Outlines of the Earth's History: A Popular Study in Physiography

by Nathaniel Southgate Shaler

INDEX.

Ætna, Mount, [381].
Agriculture,
American, [346];
in England, winning swamp lands for, [335];
recent developments of, [345].
Alaska, changes on the coast of, [96].
Ants taking food underground, [319];
work of the, on the soil, [318].
Apsides, revolution of the, [61], [62].
Arabians, chemical experiments of the, [13].
Arches, natural, in cavern districts, [258].
Artesian wells, [258], [259].
Arts, advance of Italian fine, [19].
Asteroids, [53];
motions of, about their centres and about the sun, [53].
Astronomers, the solar system and the early, [79].
Astronomy, [31]-[80];
growth of, since the time of Galileo, [33], [34];
the first science, [10].
Atmosphere, 97-[206];
along the tropical belt, [102];
as a medium of communication between different regions, [99];
deprived of water, containing little heat, [105];
beginning of the science of the, [117];
counter-trade movements of the, [105];
envelope of the earth, [98];
expansion of, in a hollow wall during the passage of a storm, [114];
heat-carrying power of the, [105];
heights to which it extends, [99];
in water, [99];
movements no direct influence on the surface of the earth, [122];
movements of the, qualified by the condition which it encounters, [118];
of mountains, [98];
of the seashore, [98];
of the earth, [98];
of the sun, [73];
snow as an evidence of, [65];
supplying needs of underground creatures, [331];
uprushes of, [101], [102];
upward strain of the, next the earth, [107];
weight and motion of the, [120], [121].
Atmospheric circulation of the soil, [330], [331];
envelopes, [97].
Aurora borealis, [168].
Avalanches, [210]-[213];
dreaded, in the Alpine regions, [212];
great, in the Swiss Oberland, [211], [212];
rocky, [175]-[177].
Axis,
imaginary changes in the earth's, [59];
of the earth's rotation, [58];
polar, inclined position of, [58];
polar, nodding movement of the axes, [54];
rotations of the planetary spheres on their axes, [56].
Barometer, causes of changes in the, [117], [118].
Basalts, [309].
Beaches, [93], [142], [144];
boulder, [142], [143];
pebbly, [142];
sand, [144].
Beetles, work of, on the soil, [318], [319].
Belief of the early astronomers about the solar system, [79].
Bergschrund, the, [214].
Birds and mammals contributing to the fertility of the soil, [319].
"Blanketing," [269].
Bogs,
climbing, [331]-[334];
lake, [331]-[333];
peat, [334], [335];
quaking, [334].
Botany, rapid advance in, [14], [15].
Boulders, [217], [220].
Breakers, [135], [137], [139].
Bridges, natural, [257], [258].
Canals of Mars, [67].
Cañon, newly formed river cutting a, [195].
Cataracts, [193].
Caves, [253]-[258], [261];
architecture of, [255]-[258];
hot-water, [261];
mammoth cave, [258];
stalactites and stalagmites on the roof and floor of, [257].
Chasms, [140], [141].
Chemistry, [6], [12], [14];
advance of, [12];
modern, evolving from the studies of alchemists, [13], [14].
Chromosphere, [73].
Civilization of the Icelanders, [384].
Cliffs, sea-beaten, [132], [141], [142].
Climate,
changes of, due to modifications of the ocean streams, [153];
effect of the ocean on the, [147];
of the Gulf Stream, [149], [150].
Clouds, [159];
formation of, [162], [163];
shape of, [163];
water of, usually frozen, [207];
cloud-making, laws of, [161], [162].
Coast,
changes on the Scandinavian, [96];
line, effect of tide on the, [145];
of Greenland, [226];
of New Jersey sinking, [95];
marine, changes in, [95].
Cold in Siberia, [243].
Comets, [47], [50];
collisions of, [50];
kinship of meteorites and, [48];
omens of calamity to the ancients, [50];
the great, of 1811, [49], [50].
Cones. See under Volcanoes.
Conflict between religion and science, [20], [22];
between the Protestant countries and the followers of science, [20].
Continental shelves, [125].
Continents and oceans, [83];
