FOOTNOTES:
[128] It is said that the Celtic has a great affinity with the oriental languages. "Magnam certe cum linguis orientalibus affinitatem retinet, ut notant Dr. J. Davies passim in Dictionario suo Cambro Britannico, et Samuel Bochartus in sua Geographica sacra."——Wallis, Gram.
[129] The invention of letters is ascribed to Taaut or Theuth, the son of Misraim, soon after the flood.
[130] I strongly suspect that the primitive language of the north of Europe was the root of the Sclavonic, still retained in Russia, Poland, Hungary, &c. and that the Gothic was introduced at a later period.
[131] This objection however may be obviated by Lluyd's supposition, mentioned in the note, page [50], that the primitive inhabitants of Britain were denominated Guydelians, and the Cymri or Welsh were another branch of the Celtic Cimbri, who came from the North, settled in Britain and gave name to the language.
[132] It is commonly observed, that different climates, airs and aliments, do very much diversify the tone of the parts and muscles of human bodies; on some of which the modulation of the voice much depends. The peculiar moisture of one country, the drought of another (other causes from food, &c. concurring) extend or contract, swell or attenuate, the organs of the voice, that the sound made thereby is rendered either shrill or hoarse, soft or hard, plain or lisping, in proportion to that contraction or extension. And hence it is, that the Chinese and Tartars have some sounds in their language, that Europeans can scarcely imitate: And it is well known in Europe itself, that an Englishman is not able agreeably to converse with a stranger, even in one and the same Latin; nay, even in England, it is noted by Mr. Camden and Dr. Fuller, that the natives of Carleton Curlew in Leicestershire, by a certain peculiarity of the place, have the turn of their voice very different from those of the neighboring villages.
[133] JILD Teka, thou art my son. Psalm ii. 7.
[134] MEREDUTH is the same with Merad, a British name.
[135] It has this sound in most of the ancient tongues.
[136] The armorial ensign of Carthage was a horse.
[137] It is remarkable that the Germans pronounce this word wollen, and woll, like the Roman volo, pronounced wolo. Many old people in America retain this pronunciation to this day; I woll, or wool, for will.
The Roman pronunciation of v is still preserved in England and America; veal, weal; vessel, wessel; and w is often changed into v or f; wine, vine, or even fine.
The Romans often pronounced t where we use d; as traho, draw.
[138] In teaching English to a Spaniard, I found that in attempting to pronounce words beginning with w, he invariably began with the sound of gu; well, he would pronounce guell.
[139] This word is found in most of the branches of the Gothic.
[140] Allusive to the ancient custom of pardoning by giving permission to depart.
[141] Frontier settlement; so called, because the Romans passed thro this territory, in going to or from Rome.
[142] The French and Spanish rarely or never aspirate an h; and in this word they have omitted it mostly in writing.
[143] The above specimen of the ancient Irish is judged to be a thousand years old. See O'Conner's Dissertation on the History of Ireland. Dublin, 1766, 8 vo.
[144] Feichneinibh.
[145] "Hunc sonum (gh) Anglos in vocibus light, might, &c. olim protulisse sentio; at nunc dierum, quamvis scripturam retineant, sonum tamen fera penitus omittunt. Boreales tamen, presertim Scoti, fere adhuc retinent seu potius ipsius loco sonum b substituunt."——Wallis.
[146] The Runic excepted. The Runic letters were sixteen in number, and introduced very early into the North; but they went into disuse about the tenth or eleventh century.
[147] BENJAMIN is son of the right hand.
[148] Their.
[149] Mixture; an old French word, now written melange.
[150] corrupted.
[151] These words represent barbarity and roughness in speaking.
[152] Corruption of the native tongue.
[153] hear
[154] since
[155] know. The Germans preserve the verb kœnnen, to be able. The pronouns hir and hire for their, still remain in the German ihr.
[156] Country-people, so called from, their living on the mountains or high lands; hence outlandish.
[157] attempt with eagerness.
[158] time.
[159] sithe is the origin of since.
