CHAPTER I
INTRODUCTION
Until a comparatively recent period, education was regarded mainly as a means of training the intellect, but this conception of education is now considered incomplete and inadequate. Our ideas of the purpose of schools are becoming broader, and we have decided that not only the mental nature, but all the child's activities and interests, should be given direction by means of the training given in our schools. We believe also that these activities and interests can be used to advantage in assisting the mental development.
Household Management aims to educate in this way, by directing the mind to ideas connected with the home and by training the muscles to perform household duties.
Though deemed essentially practical, this subject will, if rightly presented, give a mental training similar to other subjects of the Course of Study. It should do more. While a pupil is made familiar with the duties of home life and with the materials and appliances used in the home, she will be unavoidably led to think of the work of the larger world and to realize her relation to it. When such knowledge comes, and a girl begins to feel that some part of the world's work depends on her, true character-building will begin.
The purpose of this Manual is to assist teachers in presenting Household Management to public and separate school classes in such a way as to attain these ends. It is hoped that it will be especially useful to those teachers whose training in the subject has been limited.
An attempt has been made to explain the work of Form III Senior, and of the Junior and Senior divisions of Form IV. The topics of Form II Junior are not discussed, as the work of this Form is intended to be taught as information lessons, for which general methods will suffice. In the other Forms mentioned, the topics of lessons are outlined in detail, but the method of presentation is not given except in typical cases. Both outline and method are intended to be merely suggestive and to leave opportunity for the teacher's originality.
In cases where topics seem incompletely outlined, it is due to the fact that they are treated in other school subjects or postponed until the pupils reach a more advanced stage of mental development.
The order of lessons is optional, also the amount of work each should include, unless this is specially stated.
Many lessons are suitable for rural schools, which have no equipment except what the ingenuity of the teacher may provide. In such schools, the teacher may perform the practical work, while the class observes.
Throughout the lessons, there is the difficulty of presenting scientific facts to immature minds in a way that will be simple and clear. The use of technical language would often assist the expression, and this is apt to be unconsciously employed, but there is danger of such forms of speech not being intelligible to the pupils; the teacher should therefore choose her words carefully. Technical terms may be taught, but this is not advised in Junior classes, unless really necessary. If the facts are intelligently related to the experiences of the pupils, that is all that is desired.
Temperatures, as indicated by Fahrenheit thermometers, have always been given, as this scale is best known in the home.
Since this Manual is designed for teachers, few recipes have been furnished. The books of reference which are appended will supply these and additional information on the subject.
CORRELATION WITH OTHER SCHOOL SUBJECTS
One of the benefits of placing Household Management in a Course of Study is that it relates the knowledge gained in school to the home life.
The Household Management teacher has great opportunity for this correlation. She should be more than a teacher of household duties. She should lead the pupils to see the importance and necessity of mastering the other school subjects. Wherever interest in these subjects has already been established, this interest will form a basis for development in many Household Management lessons.
Then, too, the teachers of other subjects should, as far as possible, work with the Household Management teacher in relating their instruction to the operations and requirements in the home. If the teachers co-operate in planning their lessons, the pupils will receive a deeper impression of the facts learned in each subject and will have an increased interest in the work, through seeing how one branch of knowledge is related to another.
The following will show how some of the subjects are related to the class work of Household Management:
Arithmetic.—This subject is used in household accounts, in measurements, in the division of recipes, and in computing the cost of foods prepared for the table.
Reading.—The pupils should be asked to read aloud the recipes and their notes and should be required to do this distinctly and accurately.
Spelling, Writing, Language Work.—In writing recipes and notes, in stories of household topics, and in written answers, the teacher should insist on neat writing, correct spelling, and good English.
Geography.—The study of materials for food, clothing, and house furnishings brings before the mind our commercial relations with foreign countries and the occupations of their inhabitants. It also suggests consideration of climate and soils.
History.—The evolution of furniture and utensils, of methods of housekeeping, and of preparing and serving food, brings out historical facts.
Elementary Science.—Throughout the Course, this subject is the foundation of much of the instruction given, as it explains the principles underlying household industries. Soap-making, bread-making, preservation of food, and the processes of cooking and cleaning are examples of this.