changes in position of, [91];
cyclones of the, [111];
forms of, [90];
proofs that they have endured for many years, [92];
shape of, [84], [96].
Coral reefs, [153], [353].
Corona, realm of the, [73].
Craters. See under Volcanoes.
Crevasse, a barrier to the explorer, [218].
Crevice water, [250].
Curds, [214].
Currents,
coral reefs in Florida affecting the velocity of, [153];
equatorial, [150];
of the Gulf Stream, [147]-[149];
hot and cold, of the sea, [102];
ocean, [145];
oceanic action of trade winds on, [145];
effect on migration of, [157];
icebergs indicating, [243];
surface, history of, [172];
uprushing, near the equator, [106].
Cyclones, [111];
cause of, [111];
of North America, [111];
secondary storms of, [112].
Deltas, [173], [187].
Deposits, vein, [260], [261].
Deserts, interior, [158].
Dew, [159], [160];
a concomitant of cloudless skies, [160],
and vegetation, [160];
formation of, [159]-[161].
Diablerets, [174].
Diagram of a vein, [260];
showing development of swamp, [335];
how a portion of the earth's surface may be sunk by faulting, [374];
growth of mangroves, [340];
the effect of the position of the fulcrum point in the movement of the land masses, [94].
Diameter of our sphere at the equator, [62];
of the earth, [82].
Dikes, [192], [293]; [305]-[310];
abounding in volcanic cones, [305];
cutting through coal, [306];
driven upward, [307];
formation of, [305], [310];
material of, [307], [308];
representing movements of softened rock, [309];
their relation to volcanic cones, [307];
variations of the materials of, [307], [308];
waterfalls produced by, [192];
zone of, [306].
Dismal Swamp, [95], [333].
Distances,
general idea of, [27];
good way to study, [27], [28];
training soldiers to measure, [28].
Doldrums, [104], [109];
doldrum of the equator, [109];
of the hurricane, [109].
Drainage, imperfect, of a country affected by glaciers, [242].
Dunes, [123], [124], [325], [326], [387];
moulded, [387].
Duration of geological time, [389].
Dust accumulations from wind, in China, [122].
Earth,
a flattened sphere, [82];
air envelope of the, [98];
amount of heat falling from the sun on the, [41];
antiquity of the, [391];
atmosphere of the, [98];
attracting power of the, [127];
axis of the rotation of the, [58];
composition of the atmosphere of the, [98];
crust of the, affected by weight, [93];
deviation of the path of the, varied, [61];
diameter of the, [82];
of the, affected by loss of heat, [131];
difference in altitude of the surface of the, [83];
discovery that it was globular, [31], [32];
effect of imaginary changes in the relations of sun and, [59];
effect of the interior heat of the, [309], [310];
effect of the sun on the, [60], [61];
formerly in a fluid state, [82];
imaginary view of the, from the moon, [81];
important feature of the surface of the, [83];
jarring caused by faults, [367];
surface of the, determined by heat and light from the sun, [57];
most important feature of the surface of the, [83];
motion of the, affecting the direction of trade winds, [103];
movements, [366];
natural architecture of the, [377];
no part of the, exempt from movement, [384];
parting of the moon and, [396];
path of the, around the sun, [55], [56], [59], [60];
revolving from east to west, [103];
shrinking of the, from daily escape of heat, [89];
soil-covering of the, [343];
study of the, [81]-[96];
swaying, [385];
tensions, problem of, [371];
tremors, caused by chemical changes in the rocks, [385];
tropical belt of the, [74];
viewed from the surface of the moon, [311], [312];
water store of the, [125].
Earthquakes, [277], [278], [280], [356], [358], [370]-[384], [388]-[390];
accidents of, [358];
action of, [356];
agents of degradation, [383], [384];
basis of, [367];
certain limitations to, [380], [381];
Charleston, of 1883, [374], [375];
countries, architecture in, [381];
echoes, [369], [370];
damages of, [377], [390];