[160] Del signifies a part or division; it is from the verb dæler to divide, and the root of the English word deal. Dæler is preserved in the Danish.
[161] learning.
[162] their.
[163] In the original these words are obscure.
[164] This is from the verb sollen, implying obligation, duty.
[165] their.
[166] foreign; Lat. advena.
[167] realm.
[168] divided.
[169] Scarcely.
[170] hardly.
[171] dwelleth.
[172] far.
[173] I find in an "Essay on the language and versification of Chaucer" prefixed to Bell's edition of his works, part of this extract copied from a Harlein manuscript, said to be more correct than the manuscript from which Dr. Hickes copied it. But on comparing the extracts in both, I find none but verbal differences; the sense of both is the same.
[174] In a charter of Edward III. dated 1348, yeven is used for given. Yave for gave is used by Chaucer.—Knight's Tale, line 2737. "And yave hem giftes after his degree." In a charter of Edward the Confessor, gif is used in its Saxon purity. In the same charter, Bissop his land, is used for a genitive. The Scotch wrote z for y; zit for yet; zeres for years.—Douglass. I do not find, at this period, the true Saxon genitive in use: The Bissop his land, is deemed an error. This mode of speaking has however prevailed, till within a few years, and still has its advocates. But it is certain the Saxons had a proper termination for the genitive or possessive, which is preserved in the two first declensions of the German.
Example of the declension of nouns among the Saxons.
A WORD.
| Sing. | Plu. | |
|---|---|---|
| Nom. | Word | word |
| Gen. | Wordes | worda |
| Dat. | Worde | wordum |
| Acc. | Word | word |
| Voc. | Eala thu word | eala ge word |
| Abl. | Worde | wordum |
Hickes Sax. Gram.
[175] Custodes in castellis strenuos viros ex Gallis collocavit, et opulenta beneficia, pro quibus labores et pericula libenter tolerâ rent, distribuit.—Orderic. Vital. lib. 4.
[176] The word ax for ask is not a modern corruption. It was an ancient dialect, and not vulgar.
[177] So Gillies, in his Hist. of Greece, chap. II. talks about the death of the "friend of Achilles;" but leaves the reader to discover the person—not having once mentioned the name of Patroclus. I would observe further that such appellations as the son of Leda are borrowed from the Greek; but wholly improper in our language. The Greeks had a distinct ending of the name of the father to signify son or descendants; as Heraclidæ. This form of the noun was known and had a definite meaning in Greece; but in English the idiom is awkward and embarrassing.
[178] Readers of the last description are the most numerous.
[179] Czar, the Russian appellation or Emperor, is a contraction of Cæsar. It is pronounced in the Russian, char or tshar.
[180] In ancient inscription, and the early Roman authors, v was written u, and pronounced oo or w. The following extracts from the laws of Romulus, &c. will give the reader an idea of the early orthography of the Latin tongue:—
1 Deos patrios colunto: externas superstitiones aut fabulas ne admiscento.
3 Nocturna sacrificia peruigiliaque amouentor.
8 Vxor farreatione viro iuncta, in sacra et bona eius venito—ius deuortendi ne esto.
13 Si pater filiom ter venumduit, filius a patre liber esto.
A law of Numa.
5 Qui terminum exarasit, ipsus et boues sacrei sunto.
A law of Tullius Hostillius.
2 Nati trigemini, donicum puberes esunt, de publico aluntor.
[APPENDIX.]
AN
ESSAY
On the NECESSITY, ADVANTAGES and PRACTICABILITY of REFORMING the MODE of SPELLING, and of RENDERING the ORTHOGRAPHY of WORDS CORRESPONDENT to the PRONUNCIATION.
It has been observed by all writers on the English language, that the orthography or spelling of words is very irregular; the same letters often representing different sounds, and the same sounds often expressed by different letters. For this irregularity, two principal causes may be assigned:
1. The changes to which the pronunciation of a language is liable, from the progress of science and civilization.
2. The mixture of different languages, occasioned by revolutions in England, or by a predilection of the learned, for words of foreign growth and ancient origin.