Some knowledge of elementary science is also necessary to an understanding of the construction and practical working of the kitchen stove, the fireless cooker, the cream separator, and many household appliances. Its principles determine the methods of heating, lighting, and ventilating.
Physiology and Hygiene.—The study of food and the planning and preparation of meals should include a knowledge of the body and its requirements. The sanitary care of the house and its premises is directly related to hygiene.
Nature Study.—Animals and plants furnish us with most of our food, and familiarity with these is necessary to the housekeeper. A knowledge of the structure of animals is essential in studying the cuts of meat; the structure of plants and the functions of their different parts give a key to the value of vegetable food.
Physical Training.—The class should be carefully trained throughout in correct muscular movements. The position of the body should be closely watched in working and in sitting, and the classes should enter and leave the room in systematic order.
Manual Training.—The practical part of housekeeping demands constant use of the hands. The teacher should be watchful of awkward handling of materials and utensils and be careful to correct it. She should require deft, natural movements until they become habits.
Art.—Ideas of colour and design should be applied in choosing wall-papers, carpets, dishes, furniture, and clothing. The pupils might be asked to make original coloured designs for these household articles.
ROOMS
It is most desirable to have Household Management include all home operations and, to make this possible, more than one room should be provided. Many school boards, however, in introducing the work, find that one room is all that can be afforded. Where this is the case, it is necessary that this room be equipped as a kitchen, though it must be used for other purposes as well. It will serve also for table-setting and serving, for simple laundry work, for lessons in home-nursing, and for sewing.
This kitchen should be large and airy, so that the class can work comfortably and conveniently. A room having greater length than width admits of the best arrangement.
On account of the odours that arise from cooking and other domestic operations, the kitchen should be on the top floor and should have more adequate means of ventilation than ordinary class-rooms. A north exposure makes it cooler in summer.
Opposite end of Household Management class-room, showing the black-board and class cupboard
EQUIPMENT
In planning an equipment, one must be guided by the conditions to be met. It is difficult to be definite in details, but certain general principles should be observed.
The entire equipment should be suited to the needs of the pupils, and it should also be one which it is desirable and possible for them to have in their own homes.
The walls and floor should be washable, and they, as well as the furniture, should have plain, smooth surfaces which do not catch dust and are easily cleaned.
The sinks, stoves, tables, and cupboards should be placed so as to save steps.
TABLES
Where economy is necessary, movable tables may be used, but the fixed ones are to be preferred. The latter may be placed in the form of a hollow square or an oval, with openings from opposite sides to give convenient access to a centre table, which can be used for supplies or as a dining table.
Section of a table designed for two pupils
Drawers and cupboards to hold the necessary utensils and supplies should be provided in the tables for each pupil. Provision may also be made under the table top for desk boards, which may be pulled out when notes are written, in order to allow the pupils to sit comfortably in front of the cupboards. The table top should be of hard wood or some non-absorbent material, jointed in narrow strips in order to prevent warping. Part of this must be protected by a metal or glass strip on which to set the individual stoves or hot dishes.
Contents of a table cupboard equipped for two pupils
$1
Contents of an individual utensil drawer | Contents of an individual supply drawer |
SEATS
The seats may be swing seats, stools, or chairs. The swing seats are noiseless and easily put out of the way, but are uncomfortable and unsteady, so that the pupils are inclined to prop themselves by placing their elbows on the table. The stools and chairs are noisy and occupy a great deal of room, but the latter are restful and conducive to the correct position of the pupils, the importance of which cannot be over-estimated. The former are inexpensive, if made with a plain, wooden top. Both should admit of being pushed under the table, and for this reason the chairs should have folding backs. The legs should be tipped with rubber in order to minimize the noise.
A class towel rack
RACKS
Towel racks should be placed near the sinks and, if possible, should allow space for hanging the towels without folding. In some tables a towel rack may be attached to one of the sides.
SINKS
A sink at each corner of the room saves much time and inconveniences in the work. Each of these should be provided with hot and cold water. They may be made of porcelain or of enamelled iron.