effect of,
on the soil, [375];
the surface of the earth, [371];
formed by riving of fissures, [382];
great, occurring where rocks have been disturbed by mountain-building, [381], [382];
Herculaneum and Pompeii destroyed by an, [277], [280];
Italian, in 1783, [371], [372];
important, not connected with volcanic explosions, [381];
Jamaica, in 1692, [372], [376];
Lisbon, in 1755, [368], [369], [373], [374], [381];
maximum swing of, [369];
measuring the liability to, [386], [387];
mechanism of, [370], [371];
method of the study of, followed by Mr. Charles Mallet, [382], [383];
Mississippi, in 1811, [373], [374], [380], [381];
movement of the earth during, [377];
originating from a fault plane, [367], [369], [370];
originating from the seas, [358], [375];
oscillation of, [376];
poised rocks indicating a long exemption from strong, [388];
Riobamba, in 1797, [375];
shocks of, and their effect upon people, [383];
the direct calamities of Nature, [386];
waves of, [389].
Earthworms, [317]-[319];
taking food underground, [319].
Eclipses, record of ancient, [130].
Electrical action in the formation of rain and snow, [164].
Elevations of seas and lands, [83].
Energy indestructible, [23].
Envelope, lower, of the sun, [74].
Equator,
diameter of our sphere at the, [62];
doldrum of the, [109];
updraught under the, [102];
uprushing current near the, [106].
Equinoxes, precession of the, [61], [62].
Eskers, [221].
Expansion of air contained in a hollow wall during the passage of the storm, [114].
Experiment, illustrating consolidation of disseminated materials of the sun and planets, [40].
Falls. See Waterfalls.
Fault planes, [382].
Feldspar, [324].
Floods, [180], [197];
rarity of, in New England, [121];
river, frequent east of Rocky Mountains, [198].
Föhns, [121].
Forests, salicified, [124].
Fossilization, [354]-[356].
Fulcrum point, [95].
Galactic plane, [45].
Galongoon, eruption of, [294].
Geological work of water, [168]-[206].
Glacial action in the valleys of Switzerland, [224];
periods, [63], [243], [246];
in the northern hemisphere, [246];
waste, [324].
Glaciation,
effect of,
in North America, [241];
in Central America, [234];
South America, [234].
Glaciers, [207]-[249];
action of ice in forming, [230]-[232];
Alaskan, [216];
continental, [225], [239], [240];
discharge of, [220];
exploring, [220];
extensive, in Greenland and Scandinavia, [244];
former, of North America, [232], [234];
map of, and moraines near Mont Blanc, [217];
motions of, [213];
retreat of the, [228], [230], [235];
secrets of the under ice of, [221];
speed of a, [224];
study of, in the Swiss valleys, [222];
testimony of the rocks regarding, [228];
when covered with winter snows, [216];
valley, [216].
Gombridge, 1830, [74].
Gravitation, law of, [4].
Greeks' idea of the heavens, [31];
not mechanically inventive, [22].
Gulf Stream, current of the, [147].
Heat,
amount of, daily escaping from the earth, [89];
amount of, falling from the sun on the earth, [41];
belief of the ancients regarding, [42];
dominating effect on air currents of tropical, [104];
energy with which it leaves the sun, [41];
internal,
of the earth, [88], [89];
of the earth's interior, [309], [310];
sun, effect on the atmosphere of the, [100];
Prof. Newcomb's belief regarding the, of the sun, [52];
radiation of the earth's, causing winds, [101];
solar, [41];
tropical, and air currents, [104].
Hills, sand, [123].
Horizontal pendulum, [384].
Horse latitudes, [104].
"Horses," [261].
Hurricanes, [107], [110], [317];
commencement of, [107];
doldrum of, [109];
felt near the sea, [110];
in the tropics, [110].
Hypothesis,
nebular, [34], [35], [39], [52], [56];
working, [4], [5].
Ice action,
effect of intense, [222], [223];
in forming glaciers, [230], [232];
recent studies in Greenland of, [239];
depth of, in Greenland, [227];
effect of, on river channels, [196];
effect of, on stream beds, [196];

