishes day by day with its good conduct, and ceases almost entirely as soon as the colonist has repaid the value of the advances which have been made to him. Those who are idle or disorderly are taken before a council of superintendence, of which some colonists are members, and may be sent on to a council of discipline, which has the power to transfer them to Ommerschans, a colony for the repression of mendicity; of which we shall speak hereafter. They are detained there for a fixed period, in a place set apart for them, and kept to more than usually hard labour. The industrious and well-disposed colonists are appointed superintendents of the works in the colonies for the repression of mendicity, and in those for the reception of orphans and indigent persons.

Most of the inhabitants of Frederiks-Oord are Protestants; there are, however, several Catholic and two Jewish families.

Wateren.

In the morning of the 3d day we went to Wateren, which is two leagues from Frederiks-Oord. Wateren is the colony of Agricultural Instruction, to which are sent the orphans who most distinguish themselves in their colonies. They amount to 60, and acquire agricultural knowledge from a master, and from the practice of working at a farm of 42 bonniers (nearly 103 acres) in arable, nursery grounds, and pasture. They are instructed by the same master in the Bible, the history of Holland, land surveying, natural-history, botany, mathematics, chemistry, and gymnastics. They are better dressed than the others, and wear a hat with a riband, on which is written the name of the privileged colony to which they belong. Their destination is to become superintendents in the free colonies. The society derives from this colony an annual profit of about 900 flor. or 75l.

Veenhuisen.

On the same day, after a journey of three leagues, we arrived at Veenhuisen, which contains one colony for the repression of mendicity, two for orphans, one for indigent persons and veterans, and one for inspectors of agricultural works. They are intersected by high ways, bordered by trees and by canals communicating with Amsterdam. Two great square buildings, at the distance of a half mile from each other, contain, in the part which looks into the interior quadrangle, the one mendicants, the other orphans, and each contains, in the rooms on the exterior, indigent persons and veterans. Another similar edifice, at two miles distance, contains all these three classes of individuals. In the midst of the three edifices are situated two churches, one Catholic, the other Protestant; twenty-four houses forming a colony of inspectors of agricultural works, and an equal number of houses inhabited by the officers of the colonies.

The children and grown-up persons have been placed thus near one another for convenience, with respect both to their agricultural and manufacturing employments.

The interior of each of the three great edifices is divided into two sides, one for the males, the other for the females, separated by the kitchen. On the ground-floor are large rooms, containing each forty or fifty individuals. The upper floors are mere lofts, and used as store-rooms.

The persons placed in the colonies for the repression of mendicity receive a new and uniform dress, and for some time are maintained without reference to the value of their work. Their out-doors employment consists of agricultural labor, brick-making, or turf-cutting: in-doors they work as artizans, generally by piece work. The society fixes the amount of their wages.

The lands of these colonies are divided into farms of thirty-two bonniers, or about eighty acres each, half arable, half pasture. To each of these farms are attached forty or fifty colonists, who work under the orders of a superintendent, who himself follows the instructions of a sub-director. The annual expenditure on each of these farms is fixed at 1680 flor., or 140l.

The accounts between the society and the colonists are kept in the military form. Each colonist carries a book, in which is entered the work which he has performed each day, the supplies and paper money which he has received, and his share of the general expenditure. If his earnings exceed what has been laid out on him, which is said to be commonly the case, a third of the excess is given to him in paper money, another third is placed in a savings’ bank, to be given him on his leaving the colony, and the remaining third is retained by the society to meet contingent expenses.

Horse-patrols round the colonies, rewards to such as bring back colonists who have attempted to escape, and a uniform dress are the means employed to prevent desertion. The colonists are detained for 6 years, unless they have previously saved 12½ flor. (1l. 10d.), which entitles them to immediate discharge.

Orphans are admitted in the orphan colonies at the age of six. They work, either in-doors or in the fields, for a part of the day, another part is employed in elementary instruction, drawing, and singing. They leave the colonies at the age of 18, generally for the sea or land service.

The colonies for indigent persons and veterans serve as preparatory residences for those who are to be placed in the free colonies. These colonists dwell with their families in the outer apartments of the great buildings, the interior quadrangles of which are inhabited by the mendicants and orphans. Like the mendicants, they are considered day labourers, and paid according to their work.

In every colony the supplies and wages vary according to the difference of age, strength, or sex. The men are divided into 5 classes, the women into 7. The first class of men is supposed to earn 1 flor. 70 cents, or 2s. 10d. per week; the second, 1 flor. 35 cents, or 2s. 3d.; the third, 1 flor. 6 cents, or 1s. 11d.; the fourth, composed of children from 8 to 16 years, 1 flor. 1 cent, or 1s. 8½d.; the fifth, composed of children under that age, 67½ cents, or 1s. 1½d. The first class of females is supposed to earn per week 1 flor. 51 cents, or 2s. 6¼d.; the second, 1 flor. 26 cents, or 2s. 1d.; the third, 98 cents, or 1s. 7½d.; the fourth and fifth, composed of children, 95 cents, or 1s. 7d., and 75 cents, or 1s. 3d. respectively; the sixth and seventh, composed also of children, but still younger, 63 cents, or 1s. 0½d., and 55 cents, or 11d., respectively.

Ommerschans.

On the morning of the fourth day we went to Ommerschans, which is seven leagues from Veenhuisen.

At Ommerschans there is a colony for the repression of mendicity, and one for indigent persons and veterans. The first is composed of men and children; and has a separate division for the free colonists who have been sent thither as a punishment. The building can contain 1000 persons, and resembles in several respects those in Veenhuisen, except that its moat, and the iron-bars to its windows give it more the appearance of a prison; and that it has a story above the ground floor. Nor does it differ as to its interior arrangement, or the employment or treatment of its inmates. In the middle of the quadrangle there are shops for locksmiths, joiners, and other trades; and for the manufacture of thread and linen. On the outside stands the church, which serves for both Catholic and Protestant worship, and as a school; the house of the sub-director, the hospital, and other public edifices; and 20 houses scattered about the lands, form a colony of inspectors of agricultural works. Nearly 150 persons are annually discharged from this colony for the repression of mendicity.

On recurring to the official statement of the total number of persons relieved during the ten years ending 1831, it will be seen that in 1831 the population of the poor colonies consisted of 7853, being an increase of 402 from the time of Count Arrivabene’s visit, arising solely from an increased number placed in the repressive or most severe of the penal colonies; and that this population was thus distributed: 2297 in the colony assigned to orphans and abandoned children; 456 in the preparatory colony; 2694 in the colonies called free; and 2406 in the repressive or mendicity colonies.

The nature of these institutions appears to have been imperfectly understood in England. They are in fact large agricultural workhouses; and superior to the previous workhouses only so far as they may be less expensive, or, without being oppressive, objects of greater aversion.

It is scarcely possible that they can be less expensive.

The employing persons taken indiscriminately from other occupations and trades, almost all of them the victims of idleness and misconduct, and little urged by the stimulus of individual interest in farming the worst land in the country, (land so worthless that the fee-simple of it is worth only 24s. an acre,) at an expense for outfit, exclusively of the value of the land, of more than 130l. per family, and under the management of a joint-stock company of more than 20,000 members, cannot but be a ruinous speculation.

Nor does the institution appear to have repressed pauperism by the disagreeableness of the terms on which it offers relief: we have seen, on the contrary, that it has not prevented its steady increase. It will be shown subsequently that a similar establishment has signally failed in Belgium, and we cannot anticipate a different result in Holland.

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