A class gas range, showing high ovens
CLASS CUPBOARD
A large class cupboard in two sections, having glass doors in the upper part to show the class china and glass, should be placed where it will be most convenient and add to the attractiveness of the room. This cupboard will hold the dinner set and extra dishes and utensils, as well as the linen and some staple food supplies. A refrigerator is desirable for such foods as butter, eggs, meat, etc.
A class cupboard
STOVES
| Individual table stoves | |
 (a) a gas stove |  (b) an electric stove |
 (c) a blue-flame kerosene stove |  (d) an ordinary kerosene stove |
The stoves provided will depend on the fuel that is available in the neighbourhood. Wood is still in use in some rural sections, while coal is the ordinary fuel in small towns and villages. Where either of these fuels is commonly used, there should be two ranges. One should be for coal or wood, to teach the use of the home fuel, and the other an oil, gas, or electric stove, to demonstrate the time and labour saved the housekeeper by the use of one of these. If possible, the stoves should have high ovens, to obviate the necessity of stooping. A section of glass in the oven door is a great convenience, as it allows the contents of the oven to be easily watched.
For individual work small table stoves are required. These may be supplied with oil, alcohol, gas, or electricity, as may be most readily obtained. These stoves may be arranged so that they can be swung from the table when not in use. In this way more room is provided for work, and the table is more easily cleaned. The tops of the stoves should be wide and flat, so that cooking dishes will not easily upset.
A fireless cooker, though not really necessary, is most helpful. Where funds are lacking, one may be made by the pupils at small expense. A barrel, wooden box, or large pail may be filled with hay or excelsior, and small, covered, granite pails may be used to contain the food.
BLACK-BOARDS
The black-boards should be of slate or glass, and as large as the size of the room allows. The windows and doors should be so placed that there will be unbroken stretches of wall for this purpose. Part of the black-board should be provided with a sliding board which, when required, can be drawn to conceal what is written. A separate black-board for current prices of common food materials is an excellent idea. The responsibility of keeping these prices correct should be given to the pupils.
ILLUSTRATIVE MATERIAL
A cabinet, or display case, for illustrative material, is of great educational value and, to the pupils, is one of the most attractive features of the room. The following list of specimens is suggestive for this:
A display cabinet—canned fruit
1. Standard china, such as Crown Derby, Wedgewood, Limoges, Dresden, Beleek, etc.
2. Standard carpet, such as Axminster, Wilton, Brussels, Tapestry
3. Woods used for furniture and building
4. Food materials in various stages of preparation, such as sugar, spices, cereals, tea, coffee, cocoa
5. Fruit canned by the pupils
6. Designs for wall-paper, linoleum, dishes, etc., made by the pupils.
Other illustrative material in the form of charts showing the comparative values of the common foods, or illustrating cuts of meat or different kinds of vegetables and fish, will be found to aid greatly in making the teaching effective. There are few of these to be obtained, but home-made ones may be prepared from cuts in bulletins and magazines. Pictures illustrating the production and manufacture of food may also be mounted and used.
BOOK-CASE
Book shelves should be provided, where a small library of books bearing on the various phases of the subject may be kept, together with the Government Bulletins and some well-chosen periodicals and magazines. These may be selected from the Catalogue of Books which has been prepared by the Department of Education.
UTENSILS
In regard to the selection of small articles required, such as dishes and utensils of various kinds, the greatest care should be exercised. This part of the equipment can be exactly duplicated by the pupils in their homes, and in this way may be of educational value to the community. The cooking and serving dishes should combine quality, utility, and beauty.
It is not economy to buy cheap utensils. As far as possible, they should be chosen with smooth, curved surfaces, as seams and angles allow lodging places for food and make the cleaning difficult.
Everything should be of good quality, the latest of its kind that has been approved, and, at the same time, have a shape and colour that is artistic.
It is wise to buy from stock which can be duplicated if breakages occur, so that the equipment may be kept uniform. For individual work the utensils should not be too large.
Coloured granite ware is best for most of the cooking dishes. Where tin is necessary, it should be of a good quality. Crockery is desirable for some bowls, jars, and serving dishes. Spoons and serving forks should be of Nevada silver, and knives of the best steel with well-made wooden handles.