To the first cause, may be ascribed the difference between the spelling and pronunciation of Saxon words. The northern nations of Europe originally spoke much in gutturals. This is evident from the number of aspirates and guttural letters, which still remain in the orthography of words derived from those nations; and from the modern pronunciation of the collateral branches of the Teutonic, the Dutch, Scotch and German. Thus k before n was once pronounced; as in knave, know; the gh in might, though, daughter, and other similar words; the g in reign, feign, &c.
But as savages proceed in forming languages, they lose the guttural sounds, in some measure, and adopt the use of labials, and the more open vowels. The ease of speaking facilitates this progress, and the pronunciation of words is softened, in proportion to a national refinement of manners. This will account for the difference between the ancient and modern languages of France, Spain and Italy; and for the difference between the soft pronunciation of the present languages of those countries, and the more harsh and guttural pronunciation of the northern inhabitants of Europe.
In this progress, the English have lost the sounds of most of the guttural letters. The k before n in know, the g in reign, and in many other words, are become mute in practice; and the gh is softened into the sound of f, as in laugh, or is silent, as in brought.
To this practice of softening the sounds of letters, or wholly suppressing those which are harsh and disagreeable, may be added a popular tendency to abbreviate words of common use. Thus Southwark, by a habit of quick pronunciation, is become Suthark; Worcester and Leicester, are become Wooster and Lester; business, bizness; colonel, curnel; cannot, will not, cant, wont.[181] In this manner the final e is not heard in many modern words, in which it formerly made a syllable. The words clothes, cares, and most others of the same kind, were formerly pronounced in two syllables.[182]
Of the other cause of irregularity in the spelling of our language, I have treated sufficiently in the first Dissertation. It is here necessary only to remark, that when words have been introduced from a foreign language into the English, they have generally retained the orthography of the original, however ill adapted to express the English pronunciation. Thus fatigue, marine, chaise, retain their French dress, while, to represent the true pronunciation in English, they should be spelt fateeg, mareen, shaze. Thus thro an ambition to exhibit the etymology of words, the English, in Philip, physic, character, chorus, and other Greek derivatives, preserve the representatives of the original Φ and Χ; yet these words are pronounced, and ought ever to have been spelt, Fillip, fyzzic or fizzic, karacter, korus.[183]
But such is the state of our language. The pronunciation of the words which are strictly English, has been gradually changing for ages, and since the revival of science in Europe, the language has received a vast accession of words from other languages, many of which retain an orthography very ill suited to exhibit the true pronunciation.
The question now occurs; ought the Americans to retain these faults which produce innumerable in conveniencies in the acquisition and use of the language, or ought they at once to reform these abuses, and introduce order and regularity into the orthography of the AMERICAN TONGUE?
Let us consider this subject with some attention.
Several attempts were formerly made in England to rectify the orthography of the language.[184] But I apprehend their schemes failed of success, rather on account of their intrinsic difficulties, than on account of any necessary impracticability of a reform. It was proposed, in most of these schemes, not merely to throw out superfluous and silent letters, but to introduce a number of new characters. Any attempt on such a plan must undoubtedly prove unsuccessful. It is not to be expected that an orthography, perfectly regular and simple, such as would be formed by a "Synod of Grammarians on principles of science," will ever be substituted for that confused mode of spelling which is now established. But it is apprehended that great improvements may be made, and an orthography almost regular, or such as shall obviate most of the present difficulties which occur in learning our language, may be introduced and established with little trouble and opposition.
The principal alterations, necessary to render our orthography sufficiently regular and easy, are these:
1. The omission of all superfluous or silent letters; as a in bread. Thus bread, head, give, breast, built, meant, realm, friend, would be spelt, bred, hed, giv, brest, bilt, ment, relm, frend. Would this alteration produce any inconvenience, any embarrassment or expense? By no means. On the other hand, it would lessen the trouble of writing, and much more, of learning the language; it would reduce the true pronunciation to a certainty; and while it would assist foreigners and our own children in acquiring the language, it would render the pronunciation uniform, in different parts of the country, and almost prevent the possibility of changes.