expanding when freezing, [237];
epoch, [92], [93], [246];
floating, [242];
made soils rarely fertile, [241];
mass, greatest, in Greenland, [226], [227];
moulded by pressure, [215];
streams,
continental, [225], [226];
of the mountains, [225];
of the Himalayan Mountains, [234].
Icebergs, [242], [243];
indicating oceanic currents, [243].
Iceland, volcanic eruptions in, [297], [298].
Instruments, first, astronomical, [10], [11].
Inventions, mechanical, aiding science, [22].
Islands, [84], [272];
continental, [84];
in the deeper seas made up of volcanic ejections, [272];
volcanic, [272].
Jack-o'-lantern, [167].
Jupiter,
gaseous wraps of, [97];
path of the earth affected by, [59], [60];
the largest planet of the sun, [69].
Kames, [325].
Kant, Immanuel, and nebular hypothesis, [34].
Kaolin, [324].
Klondike district, cold in, [243], [244].
Krakatoa,
eruption of, [298]-[300];
effect of, on the sea, [299];
effect of, on the sun, [300].
Lacolites, [306].
Lacustrine beds, [351].
Lagoons, salt deposits found in, [200].
Lake basins,
formation of, [200], [201];
bogs, [331], [333], [334];
deposits, [350], [351].
Lakes, [199]-[206];
effect of, on the river system, [205];
fresh-water, [145];
formed from caverns, [202];
great, changing their outlets, [205];
of extinct volcanoes, [203];
temporary features of the land, [203];
volcanic, [203].
Lands,
great, relatively unchangeable, [96];
table, [91];
movements resulting in change of coast line, [351], [352];
shape of the seas and, [83], [84];
accounting for the changes in the attitude of the, [95];
and water, divisions of, [84];
dry, surface of, [85];
general statement as to the division of the, [83], [84];
surface, shape of the, [85];
triangular forms of great, [90].
Latitudes, horse, troublesome to mariners, [104].
Laplace and nebular hypothesis, [34].
Lava, [266]-[268], [270], [271], [292], [293], [295], [296], [303], [304];
flow of, invading a forest, [268];
from Vesuvius, [293];
of 1669, [295], [296];
temperature of, [295], [296];
incipient, [304];
outbreaks of, [292], [303];
stream eaves, [292], [293].
Law, natural,
Aristotle and, [3];
of gravitation, [4];
of the conservation of energy, [23].
Leaves, radiation of, [160].
Length of days affected by tidal action, [131].
Level surfaces, [91].
Life, organic, evolution of, [15], [16].
Light, belief of the ancients regarding, [42].
Lightning, [24], [164]-[168];
noise from, [166];
proceeding from the earth to the clouds, [165];
protection of buildings from, [165];
stroke, wearing-out effect of, [165].
Limestones, [353], [357], [358], [360], [364];
formation of, [357], [360].
Lisbon, earthquake of, 1755, [368], [369].
Lowell, Mr. Percival, observations on Venus, [64].
Lunar mountains near the Gulf of Iris, [397].
Mackerel sky, [35].
Mallet, Mr. Charles, and the study of earthquakes, [382], [383].
Man as an inventor of tools, [10].
Mangroves, [340];
diagram showing mode of growth, [340];
marshes of, [339].
Map of glaciers and moraines near Mont Blanc, [217];
of Ipswich marshes, [338].
Mapping with contour lines, [27].
Maps,
desirable, for the study of celestial geography, [77];
geographic sketch, [26], [27].
Marching sands jeopardizing agriculture, [123].
Marine animals, sustenance of, [361]-[363];
deposits, [325]-[327], [349], [356];
marshes, [336]-[340];
waves caused by earthquakes, [387].
Mars, [65]-[67], [84], [97];
belief that it has an atmosphere, [65];
canals of, [67];
gaseous wraps of, [97];
more efficient telescopes required for the study of, [67];
nearer to the earth than other planets, [65].
Marshes,
mangrove, [339];
map of Ipswich, [338];
marine, [336]-[340];
deposits found in, [336];
of North America, [337];
on the coast of New England, [339];
phenomena of, [167], [168];
tidal, good earth for tillage, [337];
tidal, of North America, [340].
Mercury, [55], [63], [78];
nearest to the sun, [63];
time in which it completes the circle of its year, [55].
Meteorites, [47], [48];
kinship of comets and, [48].
Meteors, [47];
falling, [47];
composition of, [48];
flashing, [39], [40], [47];
speed of, [47];
inflamed by friction with air, [99].
Methods in studying geology, [400].
Milky Way, [45];
voyage along the path of the, [44], [45].
Mineral crusts, [328], [329];
deposits, [308].
Moon, [38], [395]-[400];
absence of air and water on the, [399];
attended by satellites, [57];
attraction which it exercises on the earth, [62];
curious feature of the, [397];
destitute of gaseous or aqueous envelope, [397];
diameter of the, [399];
imaginary view of the earth from the, [81];
"libration" of the, [398];
made up of circular depressions, [396], [397];
movements of the, [78];
no atmosphere in the, [97];
parting of the earth and, [396];
position of the, in relation to the earth, [62];
tidal action and the, [131];
tides of the, [126], [127];
why does the sun not act in the same manner as the, [78].
Moraines, [216], [218], [229], [230];
map of glaciers and, near Mont Blanc, [217];
movements of the, [216]-[218];
terminal, [228].
Moulin, [219].
Mount Ætna, [288]-[310];
lava yielding, [290], [293], [294];
lava stream caves of, [292], [293];
more powerful than Vesuvius, [297];
peculiarities of, [291], [292];
size of, [289]-[291];
turning of the torrents of, [295].
Mountain-building, [90]-[93], [304];
folding, [86], [87], [90], [365];
attributed to cooling of the earth, [88];
growth, [392];
Swiss falls, [174];
torrents, energy of, [177].