The cost of this part of the equipment and the number of articles purchased must of course depend on the funds available. The following list is intended to give what is really desirable in a specially equipped room, at prices which are a fair average.
EQUIPMENT
FOR TWENTY-FOUR PUPILS
I. CLASS TABLE
1. Utensil Drawer:
2. Supply Drawer:
| 12 | boxes (for flour), tin | 10.00 |
| 12 | " (for sugar), " | 7.50 |
| 12 | cheese jars (for salt) | .68 |
| 24 | shakers, glass | 2.40 |
| 24 | bread tins | 4.32 |
| 24 | biscuit cutters | .72 |
| 13 | safety match-box holders | 1.62 |
3. Supply Cupboard:
| 12 | double boilers | 5.76 |
| 24 | stew pans, tin cover, wooden knob | 4.56 |
| 24 | frying-pans | 1.20 |
| 24 | saucepans | 2.16 |
| 12 | knife-boards | 1.80 |
| 12 | meat boards | 3.00 |
| 6 | scrub basins | 1.50 |
| 12 | dish pans | 6.00 |
| 12 | rinsing pans | 3.00 |
| 12 | draining pans | 3.00 |
| 6 | tea-kettles | 3.00 |
| 12 | scrub-brushes | 2.00 |
| 12 | vegetable brushes | .30 |
| 12 | soap dishes | .75 |
| 12 | garbage crocks | .96 |
| 24 | asbestos mats | 1.10 |
II. SINK AND WALLS
III. GENERAL CUPBOARD EQUIPMENT
IV. KITCHEN LINEN
| 36 | yards towelling (3 doz. dish towels) | 5.40 |
| 16 | " " (4 doz. wash cloths) | 2.40 |
| 13 | " check towelling (3 doz. dish cloths) | 1.60 |
| 6 | " towelling | .75 |
| 6 | " " (6 meat cloths) | .60 |
| 1-1/2 | " flannelette (oven cloths) | .23 |
| 12 | " cheesecloth | .60 |
| 1-3/8 | " denim (stove apron) | .27 |
| 2 | " flannelette (for polishing silver) | .20 |
| chamois | .25 |
V. CLEANING CUPBOARD
| 1 | stove apron | .27 |
| 1 | stove brush | .25 |
| 1 | dauber | .10 |
| 3 | whisk brooms | .45 |
| 1 | dust-pan | .20 |
| 1 | pair stove mitts | .30 |
| 1 | broom | .45 |
VI. LAUNDRY EQUIPMENT
| 14 | pony wash-boards | 1.75 |
| 6 | doz. clothes-pins | .10 |
| 1 | clothes-line | .25 |
VII. DINING-ROOM EQUIPMENT
| 1. China and Glass: | ||
| 1 | flower vase | .25 |
| 1 | dinner set, Limoges china | 15.50 |
| 1 | doz. water glasses | .80 |
| 1 | glass fruit set | 1.50 |
2. Silver and Steel: | ||
| 2 | doz. teaspoons | 4.20 |
| 1 | " dessert spoons | 4.00 |
| 1/2 | " tablespoons | 1.15 |
| 1 | " dessert knives | 4.50 |
| 1 | " dessert forks | 4.50 |
| 1 | " dinner knives | 4.50 |
| 1 | " dinner forks | 4.50 |
| 1 | carving set | 2.00 |
| 1 | butter pick | .20 |
3. Linen, etc.: | ||
| 1 | silence cloth | 1.50 |
| 1 | 4 yd. table-cloth | 5.40 |
| 1 | doz. napkins | 2.75 |
| 1 | centre-piece | .40 |
| 2 | doylies | .50 |
| 2 | tray cloths | 1.00 |
VIII. MISCELLANEOUS
| 1 | "First Aid" cabinet | 10.00 |
| 1 | fire blanket | 2.00 |
EQUIPMENT FOR ORDINARY CLASS-ROOMS
In some schools it is impossible to set aside a special room for Household Management work, and the ordinary class-room is all that is available. In such cases the equipment must be a movable one, and gas stoves and plumbing are impossible. Table tops may be placed on trestles or laid across the ordinary desks, and oil or alcohol lamps must be used. These and the necessary utensils may be kept in a cupboard in the room.