2. A substitution of a character that has a certain definite sound, for one that is more vague and indeterminate. Thus by putting ee instead of ea or ie, the words mean, near, speak, grieve, zeal, would become meen, neer, speek, greev, zeel. This alteration could not occasion a moment's trouble; at the same time it would prevent a doubt respecting the pronunciation; whereas the ea and ie having different sounds, may give a learner much difficulty. Thus greef should be substituted for grief; kee for key; beleev for believe; laf for laugh; dawter for daughter; plow for plough; tuf for tough; proov for prove; blud for blood; and draft for draught. In this manner ch in Greek derivatives, should be changed into k; for the English ch has a soft sound, as in cherish; but k always a hard sound. Therefore character, chorus, cholic, architecture, should be written karacter, korus, kolic, arkitecture; and were they thus written, no person could mistake their true pronunciation.
Thus ch in French derivatives should be changed into sh; machine, chaise, chevalier, should be written masheen, shaze, shevaleer; and pique, tour, oblique, should be written peek, toor, obleek.
3. A trifling alteration in a character, or the addition of a point would distinguish different sounds, without the substitution of a new character. Thus a very small stroke across th would distinguish its two sounds. A point over a vowel, in this manner, ̇a or ė, or ̇i, might answer all the purposes of different letters. And for the dipthong ow, let the two letters be united by a small stroke, or both engraven on the same piece of metal, with the left hand line of the w united to the o.
These, with a few other inconsiderable alterations, would answer every purpose, and render the orthography sufficiently correct and regular.
The advantages to be derived from these alterations are numerous, great and permanent.
1. The simplicity of the orthography would facilitate the learning of the language. It is now the work of years for children to learn to spell; and after all, the business is rarely accomplished. A few men, who are bred to some business that requires constant exercise in writing, finally learn to spell most words without hesitation; but most people remain, all their lives, imperfect masters of spelling, and liable to make mistakes, whenever they take up a pen to write a short note. Nay, many people, even of education and fashion, never attempt to write a letter, without frequently consulting a dictionary.
But with the proposed orthography, a child would learn to spell, without trouble, in a very short time, and the orthography being very regular, he would ever afterwards find it difficult to make a mistake. It would, in that case, be as difficult to spell wrong, as it is now to spell right.
Besides this advantage, foreigners would be able to acquire the pronunciation of English, which is now so difficult and embarrassing, that they are either wholly discouraged on the first attempt, or obliged, after many years labor, to rest contented with an imperfect knowlege of the subject.
2. A correct orthography would render the pronunciation of the language, as uniform as the spelling in books. A general uniformity thro the United States, would be the event of such a reformation as I am here recommending. All persons, of every rank, would speak with some degree of precision and uniformity.[185] Such a uniformity in these states is very desireable; it would remove prejudice, and conciliate mutual affection and respect.
3. Such a reform would diminish the number of letters about one sixteenth or eighteenth. This would save a page in eighteen; and a saving of an eighteenth in the expense of books, is an advantage that should not be overlooked.
4. But a capital advantage of this reform in these states would be, that it would make a difference between the English orthography and the American. This will startle those who have not attended to the subject; but I am confident that such an event is an object of vast political consequence. For,
The alteration, however small, would encourage the publication of books in our own country. It would render it, in some measure, necessary that all books should be printed in America. The English would never copy our orthography for their own use; and consequently the same impressions of books would not answer for both countries. The inhabitants of the present generation would read the English impressions; but posterity, being taught a different spelling, would prefer the American orthography.
Besides this, a national language is a band of national union. Every engine should be employed to render the people of this country national; to call their attachments home to their own country; and to inspire them with the pride of national character. However they may boast of Independence, and the freedom of their government, yet their opinions are not sufficiently independent; an astonishing respect for the arts and literature of their parent country, and a blind imitation of its manners, are still prevalent among the Americans. Thus an habitual respect for another country, deserved indeed and once laudable, turns their attention from their own interests, and prevents their respecting themselves.