Mountains, [85], [86], [89], [90]-[93]; [174]-[178];
form and structure of, [86];
partly caused by escape of heat from the earth, [89];
sections of, [87].
Mount Nuova, formation of, [284].
Mount Vesuvius, [263]-[285], [288], [289], [293], [302], [381];
description of the eruption of, in a.d. 79, [277]-[280];
diagrammatic sections through, showing changes in the form of the cone, [283];
eruption of, in 1056, [281];
in 1882-'83, [264], [266];
eruption of, in 1872, [282];
eruptions of, increased since 1636, [282];
flow of lava from, [285];
likely to enter on a period of inaction, [282], [283];
outbreak of, in 1882-'83, [264], [266].
Naples, prosperity of the city, [289].
Nebular hypothesis, [34], [35], [39], [52].
Neptune, [70].
Névé, the, [214];
no ice-cutting in the region of the, [224].
Newcomb's (Prof.) belief regarding the heat of the sun, [52].
Niagara Falls, [191], [192], [204];
cutting back of, [204].
North America,
changes in the form of, [91], [92];
triangular form of, [90].
Ocean,
average depth of the, [89];
climatal effect of the, [147];
currents, [145];
effect of, on migration, [156];
effect of, on organic life, [154];
floor, [85], [93];
hot and cold currents of the, [102];
sinking of the, [93], [94];
the laboratory of sedimentary deposits, [351];
depth of the, [89], [126].
Oceanic circulation, effect of, on the temperature, [152].
Oceans and continents, [83].
Orbit,
alterations of the, and the seasons, [60], [61];
changing of the, [59]-[63];
shape of the, [61]-[63].
Organic life, [315], [317], [321], [352], [353], [363];
action of, on the soil, [317], [321];
advantages of the shore belt to, [363];
development of in the sea, [352], [353];
effect of ocean currents on, [154];
processes of, in the soil, [315];
decay of, in the earth, [321].
Orion, [46].
Oscillations of the shores of the Bay of Naples, [287].
Oxbow of a river, [182], [183].
Oxbows and cut-off, [182].
Pebbles,
action of seaweeds on, [143];
action of the waves on, [142], [144].
Photosphere, [74].
Plains, [86];
alluvial, [91], [179], [182], [184]-[186], [325];
history of, [91];
sand, [325].
Planets, [38];
attended by satellites, [57];
comparative sizes of the, [68];
experiments illustrating consolidation of disseminated materials of the sun and, [40];
gaseous wraps of, [97];
important observations by the ancients of fixed stars and planets, [43];
movements of, [57]-[61];
outer, [78];
table of relative masses of sun and, [77].
Plant life in the Sargassum basins, [156].
Plants and animals,
protection of,
by mechanical contrivances, [364];
and trees, work of the roots of, on the soil, [316], [317];
water-loving, [181];
forming climbing bogs, [332].
Polar axes, nodding movement of, [54].
Polar snow cap, [66].
Polyps, [155], [353].
Pools, circular, [203].
Prairies, [340], [342].
Radiation of heat, [159].
Rain, [152], [156], [164], [168], [170], [328], [330];
circuit of the, [156]-[168];
drops, force of, [169], [170];
spheroidal form of, [170];
electrical action in the formation of snow and, [164];
work of the, [171].
Realm, unseen solar, [75].
Reeds, [332].
Religion,
conflict between science and, [20], [22];
struggle between paganism and, [21].
Rivers and débris, [183];
changes in the course of, in alluvial plain, [182];
deposition of, accelerated by tree-planting, [181];
great, always clear, [205];
inundation of the Mississippi, eating away land, [182];
muds, [222];
newly formed, cutting a cañon, [195];
of snow-ice, [211];
origin of a normal, [173];
oxbow of a, [182], [183];
sinking of, [199];
swinging movement of, [179]-[181];
river-valleys, [193], [194];
diversity in the form of [188]-[191].
Rocks, [145];
accidents from falling, [174];
cut away by sandstones, [188];
divided by crevices, [252];
duration of events recorded in, [389], [390],
ejection of, material, [311];
falling of, [174]-[176];
formation of, [262], [263];
from the present day to the strata of the Laurentian, [390];
migration of, [291];
poised, indicating a long exemption from strong earthquakes, [388];
rents in, [252], [253];
stratification of, [349], [350], [352], [365], [390];
testimony of the, in regard to glaciers, [228];
under volcanoes, [303];
variable elasticity of, [366];
vibration of, [367], [368];
rock-waste, march of the, [343];
water, [250], [267].
Rotation of the earth affected by tides, [130];
of the planetary spheres on their axes, [56].
Salicified forests, [124].
Salt deposits formed in lagoons, [200];
found in lakes, [199]-[200].
Sand bars, [183];
endurance of, against the waves, [145];
hills, travelling of, [123];
marching, [123];
silicious stones cutting away rooks, [188].
Satellites, [53], [54];
motions of, about their centres and about the sun, [53], [54].
Saturn, [38], [53], [57], [396];
cloud bands of, [70];
gaseous wraps of, [97];
path of the earth affected by, [59], [60].
Savages, primitive, students of Nature, [1].
Scandinavia, changes on the coasts of, [96].
Science,
advance of, due to mechanical inventions, [22];
astronomy beginning with, [10];
chemical, characteristics of, [14];
conflict between religion and, [20], [22];
conflict between the Roman faith and, [20];
mechanical inventions as aids to, [22], [23];
modern and ancient, [4];
natural, [5], [6];
of botany in Aristotle's time, [14];
of physiology, [15];
of zoölogy in Aristotle's time, [14];
resting practically on sight, [10].
Scientific development,
historic outlines of, [17];