With certain restrictions, the Department of Education assists in equipping special rooms in villages and rural districts and also in maintaining instruction in this subject.
Modified equipment for rural schools
The classes in these schools are usually smaller, so that an outfit suitable for individual work with a class of twelve will generally suffice. The following, suggested by the Macdonald Institute, Guelph, is a good basis and may be modified as desired:
| 12 | bowls, brown | $0.85 |
| 12 | bread tins | .95 |
| 12 | tea cups and saucers | 1.25 |
| 12 | tin measuring cups | 1.25 |
| 12 | egg beaters | .30 |
| 12 | forks | .40 |
| 12 | case knives | 1.25 |
| 12 | paring knives | 1.25 |
| 12 | plates | .85 |
| 12 | saucepans | 1.68 |
| 12 | tablespoons | .50 |
| 24 | teaspoons | .40 |
| 12 | wooden spoons | .60 |
| 12 | stew pans | 2.40 |
| 12 | strainers | .65 |
| 2 | trays | .80 |
| 1 | bowl, yellow | .25 |
| 1 | " " | .35 |
| 1 | " " | .45 |
| 3 | scissors | 1.50 |
| 5 | trestle tables | 20.55 |
| 6 | frying-pans | .90 |
| 3 | tea strainers | .15 |
| 3 | match-box stands | .24 |
| 1 | emery knife | .20 |
| 3 | soap dishes | .25 |
| 12 | pepper shakers | 1.50 |
| 12 | salt shakers | 1.50 |
| 1 | bell | .50 |
| 4 | lemon reamers | .40 |
| 6 | stoves, kerosene | 6.00 |
| 12 | plates, dinner | 1.25 |
| 6 | plates, soup | .60 |
| 4 | jugs | .60 |
| 1 | jug | .45 |
| 1 | butcher knife | .30 |
| 1 | French knife | .60 |
| 2 | spatulas | .80 |
| 6 | teaspoons | .10 |
| 3 | tablespoons | .13 |
| 4 | brushes | .20 |
| 2 | stove mitts | .50 |
| 4 | asbestos mats | .20 |
| 1 | corkscrew | .25 |
| 4 | egg beaters | .60 |
| 4 | wash basins | .92 |
| 3 | draining pans | .69 |
| 4 | dish pans | 2.00 |
| 6 | broilers | .48 |
| 3 | cake tins | .35 |
| 4 | graters | .40 |
| 3 | strainers | .75 |
| 24 | patty pans | .20 |
| 2 | tin dippers | .40 |
| 2 | fibre pails | .70 |
| 1 | colander | .35 |
| 1 | pail, enamel | .70 |
| 1 | pan, enamel | .18 |
| 3 | tea-kettles | 2.70 |
| 1 | saucepan | .30 |
| 1 | saucepan | .25 |
| 1 | saucepan | .23 |
| 1 | saucepan | .30 |
| 1 | double boiler | .85 |
| 1 | kettle, covered | .60 |
| [A]1 | stove to burn coal or wood | 30.00 |
| ———— | ||
| Total | $100.05 |
FOOTNOTE:
[A] The above may be replaced by a twenty-dollar wood stove or a ten-dollar, two burner, coal-oil stove.
PACKING-BOX EQUIPMENT
When even the expense of the modified equipment is too great, the ingenuity of the teacher and the pupils may be used to provide a "packing-box" equipment suitable for six pupils. The outlay for this will vary according to what is provided, but it can in no case be large. The following equipment used by the Department of Domestic Science, Teachers' College, Columbia University, will be suggestive:
Packing-box equipment
FOR CLASS
INDIVIDUAL EQUIPMENT FOR SIX PUPILS
| 1 | white bowl, 1 qt. | $0.07 |
| 1 | measuring cup | .05 |
| 1 | granite plate | .10 |
| 1 | saucepan | .05 |
| 1 | tin cover | .05 |
| 1 | steel fork | .10 |
| 1 | steel knife | .10 |
| 1 | tablespoon | .03 |
| 2 | teaspoons | .05 |
| ——- | ||
| Total | .60 | |
1 | oil stove | .75 |
| 1 | asbestos mat | .05 |