tools used in measuring and weighing, as an aid to vision, [12].
Sea,
battering action of the, [140];
coast ever changing, [385], [386];
effect of volcanic eruptions on the, [299];
floor deposits of the, affected by volcanoes, [360], [361];
in receipt of organic and mineral matter, [359];
hot and cold currents of the, [102];
littoral zone of the, [351], [352];
puss, [142];
rich in organic life, [352], [353];
solvent action of the, [361];
strata, formation of, [354];
water, minerals in, [185];
weeds, [155], [156].
Seas, dead,
originally living lakes, [200];
water of, buoyant, [199];
eventually the seat of salt deposits, [199]-[201];
general statement as to division of, [83], [84];
shape of the, [83], [84].
Seashore, air of the, [98].
Seasons, changing the character of the, [61], [62].
Sense of hearing, [9], [10];
of sight, [10];
of smell, [9], [10];
of taste, [9], [10];
of touch, [9], [10].
Seracs, [214].
Shocks, earthquake. See under Earthquakes.
Shore lines, variation of, [83], [84].
Shores, cliff, [138]-[142].
Sink holes, [202];
in limestone districts, [253], [254].
Skaptar,
eruption of, [297], [298];
lava from the eruption of, [298].
Sky, mackerel, [35].
Snow, [207]-[225], [244];
as an evidence of atmosphere, [65];
blankets, early flowers beginning to blossom under, [208];
covering, difference between an annual and perennial, [210];
effect of, on plants, [208];
electrical action in the formation of rain and, [164];
flakes, formation of, [164];
red, [210];
slides, [210];
slides, phenomena of, [210], [211].
Soil,
alluvial, [321], [322];
atmospheric circulation of, [330], [331];
conditions leading to formation of, [313], [331];
continuous motion of the, [314];
covering of the earth, [343];
decay of the, [314], [315];
degradation of the, [344]-[348];
means for correcting, [346]-[348];
destruction in grain fields greater than the accumulation, [344];
developing on lava and ashes an interesting study, [343];
development of, in desert regions, [340];
effect of animals and plants on the, [317]-[320];
effect of earthquakes on the, [375];
fertility of the, distinguished from the coating, [344], [345];
fertility of, affected by rain, [327];
formation of, [314]-[321];
glacial, characteristics of, [324];
glaciated, [323], [324];
irrigation of the, [328]-[330];
local variation of, [327];
mineral, [321];
of arid regions fertile when subjected to irrigation, [341];
of dust or blown sand, [321];
of immediate derivation, [321], [322];
phenomena, [313];
processes of organic life in the, [315];
variation in, [321]-[331];
vegetation protecting the, [316], [317];
washing away of the, [346], [347];
winning, from the sea, [337];
work of ants on the, [318];
tiller, duty of the, [348].
Solar bodies,
general conditions of the, [63]-[71];
forces, action of, on the earth, [349];
system, [52], [56];
independent from the fixed stars system, [43];
original vapour of, [52], [53];
singular features of our, [68];
tide, [127].
Spheres,
difference in magnitude of, [51];
motions of the, [50], [51];
planetary, rotation of, on their axes, [56].
Spots, sun, [72].
Spouting horn, [141].
Springs, formation of small, [252].
Stalactitization, [256].
Stalagmites and stalactites on the roof and floor of a cavern, [257].
Stars as dark bodies in the heavens, [47];
discovery of Fraunhofer and others on, [23], [38];
double, [39];
and tidal action, [131];
earliest study of, [10];
fixed, important observations by the ancients of planets and, [43];
not isolated suns, [38], [39];
variation in the light of, [46];
limit of, seen by the naked eye, [11];
revolution of one star about another, [46], [47];
shooting, [47];
speed of certain, [51];
study of, [31]-[80];
sudden flashing forth of, due to catastrophe, [46];
voyage through the, [44], [45];
star, wandering, [74].
Stellar realm, [31]-[80].
Storms,
circular, [111];
desert, [121], [122];
expansion of air contained in a hollow wall during the passage of, [114];
great principle of, [105], [106];
in the Sahara, [121];
lightning, more frequent in summer, [167];
paths of, [115];
secondary, of cyclones, [112];
spinning, [115];
thunder, [165]-[167];
whirling, [106], [124];
whirling peculiarity of, [108], [109].
Strabo, writings of, [18].
Sun,
atmosphere of the, [73];
constitution of the, [72];
distance of the earth from the, [29];
effect from changes in the, and earth, [59];
envelope of the, [73], [74], [97];
experiments illustrating consolidation of disseminated materials of planets and, [40];
finally, dark and cold, [42];
formation of the eight planets of the, [53];
heat leaving the, [41];
heat of the, [76];
imaginary journey from the, into space, [44];
mass of the, [76], [77];
path of the earth around the, [55];
physical condition of the, [71];
Prof. Newcomb's belief regarding the heat of the, [52];
spots, [75];
abundant at certain intervals, [72];
difficulty in revealing cause of, [75];
structure of the, a problem before the use of the telescope, [72];
table of relative masses of, and planets, [77];
three stages in the history of the, [71];
tides, [126];
why does it not act in the same manner as the moon? [78].
Surfaces, level, [90].
Surf belt, swayings of the, [137].
Swamps,
diagram showing remains of, [335];
Dismal Swamp, [95], [333];
drainage of, [334], [335];
fresh-water, [334], [335];
phenomena of, [167], [168].
Table-lands, [91].
Table of relative masses of sun and planets, [77].
Telescopes, [11], [12], [45];
first results of, [72];
power of, [11];
revelations of, [45].
Temperature,
effects of, produced by vibration, [42];
in the doldrum belt, [118];
of North America, [118];
of the Atlantic Ocean, [118].
Tempests, rate of, [99], [100].
Thunder, [166];
more pronounced in the mountains, [166].
Thunderstorms, [165], [166];
distribution of, [166], [167].
Tidal action,
recent studies of, [131], [132];
marshes of North America, [340].
Tides,
carving channels, [129];
effecting the earth's rotation, [130];
effect of, on marine life, [130];
height of, [128], [129];
moon and sun, [126], [127];
normal run of the, [127];
production of, [131];
of the trade winds, [150];
solar, [127];
travelling of, [127], [128].
Tillage introducing air into the pores of the soil, [331].
Tornadoes, [112], [113], [317];
development of, [113];
effect of, on buildings, [113];
fiercest in North America, [113];
length of, [115];
resemblance of, to hurricanes, [115];
upsucking action of, [114], [115].
Torrents, [177]-[179], [204].
Trade winds. See under Winds.
Training in language,
diminishing visual memory, [401];
soldiers to measure distances, [28];
to measure intervals of time, [28];
for a naturalist, [25]-[29].
Tunnels, natural, [257].
Uranus, [70].
Valley of Val del Bove formed from disturbances of Mount Ætna, [294].
Valleys,
diversity in the form of river, [188]-[191];
river, [193].
Vapour, [156], [157], [159], [163];
gravitative attraction of, [34], [35];
nebular theory of, [52], [53];
original, of the solar system, [52], [53].
Vegetation,
and dew, [160];
in a measure, independent of rain, [160];
protecting the soil, [316], [317].
Vein, diagram of a, [260].
Venus, [64], [78];
recent observations of, by Mr. Percival Lowell, [64].
Vesuvian system, study of the, [285].
Vesuvius. See Mount Vesuvius.
Visualizing memories, [402], [403].
Volcanic action, [268]-[276].
Volcanic eruption of a.d. 79, [288];
important facts concerning, [276]-[279];
islands, [272];
lava a primary feature in, [266];
observations of, made from a balloon, [301];
peaks along the floor of the sea, [272], [273];
possibility of throwing matter beyond control of gravitative energy, [300].
Volcanoes, [125], [203], [263];
abounding on the sea floor, [302];
accidents from eruptions of, [288];
along the Pacific coast, [271];
ash showers of, maintaining fertility of the soil, [289];
distribution of, [271];
eruption of, [286]-[294], [368];
explosions from, coming from a supposed liquid interior of the earth, [275];
exporting earth material, [310];
little water, [375];
Italian, considered collectively, [296], [297];
Neapolitan eruptions of and the history of civilization, [288];
subsidence of the earth after eruption of, [287], [291];
origin of, [263]-[274];
phenomena of, [263]-[267];
submarine, [301];
travelling of ejections from, [287], [288].
Waters,
crevice, [250];
of the earth, [250], [251];
cutting action of, [117], [192];
drift, from the poles, [151];
journey of, from the Arctic Circle to the tropics, [151], [152];
dynamic value of, [171];
expansion of, in rocks, [270];
geological work of, [168]-[206];
in air, [99];
of the clouds usually frozen, [207];
pure, no power for cutting rocks, [204];
rock, [250], [263];
sea, minerals in, [185];
store of the earth, [125];
system of, [125], [156];
tropical, [151];
velocity of the, under the equator, [150];
wearing away rocks, [178], [179];
underground, carrying mineral matter to the sea, [193];
chemical changes of, leading to changes in rock material, [262], [263];
effect of carbonic-acid gas on, [251];
operations of the, [126];
wearing away rocks, [178], [179];
work of, [250].
Waterfalls, [189]-[193];
cause of, [191];
the Yosemite, [192];
Niagara, [191], [192];
numerous in the torrent district of rivers, [192];
produced by dikes, [192];
valuable to manufactures, [192], [193].
Waterspouts, [115], [116];
atmospheric cause of, [116];
firing at, [116];
life of a, [116];
picturesqueness of, [116];
the water of fresh, [117].
Waves, [128], [129], [132], [145];
action of friction on, [135], [136];
break of the, [136];
endurance of sand against the, [145];
force of, [133], [136], [139];
marine, caused by earthquakes, [387];
of earthquakes, [389];
peculiar features in the action of, [137];
size of, [137], [138];
stroke of the, [144];
surf, [135];
tidal height of, [132];
undulations of, [132];
wind, [132];
wind influence of, on the sea, [134], [135];
wind-made, [128].
Ways and means of studying Nature, [9].
Weeds of the sea, [155].
Well, artesian, [258], [259].
Whirling of fluids and gas, [36], [37].
Whirlwinds in Sahara, [121].
Will-o'-the-wisp, [167].
Winds, [101], [110], [122], [317];
effect of sand, [122];
hurricane, [110];
illustration of how they are produced, [101];
in Martha's Vineyard, [120];
of the forests, work of the, [317];
of tornadoes, effect of, [113];
on the island of Jamaica, [119], [120];
regimen of the, [119];
variable falling away in the nighttime, [100];
trade, [102]-[105]; [145], [146], [150];
action of, on ocean currents, [145]:
affected by motion of the earth, [103];
belt, motion of the ocean in, [146];
flow and counter-flow of the, [150];
tide of the, [150];
uniform condition of the, [102];
waves, work of, [132], [134], [135].
Witchcraft, belief of, in the early ages, [21].
Zoölogy, rapid advance in, [14], [15].

---

[1] Some astronomers, particularly the distinguished Professor Newcomb, hold that the sun can not have been supplying heat as at present for more than about ten million years, and that all geological time must be thus limited. The geologist believes that this reckoning is far too short.

[2] See Newcomb's Popular Astronomy, p. 234. Harper Brothers, New York.

[3] The present writer has made an extended and careful study of marsh and swamp phenomena, and is very familiar with the aspect of these fields in the nighttime. He has never been able to see any sign of the Jack-o'-lantern light. Looking fixedly into any darkness, such as is afforded by the depths of a wood, the eye is apt to imagine the appearance of faint lights. Those who have had to do with outpost duty in an army know how the anxious sentry, particularly if he is new to the soldier's trade, will often imagine that he sees lights before him. Sometimes the pickets will be so convinced of the fact that they see lights that they will fire upon the fiction of the imaginations. These facts make it seem probable that the Jack-o'-lantern and his companion, the Will-o'-the-wisp, are stories of the overcredulous.

[4] This principle of the spheroidal form in falling fluids is used in making ordinary bird shot. The melted lead drops through sievelike openings, the resulting spheres of the metal being allowed to fall into water which chills them. Iron shot, used in cutting stone, where they are placed between the saw and the surface of the rock, are also made in the same manner. The descending fluid divides into drops because it is drawn out by the ever-increasing speed of the falling particles, which soon make the stream so thin that it can not hold together.

[5] In some relatively rare cases salt deposits are formed in lagoons along the shores of arid lands, where the sea occasionally breaks over the beach into the basin, affording waters which are evaporated, leaving their salt behind them.

[6] In certain fields of permanent snow, particularly near their boundaries, some very lowly forms of vegetable life may develop on a frozen surface, drawing their sustenance from the air, and supplied with water by the melting which takes place during the summertime. These forms include the rare phenomenon termed red snow.

[7] It is reported that one of these natural bridges of Carter County has recently fallen down. This is the natural end of these features. As before remarked, they are but the remnants of much more extensive roofs which the processes of decay have brought to ruin.

[8] I venture to use this word in place of the phrase "lava-yielding" for the reason that the term is needed in the description of volcanoes.

[9] In part the excellent record of Vesuvius is due to the fact that since the early Christian centuries the priests of St. Januarius, the patron of Naples, have been accustomed to carry his relics in procession whenever an eruption began. The cessation of the outbreak has been written down to the credit of the saint, and thus we are provided with a long story of the successive outbreaks.